Cell Physiology by Robert Hooke in 1665,

who named them for their

resemblance to cells
Cell
inhabited by Christian monks
in a monastery.
-The cell Latin word 'cellula'
meaning "small room" is the
- Cell theory, first developed
basic structural and functional
in 1839 by Matthias Jakob
unit of life.
Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann, states that all
-Every cell consists of a
organisms are composed of
cytoplasm enclosed within a
one or more cells, that cells
membrane, which contains
are the fundamental unit of
many biomolecules such as
structure and function in all
proteins and nucleic acids
living organisms, and that all
cells come from pre-existing
-Most plants and animal cells
cells.
are only visible under a light
microscope, with dimensions
- Cells emerged on Earth
between 1 and 100
about 4 billion years ago
micrometres.
Cell types
-Electron microscopy gives a
much higher resolution showing
- Cells are of two types:
greatly detailed cell structure.
eukaryotic, which contain a
nucleus, and prokaryotic cells,
- Organisms can be classified
which do not have a nucleus,
as unicellular (consisting of a
but a nucleoid region is still
single cell such as bacteria)
present.
or multicellular (including
plants and animals). Most
- Prokaryotes are single-celled
unicellular organisms are
organisms, while eukaryotes
classed as microorganisms.
can be either single-celled or
The number of cells in plants
multicellular
and animals varies from
species to species; it has
- Prokaryotic cells
been approximated that the
human body contains
- Prokaryotes include Dacteria
roughly 40 trillion (4x1013)
and archaea, two of the three
cells.
domains of life. Prokaryotic cells
were the first form of life on
- The brain accounts for
Earth, characterized by having
around 80 billion of these
vital biological processes
cells.
including cell signaling.
- Cell biology is the study of
- They are simpler and smaller
cells, which were discovered
than eukaryotic cells, and lack a
 nucleus, and other membrane-
bound organelles.
- The DNA of a prokaryotic cell
consists of a single circular
chromosome that is in direct
contact with the cytoplasm. The
nuclear region in the cytoplasm
is called the nucleoid.
- Most prokaryotes are the
smallest of all organisms
ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 um in
diameter.
Eukaryotic cells
- Plants, animals, fungi, slime
moulds, protozoa, and algae are
all eukaryotic.
- These cells are about fifteen
times wider than a typical
prokaryote and can be as much
as a thousand times greater in
volume.
- The main distinguishing
feature of eukaryotes as
compared to prokaryotes is
compartmentalization: the
presence of membrane-bound
organelles (compartments) in
which specific activities take
place.
- Most important among these is
a cell nucleus, an organelle that
houses the cell's DNA.
- This nucleus gives the
eukaryote its name, which
means "true kernel
(nucleus)".
The Cell and its Function
 All living things are made of
cells.
 Cells are the smallest living unit
of life.
 Basic living unit of all
organisms.
 Each cell performs the
necessary functions to sustain
life.
 Cells can replicate themselves.
 Simple organism consist of
single cell.
 Humans (composed of multiple
cells)
 Ave. sized cell (is 1/5th the size
of smallest dot on sheet of
paper).
Cont.
- Cells are complex living structure
despite small size.
- Most cells are specialized to
perform specific functions.
- Human body is made up of many
population of specialized cells.
Entire body contain about 100 trillion
cells. Many cells of the body often
differ markedly from one another, all
of them have certain basic
characteristics that are alike.
Cont.
- Cells are the basic building b 11-
12/ 55 all living things. The human
 body is composed of trillions of
cells. They provide structure for
the body, take in nutrients from
food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized
functions.
Carbohydrates are attached to the
integral proteins. These form the
GLYCOCALYX.
Cont.

Cont. The glycocalyx is a sticky coat that

allows the cell to bind to other cells.
- Cellular function is carried out by
organelles. O The glycocalyx also serves as a
marker.
- Cellular reactions are mediated
(controlled) by ENZYMES. i.e.: certain antibiotics recognize the
glycocalyx and attach to the cell.
- Enzymes speed up chemical
reactions. All the chemical
reactions in the body make up its
METABOLISM.
Functions of the Plasma
- There are 10 organelles that you Membrane
are responsible for.
- Allows entry into the cell
Plasma Membrane (Cell Memb.)
(Endocytosis)
- Outer covering of the cell.
- Phagocytosis - cell eating
- Also called the PLASMALEMMA.
- Pinocytosis - cell drinking
- Separates the intracellular
(inside) fluid and the - Receptor-Mediated -hormones
extracellular (outside) fluid.
- Allows movement out of cells
- Double layer of lipids (fat) with
protein molecules between the (Exocytosis)
layers.
Cytoplasm(Protoplasm)
- Fluid Mosaic Model
Cytosol is a gel like substance which
Cont. holds all the internal cellular
organelles.
Polar Head (like water)
Contains ions, water, and enzymes. 5
Non-polar tails (do not like water) basic substances:
Proteins within the membrane. They
give support to the membrane and 1. Water = 70-85% of most
prevent it from collapsing. cells.

2. Electrolytes = K+, Mg+2,
PO?, SO4, HCO3 , & small
quantities of Na+, Cl -, & Ca+2
3. Proteins = 10-20% (structural
proteins & globular proteins)
4. Lipids = 2% of total cell mass
(phospholipids, cholesterol,
triglycerides & neutral fats)
5. Carbohydrates = play a major
role in nutrition of the cell.
Small amount is usually stored
in the form of glycogen, an
insoluble polymer of glucose.
THE ORGANELLES
Perform all the cellular
functions.
["Little Organs"
MITOCHONDRIA
Power plant of the cell
Produces energy
RIBOSOME
2 parts that make proteins.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Subway system of the cell.
Network of membrane-walled
tubes that twist through the
cytoplasm. ROUGH E.R. - have
ribosomes attached. Site of
protein synthesis
SMOOTH E.R. - do not have
ribosomes attached. Site of lipid
synthesis, participate in detox.
GOLGI APPARATUS
Stacks of disk shaped membranes.
Modifies protein structure.
Sort
Package proteins
Process
LYSOSOMES
Sacs containing digestive
enzymes that can break down
almost all types of biological
materials.
UVWTBS HIVUO
PEROXISOMES
Contain oxidases (use oxygen to
neutralize aggressive
compounds known as free
radicals).
Free radicals can damage
cellular proteins, membranes,
and DNA if left to accumulate.
CYTOSKELETON
System of complex rods that
run throughout the cytoplasm.
Microtubules = assist in cell div.
& forms components of cilia &
flagella
Microfilaments
CENTROSOME
 Contains a matrix and an inner
pair of centrioles which are important
in cellular division.
Membrane bound organelle
which is the control center for
all cellular activity.
Cell's genetic material (DNA) &
nucleoli
Contains DNA - produce
instructions for protein
synthesis.
Contain chromosomes
Produce ribosome in the
nucleolus
Cont.
Nucleus = contains cell's
genetic material (DNA) &
nucleoli.
Ribosome = site of protein
synthesis.
Rough ER = many ribosome
attached, site of protein
synthesis.
Smooth ER = site of lipid
synthesis, participate in
detoxification.
Golgi apparatus = modifies
protein structure and packages
protein in secretory vesicles.
NUCLEUS
Secretory vesicle= contain
materials produced in the cells
formed by golgi apparatus;
secreted by exocytosis.
> Lysosome = contains enzyme
that digest material taken into
the cell.
Cont.
Mitochondria = site of aerobic
respiration & major site of ATP
synthesis.
Microtubule = support
cytoplasm; assist in cell division
& forms components of cilia &
flagella. Centrioles = facilitate
the movement of chromosomes
during cell division.
Cilia = move substances over
surfaces of certain cells.
Flagella =propel sperm cells.
Microvilli = increases surface
area of certain cells.
Related Clinical Terms
NECROSIS - cellular death due
to disease or injury.

HYPERTROPHY - increase in size.
i.e. Muscle cells become
hypertrophic in response to
exercise.
4 Main Functions of cell
1. Cell metabolism and energy
use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
Movement Through the Cell
Membrane
Diffusion :
A solution is generally
composed of one or more
substances, called solutes,
dissolved in the predominant
liquid or gas, which is called the
solvent.
Diffusion is the movement of a
solute from an area of higher
conc. to an area of lower conc.
within a solvent.
A conc. gradient is the conc. of
a solute at one point in a
solvent minus the conc. of that
solute at another point in the
solvent divided by the distance
between the points.
Cont.
Lipid-soluble molecules (02, CO,
and steroids) pass through CM
readily by dissolving in the lipid
portion of the membrane
(phospholipid bilayer)
O Small molecules and ions can
pass through membrane
channels.
CM channels differ in the degree
to which ions pass through
them.
Some channels constantly allow
ions to pass through, called leak
channels.
Other channels limit the
movement of ion across the
membrane by opening &
closing, called gated channels.
Cont.
Osmosis :
Is the diffusion of water (a
solvent) across a selectively
permeable membrane.
Osmotic Pressure is the force
required to prevent movement
of water across a selectively
permeable membrane.
In a hypotonic solution, cells
swell ( and can undergo lysis);
in an isotonic solution, cells
neither swell nor shrink
(remains normal); in a
hypertonic solution, cells shrink
(undergo crenation).
Hypertonic Isotonic
Hypotonic

A balloon in an isotonic solution
Water flows out; the balloon shrinks
A balloon in a hypertonic solution
Water flows in; the balloon expands
A balloon in a hypotonic solution
Carrier- Mediated Transport
Mechanisms
O Carrier-Mediated Transport is the
movement of a substance across a
membrane by means of a carrier
molecule (glucose). CMTMs exhibit
specificity; that is only specific
molecules are transported by the
carriers. There are 3 kinds of CMT :
1. Facilitated diffusion
2. Active transport
3. Secondary active transport
Cont.
Facilitated Diffusion moves
substances from a higher to
lower conc. & does not require
energy (ATP).
Active Transport can move
substances from a lower to a
higher conc. & requires ATP.
Secondary Active Transport use
the energy of one substance
moving down its conc.
gradient to move another
substance across the CM. In
cotransport, both substances
move in the same direction; in
countertransport, they move in
opposite directions.
Whole-Cell Activity
A cell's characteristics are
ultimately determined by the
types of proteins it produces,
which are determined by the
genetic information in the
nucleus.
Understanding how genetic
information is used in the cell &
distributed to daughter cells is
important for understanding
basic cellular activity.
Gene Expression
Cell activity is regulated by
enzymes (proteins), & DNA
controls enzyme production.
During Transcription, the
sequence of nucleotides in DNA
( a gene) determines the
sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA; the mRNA moves
through the nuclear pores to
ribosomes. During Translation,
the sequence of codons in
mRNA is used at ribosomes to
produce proteins. Anticodons of
tRNA bind to the codons of
mRNA, and the AA carried by
tRNA are joined to form a
protein.
Cell Life Cycle
The life of a cell consists of a
series of events that produce
new cells for growth and for
tissue repair.

The 2 phases of the cell life
cycle are ; Interphase and Cell
Division.
DNA replicates during
Interphase, the nondividing
phase of the cell cycle.
Cell Division occurs
through Mitosis, which is divided
into 4 stages :
within various tissues of the
body.
Regulated by specific genes. Is
a normal process by which cell
number within various tissues
are adjusted and controlled.
Cont.
There are 2 morphologic patterns of
cellular death :

1. Prophase = each 1. Necrosis = is the more common

chromosome consists of 2 type of cellular death after exogenous
chromatids joined at the stimuli and is manifested by severe
centromere. cell swelling, denaturation, and
coagulation of proteins, breakdown of
2. Metaphase = cellular organelles, and cell rupture.
chromosomes align at the
center of the cell. 2. Apoptosis = occurs when a cell die
through th of an internal suicide
3. Anaphase = program. It is carefully orch 47-48 / 55
chromatids separate at disassembly of cellular components
the centromere & migrate designed to elh .......... unwanted cells
to opposite poles. with minimal disruption of the
surrounding tissue. It is characterized
4. Telophase = the 2 new morphologically by chromatin
nuclei assume their condensation & fragmentation.
normal structure, and cell Apoptosis occurs in single or small
division is completed, clusters of cells & results in the
producing 2 new elimination of unwanted cells during
daughter cells. embryogenesis & in various
physiologic and pathologic states.

Differentiation Causes of Cellular Injury

Is the process by which cells develop 1. Oxygen deprivation (hypoxia)

specialized structures, functions, = occurs as a result of :
results from the selective activation &
inactivation of DNA sections. a) Ischemia

Apoptosis b) Inadequate
oxygenation (ex. cardio
Is the programmed death cells. respiratory failure)
Regulates the number of cells
 c) Loss of oxygen-
carrying capacity of the
blood (ex. anemia,
carbon monoxide
poisoning).
2. Physical agents = including
trauma, heat, cold, radiation,
and electric shock.
. Major theories of aging : 1. Cellular
3. Chemical agents =
therapeutic drugs (ex.
Acetaminophen[tylenol] &
nontherapeutic agents (ex. lead
& alcohol).
4. Infectious agents = viruses,
rickettsiae, bacteria, fungi &
parasites.
5. Immunologic reactions =
which can cause cell injury as
well as serve in the defense
against biologic means.
6. Genetic derangements =
such as chromosomal
alterations or specific mutations
in genes.
0 7. Nutritional imbalance =
including protein-calorie
deficiency & lack of specific
vitamins as well as nutritional
excesses. Additionally the
composition of the diet can
make significant contribution to
disease.
Cellular Aspects of Aging
Outward signs of aging such as
wrinkled skin, gray hair & reduced
vision. Major hypothesis that attempts
to explain how aging occurs
concentrate on molec. within the cell,
such as lipids, proteins, & NA.
It is estimated that at least 35% of the
factors affecting aging are genetic.
Cont.
clock = certain numbers of cell
division result in death of a given cell
line.
Death gene = turn on late in life,
sometimes prematurely, causing cells
too deteriorate & die.
DNA damage = in time, DNA is
damaged, resulting in cell
degeneration & death.
Free radicals = DNA susceptible to
direct damage, resulting in mutations
that may result in cellular dysfunction
& ultimately cell death. One major
source of DNA damage is Free
Radicals, which are atoms or molec.
with an unpaired electron.
Cont.
Mitochondrial damage = mito. DNA
maybe more sensitive to free radical
damage than is nuclear DNA. Mito.
damage may result in loss of proteins
critical to mito. function. Bec. Mito. are
primary source of ATP, loss of mito.
function could lead to loss of energy
critical to cell function, ultimately to
cell death. One proposal suggest that
reduced caloric intake may reduce
freeradical damage to mitochondria.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
DEFINED
Anatomy (ana- = up; -tomy = process
of cutting) is the science of body
structures and the relationships
among them.
Dissection (dis- = apart; -section =
act of cutting), the careful cutting
apart of body structures to study their
relationships.
Physiology (physio- = nature; -logy =
study of) is the science of body
functions.
Embryology (embry- = embryo; -logy
= study of) The first eight weeks of
development after fertilization of a
human egg.
Neurophysiology (neuro- = nerve)
Functional properties of nerve cells.
Developmental biology the
complete development of an individual
from fertilization to death.
Endocrinology (endo- = within; -crin
= secretion) Hormones (chemical
regulators in the blood) and how they
control body functions.
Cell biology Cellular structure and
functions.
Cardiovascular physiology (cardi- =
heart; vascular = blood vessels)
Functions of the heart and blood
vessels.
Histology (hist - = tissue) Microscopic
structure of tissues.
Immunology (immun- = not
susceptible) The body’s defenses
against disease-causing agents.
Gross anatomy Structures that can
be examined without a microscope.
Respiratory physiology (respira- =
to breathe) Functions of the air
passageways and lungs.
Systemic anatomy Structure of
specific systems of the body such as
the nervous or respiratory systems.
Renal physiology (RE-nal; ¯ ren- =
kidney) Functions of the kidneys.
Regional anatomy Specific regions
of the body such as the head or chest.
Exercise physiology Changes in cell
and organ functions due to muscular
activity.
Surface anatomy Surface markings
of the body to understand internal
anatomy through visualisation and
palpation (gentle touch).
Pathophysiology Functional changes
associated with disease and ageing.
Imaging anatomy Body structures
that can be visualised with techniques
such as x-rays, MRI, and CT scans.
Pathological anatomy (path- =
disease) Structural changes (gross to
microscopic) associated with disease.
Chemical level, atoms, the smallest
units of matter that participate in
chemical reactions, and molecules,
two or more atoms joined together.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the
genetic material passed from one
generation to the next
glucose, commonly known as blood
sugar.
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION AND
BODY SYSTEMS
Cellular level, Molecules combine to
form cells, the basic structural and
functional units of an organism that
are composed of chemicals. cells are
the smallest living units in the human
body.
3 types of cells
Muscle cells, Nerve cells,
Epithelial cells
Tissue level, Tissues are groups of
cells and the materials surrounding
them that work together to perform a
particular function.
Epithelial tissue covers body
surfaces, lines hollow organs and
cavities, and forms glands
Connective tissue connects,
supports, and protects body organs
while distributing blood vessels to
other tissues.
Muscular tissue contracts to make
body parts move and generates heat.
Nervous tissue carries information
from one part of the body to another
through nerve impulses.
Organ level. At the organ level
different types of tissues are joined
together. Organs are structures that
are composed of two or more different
types of tissues; they have specific
functions and usually have
recognizable shapes.
System level. A system (consists of
related organs with a common
function.
Organismal level, an organism any
living individual. All the parts of the
human body functioning together
constitute the total organism.
ELEVEN SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN
BODY
Integumentary system, protects
body; helps regulate body
temperature; eliminates some wastes;
helps make vitamin D; detects
sensations such as touch, pain,
warmth, and cold; stores fat and
provides insulation.
Skeletal system, supports and
protects body; provides surface area
for muscle attachments; aids body
movements; houses cells that produce
blood cells; stores minerals and lipids
(fats).
Muscular system, participates in
body movements, such as walking;
maintains posture; produces heat.
Nervous system, generates action
potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate
body activities; detects changes in
body’s internal and external
environments, interprets changes, and
responds by causing muscular
contractions or glandular secretions.
Endocrine system, regulates body
activities by releasing hormones
(chemical messengers transported in
blood from endocrine gland or tissue
to target organ).
Cardiovascular system, Heart
pumps blood through blood vessels;
blood carries oxygen and nutrients to
cells and carbon dioxide and wastes
away from cells and helps regulate
acid–base balance, temperature, and
water content of body fluids; blood
components help defend against
disease and repair damaged blood
vessels.
Lymphatic system and immunity,
returns proteins and fluid to blood;
carries lipids from gastrointestinal
tract to blood; contains sites of
maturation and proliferation of B cells
and T cells that protect against
disease-causing microbes.
Respiratory system, Transfers
oxygen from inhaled air to blood and
carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled
air; helps regulate acid–base balance
of body fluids; air flowing out of lungs
through vocal cords produces sounds.
Digestive system, achieves physical
and chemical breakdown of food;
absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid
wastes
Urinary system, produces, stores,
and eliminates urine; eliminates
wastes and regulates volume and
chemical composition of blood; helps
maintain the acid–base balance of
body fluids; maintains body’s mineral
balance; helps regulate production of
red blood cells.
Reproductive systems, Gonads
produce gametes (sperm or oocytes)
that unite to form a new organism;
gonads also release hormones that
regulate reproduction and other body
processes; associated organs transport
and store gametes; mammary glands
produce milk.
Noninvasive diagnostic
techniques, use several noninvasive
diagnostic techniques to assess
certain aspects of body structure and
function. is one that does not involve
insertion of an instrument or device
through the skin or a body opening.
Inspection, the examiner observes
the body for any changes that deviate
from normal. For example, a physician
may examine the mouth cavity for
evidence of disease.
palpation (palp- = gently touching),
the examiner feels body surfaces with
the hands.
auscultation (auscult- = listening)
the examiner listens to body sounds to
evaluate the functioning of certain
organs, often using a stethoscope to
amplify the sounds.
percussion (percus- = beat through)
the examiner taps on the body surface
with the fingertips and listens to the
resulting sound. Hollow cavities or
spaces produce a different sound than
solid organs.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIVING
HUMAN ORGANISM
1. Metabolism is the sum of all
chemical processes that occur
in the body.
catabolism (catabol- = throwing
down; -ism = a condition), the
breakdown of complex chemical
substances into simpler components.
anabolism (anabol- = a raising up),
the building up of complex chemical
substances from smaller, simpler
components.
2. Responsiveness is the body’s
ability to detect and respond to
changes. For example, an
increase in body temperature
during a fever represents a
change in the internal
environment (within the body),
and turning your head towards
the sound of squealing brakes is
a response to a change in the
external environment (outside
the body) to prepare the body
for a potential threat.
3. Movement includes motion of
the whole body, individual
organs, single cells, and even
tiny structures inside cells.
4. Growth is an increase in body
size that results from an
increase in the size of existing
cells, an increase in the number
of cells, or both. In addition, a
tissue sometimes increases in
size because the amount of
material between cells
increases. In a growing bone, for
example, mineral deposits
accumulate between bone cells,
causing the bone to grow in
length and width.
5. Differentiation is the
development of a cell from an
unspecialized to a specialized
state. Such precursor cells,
which can divide and give rise
to cells that undergo
differentiation, are known as
stem cells.
6. Reproduction (re-pr ¯ o-DUK-
shun) refers either to (1) the
formation of new cells for tissue
growth, ¯ repair, or replacement,
or (2) the production of a new
individual.
When any one of the life processes
ceases to occur properly, the result
is death of cells and tissues, which
may lead to death of the organism.
Clinically, loss of the heartbeat,
absence of spontaneous breathing,
and loss of brain functions indicate
death in the human body.
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis (homeo- = Capillaries, smallest blood vessels
sameness; -stasis = standing still)
is the condition of equilibrium
(balance) in the body’s internal
environment due to the constant
interaction of the body’s many
regulatory processes. Homeostasis
is a dynamic condition. In response
to changing conditions, the body’s
equilibrium can shift among points
in a narrow range that is
compatible with maintaining life.
The fluid within cells is
intracellular fluid (ICF) (intra- =
inside). Extracellular fluid, fluid
outside the body cells.
The ECF that fills the narrow spaces
between cells of tissues is known
as interstitial fluid (in′ -ter-STISH-
al; inter- = between).
ECF within:
blood vessels are termed blood
plasma,
lymphatic vessels it is called
lymph
around the brain and spinal cord, it
is known as cerebrospinal fluid,
joints it is referred to as synovial
fluid,
eyes, aqueous humour and
vitreous body
The proper functioning of body
cells depends on precise regulation
of the composition of the
interstitial. Interstitial fluid, known
as body’s internal environment.
The composition of interstitial fluid
changes as substances moves back
and forth between it and blood
plasma.
in the body, the blood.
The nervous system regulates
homeostasis by sending electrical
signals known as nerve impulses
(action potentials) to organs that
can counteract changes from the
balanced state. The endocrine
system includes many glands that
secrete messenger molecules
called hormones into the blood.
Nerve impulses typically cause
rapid changes, but hormones
usually work more slowly. Both
means of regulation, however,
work towards the same end,
usually through negative
feedback systems.
A feedback system or feedback
loop is a cycle of events in which
the status of a body condition is
monitored, evaluated, changed,
remonitored, reevaluated, and so
on.
Each monitored variable, such as
body temperature, blood pressure,
or blood glucose level, is termed a
controlled condition.
Stimulus, disruption that changes
controlled condition.
1. Receptor is a body structure
that monitors changes in a
controlled condition and sends
input to a control center. This
pathway is called an afferent
pathway (af- = towards;
-ferrent = carried), since the
information flows towards the
control center. Typically, the
input is in the form of nerve
impulses or chemical signals.
2. Control center, sets the range
of values within which a
controlled condition should be
 maintained, evaluates the input (output) to the heart and blood vessels
it receives from receptors, and (the effectors). Heart rate decreases
generates output commands and blood vessels dilate (widen),
when they are needed Output which cause BP to decrease
from the control center typically (response).
occurs as nerve impulses, or
positive feedback system tends to
hormones or other chemical
strengthen or reinforce a change in
signals. This pathway is called
one of the body’s-controlled
an efferent pathway (ef- =
conditions. The control centre still
away from), since the
provides commands to an effector, but
information flows away from the
this time the effector produces a
control center.
physiological response that adds to or
3. effector is a body structure
reinforces the initial change in the
that receives output from the
controlled condition. The action of a
control centre and produces a
positive feedback system continues
response or effect that changes
until it is interrupted by some
the controlled condition. Nearly
mechanism.
every organ or tissue in the
body can behave as an effector Oxytocin causes muscles in the wall
of the uterus (effector) to contract
When your body temperature drops
even more forcefully.
sharply, your brain (control centre)
sends nerve impulses (output) to your For most people, lifelong good health
skeletal muscles (effectors). The result is not something that happens
is shivering, which generates heat and effortlessly. The many factors in this
raises your body temperature. balance called health include the
following:
In a feedback system, the response of
the system ‘feeds back’ information to  the environment and your own
change the controlled condition in behavior
some way, either negating it (negative  your genetic makeup
feedback) or enhancing it (positive  The air you breathe, the food
feedback) you eat, and even the thoughts
you think.
negative feedback system reverses
a change in a controlled condition. The way you live your life can either
support or interfere with your body’s
Blood pressure (BP) is the force
ability to maintain homeostasis and
exerted by blood as it presses against
recover from the inevitable stress’s
the walls of blood vessels.
life throws your way
Baroreceptors (the receptors),
pressure-sensitive nerve cells located
in the walls of certain blood vessels,
detect the higher pressure. The
baroreceptors send nerve impulses
(input) to the brain (control centre), A disorder is any abnormality of
which interprets the impulses and structure or function.
responds by sending nerve impulses
Disease is a more specific term for an
illness characterized by a recognizable
set of signs and symptoms.
A local disease affects one part or a
limited region of the body (for
example, a sinus infection)
a systemic disease affects either the
entire body or several parts of it (for
example, influenza).
symptoms, subjective changes in
body functions that are not apparent
to an observer.
Signs, objective changes that a anatomists use specific directional
clinician can observe and measure.
epidemiology (epi- = upon; -demi =
people) science that deals with why,
when, and where diseases occur and
how they are transmitted among
individuals
Pharmacology (pharmac- = drug) is
the science that deals with the effects
and uses of drugs in the treatment of
disease.
Diagnosis (dia- = through; -gnosis =
knowledge) is the science and skill of
distinguishing one disorder or disease
from another.
Taking a medical history consists of
collecting information about events
that might be related to a patient’s
illness. These include the chief
complaint (primary reason for seeking
medical attention), history of present
illness, past medical problems, family
medical problems, social history, and
review of symptoms.
A physical examination is an orderly
evaluation of the body and its
functions. This process includes the
noninvasive techniques of inspection,
palpation, auscultation, and
percussion, along with measurement
of vital signs (temperature, pulse,
respiratory rate, and blood pressure),
and sometimes laboratory tests.
BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
anatomical position is a standard
position of reference.
Two terms describe a reclining body. If
the body is lying face down, it is in the
prone position. If the body is lying
faceup, it is in the supine position.
To locate various body structures,
terms, words that describe the
position of one body part relative to
another.
Most of the directional terms used to
describe the relationship of one part of
the body to another can be grouped
into pairs that have opposite
meanings. For example, superior
means towards the upper part of the
body, and inferior means towards the
lower part of the body. It is important
to understand that directional terms
have relative meanings; they make
sense only when used to describe the
position of one structure relative to
another. For example, your knee is
superior to your ankle, even though
both are located in the inferior half of
the body. Study the directional terms
below and the example of how each is
used. As you read the examples, look
at figure 1.6 to see the location of
each structure.
A sagittal plane (sagitt- = arrow) is a
vertical plane that divides the body or
an organ into right and left sides.
Midsasgittal or median plane, a
plane passes through the midline of
the body or an organ and divides it
into equal right and left sides.
The midline is an imaginary vertical
line that divides the body into equal
left and right sides.
Parasagittal plane is when, the
sagittal plane does not pass through
the midline but instead divides the
body or an organ into unequal right
and left sides
A frontal plane or coronal plane
(corona = crown) divides the body or
an organ into anterior (front) and
posterior (back) portions.
A transverse plane divides the body
or an organ into superior (upper) and
inferior (lower) portions. Other names
for a transverse plane are a cross-
sectional or horizontal plane.
An oblique plane, by contrast,
passes through the ¯ body or an organ
at an oblique angle (any angle other
than a 90-degree angle).
A section is a cut of the body or one
of its organs made along one of the
planes just described.
Body cavities are spaces that
enclose internal organs. Bones,
muscles, ligaments, and other
structures separate the various body
cavities from one another.
cranial cavity, which contains the
brain.
vertebral (spinal) canal, which
contains the spinal cord.
Three layers of protective tissue, the
meninges, and a shock-absorbing
fluid sur- ¯ round the brain and spinal
cord.
The major body cavities of the trunk
are the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities.
The thoracic cavity or chest cavity is
formed by the ribs, the muscles of the
chest, the sternum (breastbone), and
the thoracic portion of the vertebral
column. pericardial cavity (peri- =
around; -cardial = heart). Pleural
cavities, a fluid-filled space that
surrounds the heart, and two fluid-
filled spaces, one around each lung.
mediastinum (media- = middle;
-stinum = partition). It is between the
lungs, extending from the sternum to
the vertebral column and from the first
rib to the diaphragm.
diaphragm (D¯I-a-fram = partition or
wall) is a dome-shaped muscle that
separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominopelvic cavity.
The abdominopelvic cavity extends
from the diaphragm to the ¯ groin and
is encircled by the abdominal
muscular wall and the bones and
muscles of the pelvis.
The superior portion, the abdominal
cavity (abdomin- = belly), contains
the stomach, spleen, liver, gall
bladder, small intestine, and most of
the large intestine.
The inferior portion, the pelvic cavity
(pelv- = basin), contains the urinary
bladder, portions of the large intestine,
and internal organs of the reproductive
system.
Viscera, organs inside the thoracic
and abdominopelvic cavities.
THORACIC & ABDOMINAL CAVITY
MEMBRANES
A membrane is a thin, pliable tissue
that covers, lines, partitions, or
connects structures.
Serous membrane is a slippery,
double-layered membrane associated
with body cavities that does not open
directly to the exterior.
It covers the viscera within the
thoracic and abdominal cavities and
also lines the walls of the thorax and
abdomen.
2 parts of serous membrane
the parietal layer, a thin epithelium
that lines the walls of the cavities.
the visceral layer (VIS-er-al), a thin
epithelium that covers and adheres to
the viscera within the cavities.
Serous fluid, is a potential space that
contains small amount of lubricating
fluid in between the two layers. allows
the viscera to slide somewhat during
movements, such as when the lungs
inflate and deflate during breathing.
The serous membrane of the pleural
cavities is called the pleura. The
visceral pleura clings to the surface of
the lungs, and the parietal pleura lines
the chest wall, covering the superior
surface of the diaphragm.
The serous membrane of the
pericardial cavity is the pericardium.
The visceral pericardium covers the
surface of the heart; the parietal
pericardium lines the chest wall.
Between them is the pericardial cavity,
filled with a small amount of
lubricating serous fluid.
The peritoneum is the serous
membrane of the abdominal cavity.
The visceral peritoneum covers the
abdominal viscera, and the parietal
peritoneum lines the abdominal wall,
covering the inferior surface of the
diaphragm. Between them is the
peritoneal cavity, which contains a
small amount of lubricating serous
fluid.
Retroperitoneal, some of organs are
not surrounded by the peritoneum;
instead, they are posterior to it.
The kidneys, adrenal glands,
pancreas, duodenum of the small
intestine, ascending and descending
colons of the large intestine, and
portions of the abdominal aorta and
inferior vena cava are retroperitoneal.
ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND
QUADRANTS
The top horizontal line, the subcostal
line (sub- = under; costal = rib), is
drawn just inferior to the ribs, across
the inferior portion of the stomach; the
bottom horizontal line.
The transtubercular line is drawn
just inferior to the tops of the hip
bones.
Two vertical lines, the left and right
midclavicular lines, are drawn
through the midpoints of the clavicles
(collar bones), just medial to the
nipples. The four lines divide the
abdominopelvic cavity into a larger
middle section and smaller left and
right sections.
The names of the nine abdominopelvic
regions are right hypochondriac,
epigastric, left hypochondriac,
right lumbar, umbilical left lumbar,
right inguinal (iliac), hypogastric
(pubic), and left inguinal (iliac).
The second method is simpler and
divides the abdominopelvic cavity into
quadrants (quad- = one-fourth). In this
method, a midsagittal line (the median
line) and a transverse line (the
transumbilical line) are passed through
the umbilicus ( umbilic- = navel) or
belly button. The names of the
abdominopelvic quadrants are right
upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper
quadrant (LUQ), right lower
quadrant (RLQ), and left lower
quadrant (LLQ).
The nine-region division is more
widely used for anatomical studies,
and quadrants are more commonly
used by clinicians for describing the
site of abdominopelvic pain, a tumour,
or another abnormality.
MEDICAL IMAGING
Medical imaging refers to techniques
and procedures used to create images
of the human body.
The grandparent of all medical
imaging techniques is Conventional
Radiography (x-rays), in medical
use since the late 1940s.
Mammography for breast
Bone densitometry for bone
density
It is necessary to use a substance
called a contrast medium to make
hollow or fluid-filled structures visible
(appear white) in radiographs.
Angiography, Contrast x-rays are
used to image blood vessels
Intravenous urography, for urinary
system
Barium contrast x-ray, for
gastrointestinal tract
Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), Most useful for differentiating
between normal and abnormal tissues.
Used to detect tumours and artery-
clogging fatty plaques; reveal brain
abnormalities; measure blood flow;
and detect a variety of
musculoskeletal, liver, and kidney
disorders. Not for bones.
Computed tomography (CT)
[formerly called computerized
axial tomography (CAT) scanning,
Visualizes soft tissues and organs with
much more detail than conventional
radiographs. Differing tissue densities
show up as various shades of grey.
Multiple scans can be assembled to
build three-dimensional views of
structures (described next). Whole-
body CT scanning typically targets the
torso and appears to provide the most
benefit in screening for lung cancers,
coronary artery disease, and kidney
cancers.
Ultrasound scanning, the image,
which may be still or moving, is called
a sonogram (SON-o-gram) and is
shown on a video monitor. Most
commonly used to visualize the fetus
during pregnancy. Also used to
observe the size, location, and actions
of organs and blood flow through
blood vessels (Doppler ultrasound).
Coronary (cardiac) computed
tomography angiography (CCTA)
scan, used primarily to determine if
there are any coronary artery
blockages (for example,
atherosclerotic plaque or calcium) that
may require an intervention such as
angioplasty or stent.
Positron emission tomography
(PET), Used to study the physiology of
body structures, such as metabolism
in the brain or heart.
Endoscopy, y involves the visual
examination of the inside of body
organs or cavities using a lighted
instrument with lenses called an
endoscope.
colonoscopy (used to examine the
interior of the colon, which is part of
the large intestine), laparoscopy
(used to examine the organs within
the abdominopelvic cavity), and
arthroscopy (used to examine the
interior of a joint, usually the knee).
Radionuclide scanning, used to
study activity of a tissue or organ,
such as searching for malignant
tumors in body tissue or scars that
may interfere with heart muscle
activity. A radionuclide (radioactive
substance) is introduced intravenously
into the body and carried by the blood
to the tissue to be imaged.