General Biology
cells cannot be seen with the naked eye, so
Cells
Epithelial Cells
-Protect the surface of the body and cover the
organs and body cavities within.
Bone Cells
-Helps to support and protect the body.
Immune System
-Cells fighting invading pathogens
Blood Cells
-Carry nutrients and oxygen throughout the body
while removing carbon dioxide and other waste.
* In humans before a cell develops into
“Specialized Type” it is called stem cells.
Stem Cells
-is a cell that has not undergone the changer
involved in specialization.
* Scientist have been working on coaxing stem
cells in the laboratory to become a particular
specialization.
Cell
-The smallest unit of a living things.
-It is a basic building of all organisms
-Wether made of one cell (like bacteria) or many
cells (like human) is called organism.
Two broad categories
*Prokaryotic
*Eukaryotic
*Cells vary in size with few exceptions, individual
scientist use microscopes.
(micro=”small”;-scope=”to look at”) to study them.
Microscope
-An instrument that magnifies an object.
*Most photographs of cells are taken with a
microscope.
*Image can also be called Micrographs.
*Light microscopes commonly used in the
undergraduate college laboratory magnify up to
approximately 400 times.
Two parameters that are important in
microscopy
*Magnification
*Resolving power
Magnification
-The process of enlarging an object in appearance.
- Magnification is usually increased to 1000 times.
Resolving Power
-ability of a microscope to distinguish two adjacent
structures as separate.
*In order to gain a better understanding of
structures and function, Scientists typically used
electron microscope.
* Light microscopes used in college biology lab can
magnify cells up to approximately 400 times and
have a resolution of about 200 nanometers.
*Electron microscopes provide a much higher
magnification 100,000x and have resolution of 50
picometers.
*In contrast to light microscopes electron
microscopes.
*Use a beam of electrons instead of beam of light.
*Not only does this allow for higher magnification
and thus, more detail.
*it also provides higher resolving power
*The methods used to prepare the specimen for
viewing with an electron microscope kills the
specimen.
Electrons
-Electrons have short wave lengths (shorter than
proteins) that move best in vacuum so living cells
cannot be viewed with an electron microscope.
Cell Theory
-The microscope we use today are for more
complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony
Van Leeuwenhoek.
Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
-is a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in
crafting lenses.
-Despite the limitations of his now- ancient lenses,
van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of
single celled organism, which he collectively termed
“animal cules”.
*In a 1665 publication called Micrographia,
experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the
term “cell” for the box like structures he observed
when viewing colk tissue through lens.
*In the 1670’s van Leeuwenhoek discovered
bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses,
microscope construction, and staining techniques
enabled other scientists to see some components
inside cells.
*By the late 1830, Botanist Matthias Schleiden and
zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying tissues
and proposed the unified cell theory.
*Which states that all living things are composed or
one or more cells is the basic unit of life, and how
cells arise from existing cells. Rudolf Virchow later
made important contributions to this theory.
Have you ever heard of a medical test called “Pap
Smear”.
In this test, doctor takes a small sample of cells
from the uterine cervix of a patient. And sends
it to a medical lab where a cytotechnologist
stains the cells and examines them for any
changes that could indicate abnormal cells
growth or a microbial infection.
Cytotechnologist (cyto-=” cell”)
-are professional who study cells via microscopic
examination.
Cytotechnologist
-play a vital role in saving people’s lives.
*Pag may na discover na abnormalities sa patient
need ma pagamot agad.
Three basic types of cells
*Orchaea
*Bacteria
*Eukaryotes
Cells of animals
Fungi
Protist
Archaea
-A unique group of organisms. And likely evolved in
the harsh conditions of early earth and are still
prevalent today in extreme environment, such a hot
springs and polar region.
* All cells share features that reflet their evolutions
from a common ancestor.
Plasma
-A membrane that separates the cell from its
environment.
Cytoplasm
-A comprising the jelly like cytosol inside the cell.
Ribosomes
-That are important for the synthesis of proteins.
DNA
-To store and transmit heredity information.
Prokaryotes
-Have cell wall that acts as an extra layer of
protection against the external environment.
*The term “Prokaryote” means “Before nucleus”
* Don’t have a nuclei.
*DNA exist as a single circular chromosome in the
central part of the cell called nucleoid.
Cells fall into one of two broad categories
*Prokaryotic
*Eukaryotic
*Only predominantly single- celled organism of the
domains bacteria and archaea are classified as
prokaryotes (pro-=” before”; -kary-=” nucleus”)
*Cells of animals plants, fungi, and protist are all
eukaryotes (eu-=”true”) and have nucleus.
Components of prokaryotic cell
*All cells have four common components
Plasma membrane
-An outer covering that separates the cells interior
from its surrounding environment.
Cytoplasm
-Consisting of a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in
which other cellular components are found.
DNA
-The genetic material of the cell.
Ribosomes
-Which synthesize proteins however, prokaryotes
differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.
Prokaryote
-Is a simple single celled (unicellular)
*Organism that lacks a nucleus or any other
membrane -bound organelle.
Prokaryotic DNA
-Is found in a central part of the cell the nucleoid
*Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall,
and many have a polysaccharide capsule.
*The cell wall acts as a extra layer of protection,
helps the cell maintain its shape and prevents
dehydration.
*Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbrae.
Flagella
-Are used for locomotion.
Pili
-Are used to exchange genetic material during a
typo of reproduction call conjugation.
Fimbriae
-Are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell.
*at 0.1 to 5.0 diameter prokaryotic cells are signific
ally smaller than eukaryotic cells which have
diameters ranging from 10 to 100 diameter.
*The small size of prokaryotes allow ions and
organic molecules that enter them to quickly diffuse
to other part of the cell.
Similarly, any weites produced within a prokaryotic
cell can quickly diffuse out.
Eukaryotic Cells
-A membrane bound nucleus.
*Numerous membrane- bound organelles such as
the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
chloroplasts, mitochondria, and others
*Several, rod-shaped, chromosomes
Because a eukaryotic cell nucleus is surrounded
by a membrane.
*It is often said to have a “ true nucleus” the word
*” Organelle” means little organ.
Phospholipid Bilayer
-embedded proteins that separate the internal
contents of the cell from its surrounding
environment.
-A phospholipids a lipd molecule with two fatly acid
chain a phosphate containing group
Plasma membrane
-Controls the passage of organic molecule ions,
water, and organ into and out of the cell
*Also leave the cell by passing through the plasma
membrane.
*Cells that specialized in absorption are folded into
fingerlike projections called microvilli.
Microvilli
-shown here as they appear on cells living the small
intestine, increase the surface area available for
absorption.
*These microvilli are only found on the area of the
plasma membrane that face the cavity from which
substances will be absorbed.
Cytoplasm
-Is the entire region of a cell between the plasma
membrane and the nuclear envelope.
-It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-
like cytosol.
Cytoskeleton and various chemical
Cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80% water it has a
semi – solid consistency, which comes from the
protein within it.
*Proteins are not the only organic molecules found
in the cytoplasm.
Nucleus
-The most prominent organelle in a cell.
*The nucleus stores chromatic (DNA plus protein)
*In a gel – like substance called the nucleoplasm
*The boundary of the nucleus is called the nuclear
envelope.
*The nucleolus is a condensed region of chromatin
where ribosome synthesis occurs.
Nuclear Envelope
-double membrane structure that constitutes the
outermost portion of the nucleus.
-Both the inner and outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope are phospholipid bilayers
-Punctuated with the pores that control the passage
of ions molecule and RNA between the
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm
-Semi – solid fluid inside the nucleus, where we find
the chromatin and the nucleolus.
Chromatin and Chromosomes
Chromosomes
-Structures within the nucleus that are made up of
DNA the hereditary material.
Chromatin
-Describe the material that makes up to
chromosomes both when condensed and
decondensed.
Ribosome
-The cellular structures responsible for protein
synthesis.
-made up of a large subunit and small subunit.
-During protein synthesis ribosome assemble
amino acid into proteins.
Mitochondria
-singular = mitochondrion
-called (powerhouse) (energy factories)
-a cell because they are responsible for making
adenosine triphosphate. The cells main energy
carrying molecule.
Mitochondria
-Are oval-shaped, double membrane organelles
that have their own ribosomes and DNA.
*Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
embedded with proteins.
Peroxisomes
-Are small round organelles enclosed by single
membranes.
-They carry out oxidation reactions that break down
fatty acid and Animo acid.
-They also detoxify many poisons that may enter
the body.
Vesicle and vacuoles
-Membrane bound sacs that function in storage and
transport.
Vacuoles
-Are somewhat larger than vesicles.
*The membrane of vesicles can fuse with either the
plasma membrane or other membrane system
within the cell.
*The membrane of vacuoles does not fuse with the
membrane of other cellular components.
Animal cell and plan cell
-both have microtubule organizing center (MTOCs)
Animal cells
-Have centrioles associated with the mtocs a
complex called centrosome.
-Animal cells each have a centrosome and
lysosomes.
Plant cells
-Have a cell wall chloroplasts and other specialized
plastids and other specialized plastids and a large
central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
Centrosome Endoplasmic reticulum

-Is a microtubule organizing center found near the
nuclei of animal cells.
-It is contains pair of centriole two structures that lie
perpendicular to each other.
-Is a series of interconnected membrane sacs and
tubules that collectively modifies protein and
synthesizes lipids.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

-each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of
microtubules.
-The organelle where all microtubules originate.
Centrioles
-Appear to have some rule in pulling the duplicated
chromosomes to opposite end of the dividing cells.
-Is so named because the ribosomes attached to its
cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance
when viewed through an electron microscope.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
-Continuous with the rer but has few or no
ribosome on its cytoplasmic surface.

Lysosomes
Golgi apparatus
-Are the cell “garbage disposal”
-Also called the (Golgi body)
Cell wall
-Golgi apparatus in this white blood cell is visible as
-is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provide a stack of semicircular flattened rings portion of the
structural support, and gives shape to the cell. image.
*Fungal and protistan cells also have cell wall. -Several vesicle can be seen near the Golgi
apparatus.
*Plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis -receiving side of Golgi apparatus is called cis

face.
-The series of reaction that use carbon dioxide,
water, and light energy to move glucose and -The opposite side is called the trans face.
oxygen.

Chloroplast

-Has an outer membrane an inner membrane and Lysosomes

membrane structures called thylakoids that are
stacked into grana -Considered to be parts of the endomembrane
system.
-Contains green pigment called chlorophyll.
-Also use their hydrolytic enzyme to destroy
Central vacuole pathogens.
-Play a role in regulating the cells concentration of
water in changing environmental conditions.

Endomembrane system

-Is a group of membrane and organelles.

*In eukaryotic cells that works together to modify

package and transport lipids and proteins.