Model specimens showing symbiotic association in root nodules of

leguminous plants,Cuscuta on host and lichens.

A)Symbiotic association between Rhizobium and root nodules of leguminous
plants
Rhizobia are a "group of soil bacteria that infect the roots of
legumes to form root nodules". Rhizobia are found in the soil
and after infection, produce nodules in the legume where they
fix nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere turning it into a more
readily useful form of nitrogen. From here, the nitrogen is
exported from the nodules and used for growth in the legume.
Once the legume dies, the nodule breaks down and releases
the rhizobia back into the soil where they can live individually or
reinfect a new legume host.
Importance in agriculture

Rhizobia nodules on Vigna unguiculata

Although much of the nitrogen is removed when protein-
rich grain or hay is harvested, significant amounts can remain in the soil for future
crops. This is especially important when nitrogen fertilizer is not used. Nitrogen is the
most commonly deficient nutrient in many soils around the world and it is the most
commonly supplied plant nutrient. Supply of nitrogen through fertilizers has
severe environmental concerns.
Specific strains of rhizobia are required to make functional nodules on the roots able
to fix the N2. Having this specific rhizobia present is beneficial to the legume, as the
N2 fixation can increase crop yield. Inoculation with rhizobia tends to increase yield..

Symbiotic relationship
Rhizobia are unique in that they are the only nitrogen-fixing bacteria living in
a symbiotic relationship with legumes. Common crop and forage legumes are peas,
beans, clover, and soy.
Nature of the mutualism
The legume–rhizobium symbiosis is a classic example of mutualism—rhizobia
supply ammonia or amino acids to the plant and in return receive organic acids
(principally as the dicarboxylic acids malate and succinate) as a carbon and energy
source.
B) CUSCUTA : A PARASITIC PLANT
Cuscuta commonly known as dodder or amarbel, is a genus of over 201 species of yellow,
orange, or red (rarely green) parasitic plants. Folk names include: beggarweed, lady's laces,
fireweed,[4] wizard's net, devil's hair, devil's ringlet, goldthread, angel hair, and witch's hair.

Parasitism
After a dodder attaches itself to a plant, it wraps itself around it. If the host contains food
beneficial to dodder, the dodder produces haustoria that insert themselves into the vascular
system of the host. The vestigial root of the dodder in the soil then dies. The dodder can grow
and attach itself to multiple plants. In tropical areas, it can grow more or less continuously and
may reach high into the canopy of shrubs and trees; in cold temperate regions, it is an annual
plant and is restricted to relatively low vegetation that can be reached by new seedlings each
spring.
Dodder is parasitic on a very wide variety of plants, including a number of agricultural and
horticultural crop species, such
as alfalfa,  flax, clover, potatoes, chrysanthemum, dahlia, helenium, trumpet
vine, ivy and petunias. It is an ectoparasite and is categorized as holoparasitic plant, or a plant
that is non-photosynthetic and is completely dependent on a host.

C)Lichens
General description
Lichens, any of about 15,000 species of plantlike organisms that consist of
a symbiotic association of algae  and  fungi (mostly ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes). Lichens are found worldwide and occur in a variety of
environmental conditions.

Morphology

The composite body of a lichen is called a thallus (plural thalli); the body is

anchored to its substrate by hairlike growths called rhizines. There are
three main lichen body types: crustose, fruticose, and foliose. Lichens that
form a crustlike covering that is thin and tightly bound to the substrate are
called crustose. Squamulose lichens are small and leafy with loose
attachments to the substrate and are usually considered to be a special type
of crustose lichen. Foliose lichens are large and leafy, reaching diameters of
several feet in some species, and are usually attached to the substrate by
their large platelike thalli at the centre. These lichens have a distinct top
and bottom side and can be leafy, flat, or bumpy and convoluted. Fruticose
lichens can be hanging or upright and may be hairlike, cuplike, or shrubby
in appearance.

Example of symbiotic relationship

As symbionts, the basis of their relationship is the mutual

benefit that they provide each other. The photosynthetic algae
or cyanobacteria form simple carbohydrates that, when
excreted, are absorbed by fungi cells and transformed into a
different carbohydrate.. The phycobionts also
produce vitamins that the fungi need. Fungi contribute to
the symbiosis by absorbing water vapour from the air and by
providing much-needed shade for the light-sensitive algae
beneath.

Reproduction

Lichens are long-lived and grow relatively slowly. Most

botanists agree that the most common means of reproduction is
vegetative; that is, portions of an existing lichen break off and
fall away to begin new growth nearby.