SPOTTING

Class 12
• Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind,
insects, birds).
• Pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.
• Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of
testis and T.S. of ovary through permanent slides (from
grasshopper/mice).
• T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
• Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through
permanent slides.
• Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/sizes of any
plant.
• Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as
rolling of tongue, blood groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour
blindness.
• Controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging and bagging
• Common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba,
Plasmodium, any fungus causing ringworm through permanent
slides, models or virtual images. Comment on symptoms of diseases
that they cause.
• Two plants and two animals (models/virtual images) found in xeric
conditions. Comment upon their morphological adaptations.
• Two plants and two animals (models/virtual images) found in aquatic
conditions. Comment upon their morphological adaptations.
 General procedure
• The supplied specimens are observed by naked eye or by magnifying
class.
• The microscopic slides are focused and observed under microscope
• The important characters are noted
• The specimen /slide / illustration supplied on the spot is identified
 Flowers adapted to pollination by Insect
1. Flowers are large, brightly-colored
and scented to attract insects.
2. Nectar is present to attract
insects.
3. Stamens remain inside the flower.
4. Stigmas sticky and do no protrude.
5. Nectar guides may be seen on the
petals
6. If the flowers are small they may
group together to form
conspicuous inflorescences.
Flowers adapted to pollination by wind
1. Flowers are small & inconspicuous.
2. They are colourless, odourless and
nectarless.
3. Anthers well exposed so that pollen
grains may get blown off easily.
4. In case of unisexual flowers, the
male flowers are more abundant. In
bisexual flowers, the stamens are
generally numerous.
5. The pollen grains are light and non-
sticky so that they are easily carried
away.
 Flowers adapted to pollination by birds
• Flowers are brightly colored like red,
yellow, orange or blue.
• They have very mild odors or
scentless (strong in insect pollinated ones)
• Nectar is secreted abundantly.
• Floral parts are leathery and flowers
often hang pendulously
• Shape of the flower is designed as a
tube to force a bird to stick its long
beak inside, brushing its head or body
against the flowers' reproductive organs.
2. Pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide
Procedure:
• The safranin stained L.S. of the stigma in the
permanent slide is cleaned and focused under
microscope to note the characters.
Observation:
• Pollen grains found attached to the surface of stigma
• Some pollen grains are about to germinate and some
others germinated on stigma surface with various
lengths of pollen tubes and penetrated into the style.
• Each pollen tube may have two or three nuclei
depending upon their stage of development.
Conclusion:
• Different stages of germinating pollen grains were
observed in the stigma and style.
3. Aim: Identification of stages of gamete development in
T.S. of mammalian testis & ovary through permanent slides
• Principle: In all male and female organisms gamete
formation in their gonads involves meiotic cell division. The
gametogenic development in testis (spermatogenesis) and in
ovary (oogenesis) show marked differences and can be
examined in transverse section (T.S.) of these organs.
• Requirement: Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and ovary,
compound microscope, lens-cleaning paper and cleaning
fluid
 Procedure:
(i) The slide and microscope’s eye and objective lenses
were cleaned with the help of lens cleaning paper
using cleaning fluid.
(ii) The slide was placed on the stage of the microscope
and observed first under lower magnification and
then in higher magnification. Various stages of
gamete development were observed
(iii) The observations were recorded in the notebook and
labelled diagrams were drawn.
 T.S. of Testis
• Testis is covered by thick fibrous sheath called tunica
albuginea
• Numerous seminiferous tubules are embedded in
connective tissue.
• Various types of germinal cells are present from
outermost germinal epithelium to inner lumen in
sequence are , Spermatogonia→Primary
spermatocytes → Secondary spermatocytes
→ Spermatids → Spermatozoa
• Pyramid shaped Sertoli cells are
interspersed between germinal cells.
• The connective tissue lying between
seminiferous tubules contains polygonal
Leydig’s cells.
 T.S. of ovary,
• It is a solid structure bounded by germinal
epithelium followed by fibrous tunica
albuginea.
• The outer cortex contains young and mature
follicles and the inner medulla contains many
rounded follicles at various stages of
development.
• Follicles contain a large oocyte surrounded by
one to several layers of follicular cells.
• The primary and secondary follicles contain
primary oocyte and the tertiary and graafian
follicles contain secondary oocyte at the center.
• The fluid filled cavity called antrum is seen in
tertiary and graafian follicles.
• Corpus luteum, and Corpus albicans are also
seen in the cortex.
 4. Aim: To Study the T.S. of Mammalian
blastula through permanent slide
• Principle: The zygote undergoes a few cycles of mitotic
divisions to form a solid ball of cells called morula. The cells
continue to divide and at a later stage a cavity is formed within
it. This stage is blastula. The internal structural details of
blastula can be observed in its transverse section.
• Requirement: Permanent slide of T.S. of blastula, compound
microscope, lens cleaning fluid and paper
• Procedure: Observe the slide under lower magnification of the
microscope. Note the feature of blastula in practical record and draw
labelled diagram
Observation:
• It is a spherical mass of cells with a
fluid filled cavity, called blastocoel.
• It contains an outer layer of
blastomeres called trophoblasts.
• A cellular mass, adhered to the
trophoblast is present on one end
of the blastula, called inner cell
mass.
5. Aim: Study of stages of Meiosis in onion bud cell
/ grasshopper testis through permanent slides.
Principle: Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of
chromosomes is halved (from diploid to haploid) in the daughter cells,
i.e., the gametes. The division is completed in two phases, meiosis I
and meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reductional division in which the
chromosomes of homologous pairs separate from each other. Meiosis
II is equational division resulting in the formation of four daughter
cells. Stages of meiosis can be observed in a cytological preparation of
the cells of testis tubules or in the pollen mother cells of the anthers
of flower buds.
Requirement: Permanent slides of meiosis and
• Procedure Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and
search for the dividing cells using lower magnification. When
dividing cells are located observe them under higher
magnification.
• Observation Observe various stages of meiosis and identify
them on the basis of the specific features. A significant number
of cells will be in the Interphase. These cells have a centrally
positioned densely stained nucleus. In case of slide of animal
tissue a few mitotically dividing spermatogonial cells may also
be seen.
 Meiosis -1
Prophase -1
(i) Leptotene:
• This phase starts immediately after interphase.
• The size of cell and nucleus increases
• The chromosomes appear long, uncoiled thread-like
in structure bearing many bead-like structures
called chromomeres.
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus remain as it
is
• ii. Zygotene
• Homologous chromosomes come
closer and starts to pair up along
their length.
• The pairing of homologous
chromosomes is called Synapsis and
the paired homologous
chromosomes are referred as
bivalents.
• The homologous chromosomes are
held together by ribonuclear protein
between them
 iii. Pachytene
• The chromosome become shorter &
thicker.
• Each chromosome of the bivalents splits
longitudinally to form two chromatids
such that bivalents is composed of four
strands and is known as a tetrad.
• Exchange of small segments of non-
sister chromatids (crossing over) takes
place by breakage and rejoining.
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are
visible.
iv. Diplotene
• Bivalents (chromatids) repel each other.
• Homologous chromosome (two non-sister
chromatids) begins to separates but
separation is not complete, they remains
attached to a point with a knot like
structure called chiasmata
• The number of chiasmata varies.
Depending upon the number of chiasmata,
chromosome appears different shape.
• chiasmata: cross like
• chiasmata: ring like
• Many chiasmata: series of loop
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus begins
to disappear.
 v. Diakinesis
• The chiasma moves towards the end of
the chromosomes (terminalization) due
to contraction of chromosomes. lastly the
chiasma slips over separating the
homologous chromosomes.
• By the end of diakinesis the nuclear
membrane and nucleolus get completely
disappeared and the chromosomes are
free in the cytoplasm.
• Spindle fibres begin to form from the
poles
 2. Metaphase-I
• The spindle fibres organized
between two poles and get
attached to the centromere of
chromosomes.
• Chromosome moves to equator
• The bivalent chromosomes are
arranged in the equatorial plate
in such a way that 2 metaphasic
plates are formed
 3. Anaphase-I
• Spindle fibres contracts and pulls
the whole chromosomes to the
polar region.
• The separated chromosome is
known as dyads
• No splitting of chromosomes
occurs so the centromere of each
homologous chromosome does
not divide. Thus, the chromosome
number of the daughter nuclei is
reduced to half.
• Now the separated chromosome
moves toward opposite poles.
 4. Telophase-I
• Two groups of chromosome
formed at each pole and
organized into nuclei.
• The nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappears.
• The chromosomes get uncoiled
into chromatin thread.
• The spindle fibres disappear
totally
Cytokinesis I
• Cytokinesis may or may not follow nuclear division (meiosis-I
Cytokinesis occurs by cell plate formation method in plant
cell and furrowing method in animal cells.
Interphase II or Interkinesis
• The two cells or nuclei thus formed pass through a short
stage called interphase-II. Sometimes, interphase-II is
absent.
• It is the resting phase between meiosis-I and meiosis-II.
• It is either very short or may be absent
• No DNA synthesis occurs.
 Meiosis II
• Prophase-II:
• The dyads chromosome
becomes thicker and shorter
• Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disappear
• Spindle fibre starts to form
• 2. Metaphase-II:
• The dyads chromosomes comes
to equatorial plane
• Spindle fibres organize between
poles and attaches to
centromere of chromosome
• 3. Anaphase-II:
• Centromere of each
chromosome divides and
sister chromatids separates to
form two daughter
chromosome
• Spindle fibre contracts and
pull the daughter
chromosome apart towards
opposite pole
• 4. Telophase-II:
• Chromosome become organize
at respective pole into nuclei
• Chromosome elongates to form
thin networks of chromatin
• Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappears
 Cytokinesis-II:
• The result of cytokinesis is four haploid daughter cells
(gametes or spores).
• Cytokinesis takes place by cell plate formation in plant cell
• Successive methods: cytokinesis followed by each nuclear
division resulting in 4 haploid cells. Eg. Monocot plants
• Simultaneous methods: cytokinesis occurs only after
meiosis-II to form 4 haploid cells. Eg. Dicot plants
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by furrow formation or
depression
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
1.Meiosis helps to maintain a constant number of chromosomes by
reducing the chromosome number in the gametes
2.Essential for sexual reproduction in higher animals and plants
3.Meiosis helps in the formation haploid gametes and spores for
sexual reproduction.
4.Number of chromosome remain fixed in a species from generation
to generation
5.Crossing over occurring brings genetic variations in offspring which
helps in evolution of organisms.
6.Failure disjunction in Meiosis leads mutation to the formation of
polypoid forms.
7.The random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes
takes place into daughter cells during meiosis and it is a sort of
independent assortment which leads to variation
6. Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/sizes of pea plant
• Procedure: count the number of seeds belonging to two
different contrasting traits of a character and find out their
ratio
• Observation:
Sl. Contrasting traits of seed Total No of No. of Seeds showing Ratio
No. seeds contrasting form of the
observed trait
1 Seed colour (Yellow/green) 110 83 yellow : 27 green 3:1
2 Seed shape (Round/wrinkled) 106 80 round : 26 wrinkled 3:1

• Conclusion: the contrasting forms in both the characters of

pea seeds Show an approximate ratio of 3:1. This ratio is the
same as obtained by Mendel for monohybrid crosses and
indicate dominant recessive forms of seed colour and seed
shape in the population of pea plants (seeds).
7. Study of pedigree chart of rolling of tongue genetic trait
Observation:
• Neither of the parents have the disorder.
• Affected offspring are born to unaffected
parents, thus they are homozygous
recessive (aa).
• Both parents are heterozygous. (If any
parent is affected he/she must be
homozygous recessive)
• The disorder is rare in the pedigree.
• The disorder skips generations.
• Conclusion: it is an autosomal recessive
pedigree
• The ability to roll the tongue is caused by a dominant gene (A).
A non-roller can't roll his/her tongue, and must be homozygous
recessive (aa). If A father cannot roll his tongue he must have
genotype ‘aa’ but a mother who can roll her tongue may have
genotype ‘AA’ or Aa’.
• A marriage between Aa female and aa male would result into
50% homozygous ‘aa’ and 50 % heterozygous ‘Aa’
8. Controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging and bagging

Observation:
• A flowering twig is covered with polythene
bags.
• The flowers inside the polythene bag lack
anthers, i.e. emasculated.
• Emasculated flowers are covered with
polythene bags to prevent pollination with
undesired pollen grains.
• A label of paper is tagged on the plant which
displays the date of emasculation, crossing and
brief account of the parents
9a. Study of common disease causing organism Ascaris
through museum specimens & comment on symptoms
of diseases that they cause
• (i) Body long (20 to 40 cm), cylindrical (5 to 6 mm
diameter) with no segmentation.
• (ii) Sexes are separate; females are longer than the males
• (iii) Both the ends are pointed; posterior end of male is
ventrally curved.
• (iv) Mouth is situated at the anterior end. Under a
magnifying lens it appears to be surrounded by three lips.
• (v) Single longitudinal lines are present on the dorsal,
ventral and on the two lateral sides, all along the length of
the body. Out of these the lateral lines are comparatively
more distinct than the others lines.
• (vi) Excretory pore is present on the ventral surface slightly behind the
anterior end.
• (vii) In addition to the ventrally curved posterior tip, the male worm
has a pair of penial spicules very close to the cloacal opening.
• (viii) In case of female specimen a female genital aperture is present
mid-ventrally about one third distance from the anterior end
• Symptoms of disease they cause: Round worm / Ascaris is one of the
common parasite found in the intestine of human beings which cause
(a) Irregular bowel, (b) Occasional vomiting, (c) Anaemia

Systematic position
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda
Species – Ascaris lumbricoides
 9b.Study of Common disease causing organism Entamoeba
through permanent slides/virtual image & comment on
symptoms of diseases that they cause
• It is unicellular.
• Shape of the cell is irregular due
to presence of pseudopodia.
• A single nucleus is present
eccentrically in the cell.

• Its nucleus has a peripheral ring of granule of nucleoprotein and

central karyosome. Rest of the space in the nucleus looks empty
• A few food vacuoles may be seen in the cytoplasm. Contractile
vacuoles are absent.
• Mature quadri-nucleated cysts may be present
Symptoms: Entamoeba resides in the upper part of large
intestine in humans and causes amoebic dysentery.
• The symptoms of the disease include abdominal pain,
frequent motions with blood and mucus.

Systematic position
• Phylum – Protozoa
• Class – Rhizopoda
• Species – Entamoeba histolytica
 9c. Study of common disease causing organism Plasmodium
through permanent slides/ virtual images & comment on
symptoms of diseases that they cause
• It is an intracellular endoparasite seen within
the RBC of the infected person.
• It is unicellular.
• It has a big vacuole inside, and the cytoplasm is
accumulated at one place containing the
nucleus.
• The most prominent stage of the parasite is the
trophozoite which appear as a ring in the
erythrocytes called "signet ring" stage.
• The other less prominent stages like sporozoite,
cryptomerozoites, metacryptomerozoites may also
be seen.
 9d. Aim: Study of common disease causing fungus causing ringworm
through permanent slides / virtual images & comment on symptoms
of diseases that they cause
Trichophyton (Ringworm fungus) It is a fungus that feeds on
keratin of the skin of human beings. The permanent slide of
Trichophyton under microscope reveals following features:
Microconidia
• Texture of hyphae is waxy, glabrous to cotton like.
• Unstained hyphae are white, yellowish brown to reddish
brown in colour
• The hyphae bear large number of small spores (microconidia)
which detach readily and spread the infection.
Symptoms of Ringworm
• It is a contagious fungal infection of the skin. Infected area of
skin is itchy, red, raised, scaly patches (with sharply defined
edges). It is more red on the periphery than in the center
creating a ring like appearance
Systematic position
• Kingdom – Fungi, Class – Deuteromycetes, Species –
Trichophyton rubrum
 10a. Study of two plant specimens/virtual images found in xeric
conditions & comment upon their morphological adaptations.
Xerophytic characters of Cactus:
• The stem is jointed, flattened and green
phylloclade
• The stem are fleshy due to storage of water. The
stored water is used throughout the unfavorable
periods
• The stem possesses abundant mucilage, which
helps in retaining water
• The leaves are caduceus. They fall down soon after
their formation to reduce transpiration
• Stem surface is covered with a waxy cuticle to
prevent water loss.
• The spines of the plant protect and minimize
surface area for water loss
 10b.
Xerophytic characters of Zizyphus
• The leaves are small and leathery
• Lower surface of the leaves is covered
with hairs.
• The stipules are modified into spines
• The stem of the plant is woody.
 10c. Study of two animal specimens/images found in xeric
conditions & comment upon their morphological adaptations.
Camel
• Two rows of long eyelashes
protect against blowing
sand and the sun
• Fat stored in hump help it
to survive long periods
without food and water
• Thick leathery patches on
knees protect it from
getting burn when it kneels
on the hot desert sand
• Broad, flat, leathery pads at the bottom of their hooves
spread out when the camel places its feet on the ground
thus creating a "snowshoe effect" and preventing the
camel from sinking into the sand
• Nostrils muscular, which can be closed to keep out
blowing sand
• Long strong legs help carry heavy loads over long
distances and keep its body further away from the hot
sand
 10d.
Chamelion:
• They have a very long tongue that has
sticky stuff on the end of it that helps
catch flies and other prey
• Body covered with scutes to prevent
water loss.
• Its eyes can rotate 360 degrees which
help it to capture prey
• It can change the colour of its skin and
protect it from the predators.
11a. Aim: Study of two plant specimens found in aquatic
conditions & comment upon their morphological
adaptations.
Water lily (Nymphaea)
• It is a floating anchored hydrophyte
• Stem is rhizomatous and grows horizontally
under the mud.
• Leaves are broad that helps it to float in
water & provide exposure to sunlight
• The petiole is long, slender and spongy
• The leaves have waxy cuticle on the upper
surface to avoid wetting and clogging of
stomata by water.
• Roots are poorly developed since entire
plant surface can absorb water & mineral
Vallisneria
• Submerged stoloniferous
flowering plant
• Stem is reduced & roots provide
anchorage
• Leaves are large ribbon shaped
and does not provide any
resistance to flowing water.
• Whole plant is covered with
mucilage
 11b. Aim: Study of two animal specimens found in aquatic
conditions & comment upon their morphological adaptations.
Rohu (Labeo rohita)

1.It has gills for respiration.

2.It has fins for swimming.
3. Its body is compressed laterally (streamlined) to reduce friction
while swimming.
4.Body is covered with scales and slime.
5.Lateral line present to sense the quality of water.
6.It has air bladder inside to maintain buoyancy.
 11c Prawn

• It has external gills for breathing under water.

• It has no fins like fishes, but swim in water by pushing its abdomen.
• It can walk along the bottom of the water bodies by the help of its
legs.
• It has no neck like most aquatic organism & the body is distinctly
divided into two parts— cephalothorax and abdomen