General Biology 1

1st Semester — Midterm Reviewer

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY
BIOLOGY
- Greek word ‘bios’ means life and ‘logos’ means study
- Introduced by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck as a means ROBERT HOOKE
of regarding the growing number of disciplines - British scientist who found little structures in a piece of
involved with the study of living forms cork which he compared to cellulae (Latin for little
rooms); he named it later as cells
Biological Science - study of living things including their - Cells he found in the cork were outer walls of former
forms, structures, compositions, functions, and classification. plant cells
Science of life; hence, life science ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
- Found moving protists, which he then referred to as
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS animalcules

● Definite Organization - cell is the basic structure of FELIX DUJARDIN

all living things - Discovered the internal substances of living cells and
● Metabolism - sum of all chemical reactions that take named it sarcode
place inside the living things
0 Anabolism - building up phase JAN EVANGELISTA PURKINJE
○ Catabolism - breaking down phase - Coined the word protoplasm describing the substance
● Growth and Development - organisms manifest found inside the cell
development by growing in size and shape
0 Intussusceptions - plants and animals grow ROBERT BROWN
by development from within - Discovered the nucleus and established it as the
○ Accretion - non-living things increase in size fundamental and constant component of the cell
by external addition
● Reproduction - ability to replicate themselves MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
0 Sexual - involves sex cells - German botanist who established the theory that plants
○ Asexual - vegetative propagation of plants or are made up of cells
binary fission for bacteria
● Responsiveness - organisms can respond to stimuli THEODORE SCHWANN
in their environment. - German zoologist who theorized that animals are made
● Movement - organisms are capable of movement up of cells
0 Tropism - plants show little movement
● Genetic Control - have units of information RUDOLF VIRCHOW
packaged in their cells, termed as genetic material - Theorized that living cells came from pre-existing cells
(DNA)
MODULE 3: MICROSCOPY

MODULE 2: CELL THEORY MICROSCOPY

CELL THEORY
● Developed in the mid-1800s as a result of the various
discoveries about cells
○ Cell is the basic unit of life
○ All living organisms are made up of cells
○ New cells are created from pre-existing cells
○ Cells of multicellular organism are
interconnected allowing it to function as a
single unit
- Started in 14th century in Italy
- Hans Lipperhey and Zacharias Janssen assembled
an apparatus by placing two lenses in one tube
MICROSCOPE
- Scientific tool used to magnify objects that cannot be
seen by the naked eye
- Light microscope - oldest and most used instrument
PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE

● Mechanical Parts - parts that serve as the framework

of the apparatus
○ Draw tube - where the eyepiece is inserted
 ○ Body tube - connection between the ocular
eyepiece and the objectives
○ Revolving Nosepiece - facilitates the shifting
of the objectives
○ Fine Adjustment Knob - to focus the finer
details of the object
○ Coarse Adjustment Knob - to focus the
object with low power objective
○ Arm - for carrying the microscope
○ Pillar - connection between the base and the
rest of the microscope
○ Base - supports the entire microscope
○ Stage - where the glass slide is placed
○ Stage Clip - to hold the slide in place
● Illuminating or Optical Parts - produce light entering
the microscope
0 Mirror - collects the light and directs it
towards the object
○ Iris Diaphragm - regulates the amount of light
entering
○ Condenser - to concentrate the light towards
the specimen
● Magnifying Parts - enlarge or magnify the object
0 Ocular Eyepiece - contains lenses up to
5-10x
○ Objectives
■ Low Power Objective - 10x
■ High Power Objective - 40x to 45x ■ Oil
Immersion Objective - 100x
CELL STAINING
● Technique that can be used to better visualize cells and
cell components under a microscope
○ Iodine Solution - plant cells
○ Methylene Blue - animal cells
MODULE 4: MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL
CELL
- Basic unit of life, also known as the building blocks of
the living world
- Microscopic membrane-bound system that controls all
the chemicals and molecules that help sustain an
organism’s existence.
MAJOR PARTS OF A CELL
- Has three major parts, namely, the cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and nucleus.
CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE
● Outermost part of the cell
● Acts as a gatekeeper that controls the entry and exit
of materials from the cell
● Composed of a phospholipid bilayer: hydrophilic head
and hydrophobic tail
● Semi-permeable and services as security of the cell
● In plant cells, cell wall is present in the outermost part
of the cell
CYTOPLASM
● Area where the organelles are located
● Composed of water, proteins, and salts
● Liquid portion of the cytoplasm is known as cytosol
and contains enzymes that breakdown waste
● Cytoskeleton helps maintain the structure of the cell;
network of proteins outlining the cytoplasmic
framework
NUCLEUS
● Control center of the cell
● Spherical structure usually located near the center of
the cell
○ Karyoplasm/Nucleoplasm - protoplasmic
content of the nucleus
○ Nuclear Membrane - double layer membrane
that envelopes the nucleus
○ Nuclear Pores - perforated holes in the
nuclear membrane that permit the movement
of selected molecules between the nucleus
and the rest of the cell
○ Nucleoli - synthesis of RNA and protein
○ Chromosomes - rod/thread-like structure
carrying genes
MODULE 5: THE CELL ORGANELLES
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
● Responsible for transporting molecules across the
cytoplasm and is also capable of assembling new
lipids for export to other cells.
○ Smooth ER - synthesizing fatty acids and
phospholipids
○ Rough ER - synthesizing and modifying
proteins; some ribosomes are attached to it

RIBOSOMES
● Site for protein synthesis
● Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
● Freely swim around the cytoplasm, some are attached
to RER.
● Developing muscle cells, and skin and hair cells
contain large numbers of free ribosomes.
o Free Ribosomes - mostly for use within the cell
o Bound Ribosomes - for export (secretions) from
the cell or for the use in lysosomes
VACUOLES
● Fluid-filled vesicle enclosed by a membrane
 Stores chemicals within the cell
 Both plant and animal cells have vacuoles Plant cells
have bigger vacuole since it stores water and waste
products
LYSOSOME
● Serves as digestion slots for cellular materials that are
no longer useful
● Known as the suicide bag of the cell
● Capable of self-destruction to save the rest of
organelles from being poisoned (phagocytosis)
CENTRIOLE
● Small cylindrical dark body, which occurs in parts
called diplosome
● Plays a major role in the formation of spindle fibers
during cell division
MODULE 6: ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL
PLANT CELL
- Differentiated by their cell walls, chloroplasts, and
central vacuole
- Chloroplasts within plant cells can undergo
photosynthesis to produce glucose
- Considered autotrophic; produce their own food
ANIMAL CELL
- Basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Animalia
- Have skeleton that provides support for their tissues
and organs
- Considered heterotrophic; obtain nutrients
from other sources

GOLGI APPARATUS
● System of an irregular network of canals which
functions as the manufacturer and the shipping center
of the cell
● Modifies, sorts, and packages the macromolecules
MODULE 7: PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELL
synthesized by the cell

MITOCHONDRIA
- Known as the powerhouse of the cell
- Site for cellular respiration
- Has the responsibility to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) which is the energy of the cell

CHLOROPLAST
● Organelle that can only be found in plants and
photosynthetic protists
● Site of energy conversion in plants
● Contains chlorophyll (green pigment)
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
- Single celled organisms
- Functions are carried out by the collaborative efforts
of the different organelles within it
- Lifespan is typically short
- Reproduction happens through asexual methods; they
have strong abilities for cell division and regeneration
- Mode of nutrition is through phagocytosis
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
- Consists of many cells which are capable of
processing nutrition and digestion and are takes to do
roles that depend upon the tissue or organ they
belong to
- Organized to form complicated structures (tissues,
organs, organ system, organism)

PROKARYOTIC CELL
- Cell with no definite or
distinct nucleus
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES OR MERISTEM
- No membrane
bound organelles - Consists of immature and undifferentiated cells
- Circular chromosome - Regions of active cell divisions
- Has cell wall - Responsible for
and cell membrane the increase in the
- Found in bacteria height and width of the
- Stores genetic material in its nucleoid, a poorly plant
demarcated region in the cell that lacks nuclear - Usually located at the
membrane tips of the stems and
roots, some in the
EUKARYOTIC CELL vascular cambium (a
thin layer of cells
- Cell with a definite or true nucleus
separating xylem and
- Enclosed by a nuclear membrane with nucleoli and
phloem)
membrane-bound organelles.
- Structurally more complex
TYPES OF MERISTEMATIC TISSUES (According to
- Can either be unicellular or multicellular (protists, Location)
fungi, plants, animals)
- Bigger compared to prokaryotic cells TERMINAL OR APICAL MERISTEM
● specialized tissues located at the growing points
SPECIAL MODIFICATIONS
● located at the tips of stems and roots and often in the
● Microvilli - finger-like extension increase the surface leaves of vascular plants
area
● responsible for the increase in the height of the plant
● Flagella - tiny whip-like structure that allows a cell to
(primary growth)
move
Cilia - tiny thread-like projection
INTERCALARY MERISTEM
Pili - slender hair-like extension for attachment in
● Found at the internodal region of the stem
surfaces
● Responsible for the increase of primary growth of
PLASTIDS
plants
Chloroplast - contains green pigment (chlorophyll)
● Disappear and transforms into permanent tissues
Chr moplas - contains yellow (carotenoid), red
Axillary Bud - bud that grows
o t (phycoerythrin), blue (xanthophyll) from the axil of a leaf and may
Leucoplast - colorless plastids that contain organic substances develop into a branch or flower
such as oil, starch, and protein cluster
Nodes - critical areas from which
MODULE 8: PLANT TISSUE
leaves, branches, and
aerial roots grow out
TISSUE
from the stem Internodes -
- Group of same or mixed type of cells having common
intervals between the nodes
origin and performing specialized function
Petiole - stalk that attaches the leaf blade to the stem
- Histology - science that deals with tissue

LATERAL MERISTEM
PLANT TISSUES
● Found on the side of stems and roots
● Responsible for the increase in the girth or diameter
1. Meristematic Tissues or Meristem
of the plant body (secondary growth)
2. Permanent Tissues
 PERMANENT TISSUES  Sieve Plate - perforated structure that strengthens
- Consists of mature and differentiated cells tube with pores to allow substances to flow Sieve
Tube - passage for glucose
- Form the bulk or mass of the plant body
 Companion Cell - produces ATP and other
substances since sieve tubes lack organelles
TYPES OF PERMANENT TISSUES
 Phloem Parenchyma and Sclerenchyma -
parenchyma cells usually attached to the phloem
SURFACE TISSUE which help in the transport of food
● Found in the outermost
layer or covering of the XYLEM
plant bodies ● Responsible for for the upward conduction of water and
● Includes epidermis, minerals
cork, and
stomata or Tracheids and xylem vessels - provides support and
guard cells transport substances all throughout the plant
● Serves as protection for Xylem Parenchyma and Sclerenchyma - provides support
the plants for the plant because of lignin

FUNDAMENTAL TISSUE VASCULAR BUNDLE

● Also known as simple permanent tissue ● Group of xylem and phloem found in monocot stems
● Basic tissues of plants
● Found in any organ of the plant (e.g. fruit, stem, roots,
leaves, etc.)

THREE TYPES OF FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES

PARENCHYMA CELLS (Filler Tissues)

● Thin primary cell wall and cytoplasm
● Large centrally located vacuole
● Contains chlorenchyma (chloroplast)
● Site for manufacturing food and storage of the product

COLLENCHYMA CELLS
(Supporting Tissues)
● Irregular thickened
primary wall
● Strengthening MODULE 9: ANIMAL TISSUE
and supporting
ANIMAL TISSUES
SCLERENCHYMA
CELLS (Protector Tissues) 1. Epithelial Tissue
● Heavily thickened cell wall due to lignin 2. Connective Tissue
● Primary and secondary walls are present 3. Muscular Tissue
● Responsible for strengthening, support, and 4. Nervous Tissue
o protection of the plant
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
VASCULAR TISSUES ● Composed of closely packed polyhedral cells with
- Also known as complex plant tissues very thin intercellular spaces and substances
- Conducting tissues of plants ● Found covering the surface of the body and lining the
- Consist of several types of permanent tissues cavities of hollow organs
- Responsible for the transport of water and food inside ○ Absorbs water and nutrients
the plant body ○ Protection - covering body and lining cavities
○ Secretions of enzymes and hormones
TYPES OF VASCULAR TISSUES ○ Sensation - sense of touch

PHLOEM TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES (Based on cell shape)

● Responsible for the downward conduction of food
SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL TISSUES COMPOSITION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
● Flattened cells with a polygonal shape
● Located in the Fibrocyte or FIbroblast - maintains the structural integrity by
epidermis of continuously secreting proteins (collagen and other fibers)
the skin, pleura, Mast Cell - releases histamine and other substances during
pericardium, alveolus, inflammatory and allergic reactions
and in Plasma Cell - white blood cell originating from bone marrow
bowman’s capsule that produces antibodies
Macrophage - phagocytic cell that attacks foreign material that
CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL enters the body
TISSUES Lymphocyte - subtypes of a WBC in a vertebrate’s immune
● Cube-like cells system
● Found in the collecting Protein Fibers - include collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers
tubules of the kidney Amorphous Substance - fills the space between cells and
fibers
COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL
TISSUES TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
● Tall and thin cells
● Can be ciliated or non-ciliated CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
● Found in the oviduct, intestine, and stomach ● Sometimes called fibrous tissue
● Divided into 2 based on the proportion of cells, protein
EPITHELIAL TISSUE BASED ON LAYER fibers, and ground substance
Simple - one layer Stratified - one or more layers
Pseudostratified - false layer DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE ●
Also called dense fibrous C.T.
● Fibers as its main matrix element
● Forms strong, rope-like structures such as tendons
and ligaments

DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- Composed of tightly packed collagen fibers
- Limited amount of ground substance
- Fibroblast cells are squeezed between fibers - Not
good blood supply, long healing time, found in
tendons and ligaments

DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- Consists of collagen fibers that are clump
together forming irregular pattern
- Has richer blood supply, can handle stress,
and found in the dermis of skin or covering of bones

CONNECTIVE TISSUES ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE

- Consists of densely packed wavy elastic fibers with
● Responsible for providing and maintaining form of the
fibroblast scattered throughout - Helps connective
body
tissue to stretch and recoil
● Most diverse and widespread tissue throughout the
- Found in trachea, vocal cords, and some artery wall
body
● Consists of cells, protein fibers, and matrix (ground or
amorphous substance) LOOSE OR AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● Also known as areolar C.T.
o Protection
● Has fewer cells and protein fibers
o Maintain framework and support for organs
● Abundant in viscous ground substance
o Connection and binding (e.g. ligament)
● Has good blood supply, surrounds organs, blood
o Store fats, transport substances, and repair
vessels and binds skin
tissue damage
 FIBROCARTILAGE CARTILAGE
- Consist of dense, wavy looking collagen patterns
- Is very tough, absorbs shock, and found in spinal
discs and meniscus knee joint
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
- Contains some collagen fibers and a high number of
elastic fibers
- Very flexible, is found in the ear and epiglottis which
prevent swallowed food from entering trachea

CONNECTIVE TISSUE WITH SPECIAL PROPERTIES

ADIPOSE TISSUE OR FAT CELLS

● Possesses a special cell called adipocytes that
contain fats
● Has good blood supply
● Stores energy
● Insulates organs, found under the skin BONE
● Acts as cushion ● More solid but less flexible
● Has rich blood supply
BLOOD TISSUE ● Provide support and protection
● Consists of several cells that have specific functions ● Extracellular matrix in bone consist of collagen fibers,
(e.g. erythrocytes (RBC), leukocytes (WBC), and mineral salt crystals, and bone cells called osteocyte
thrombocytes (platelets) which occupies lacunae

COMPACT BONE
- Forms cylindrical structures called osteon which
look like rings and surrounds a central or haversian
canal that houses nerves and blood vessels

SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

● Responsible for giving support to human body
● Composed of the bone or
osseous and cartilage tissue

CARTILAGE SPONGY BONE - Also known as cancellous bone

● Semi-solid matrix - Lighter and less dense than compact bone
● Keeps joint motion fluid by coating the surfaces of the - Located in the interior of a bone
bones and by cushioning bones against impact - Strong but lightweight
- Has trabeculae which provides support and
HYALINE CARTILAGE surrounds pores that are filled with bone marrow
- Consist of chondrocyte cells that are responsible
for cartilage formation
- Spaces in the cartilage are called lacunae
- Has very few fibers in its matrix - Has poor blood
supply, slow to heal, found in nose, and respiratory
passage
 PARTS OF A NEURON

MUSCULAR TISSUE
● Composed of tissue that is capable of contraction
● Responsible to produce movement

TYPES OF MUSCULAR TISSUES ● Cell body - nucleus-containing central part

● Dendrite - short branched extension of a nerve cell;
SKELETAL MUSCLE receives the impulses from other cells
● Attached to the bone ● Axon - transmit impulses away from the nerve cell
● Voluntary and striated body Schwann cell - produce the myelin sheath
around neuronal axons
SMOOTH OR VISCERAL MUSCLE ● Myelin sheath - to increase speed at which impulses
● Found inside internal organs ● Node of Ranvier - gap in the myelin sheath of a
● Involuntary and non-striated nerve; propagates the electrical signal down the axon
● Axon Terminal - buds at the end of the axon from
which the chemical messages are sent
CARDIAC MUSCLE
● Synapse -space between the axon terminal to the
● Found on the walls of the heart
next dendrite
● Involuntary, striated, and has
intercalated discs (portal for cardiac cell-to-
TYPES OF NEURONS
cell communication)

SENSORY NEURON
● Allocated to the senses
● Receive the information from the environment and
send it to the brain

MOTOR NEURON
● Allocated in the muscle
● Receives information from the brain and spinal cord to
make the muscle contract or act

NERVOUS TISSUES INTERNEURON OR ASSOCIATIVE NEURON

● Highly specialized tissue because of its ability to respond
to stimuli and transmit impulses
○ Neuron - specialized cell which includes cell
processes (dendrite and axon) and cell body
(nucleus, nucleolus, Nissl bodies)
○ Glial cells or neuroglia - provides support,
protection and nutrition, maintain
homeostasis, and destroy and remove dead
neurons
● Allocated inside the brain and spinal cord
● Connects the sensory neuron and motor neuron
MODULE 10: CELL CYCLE - MITOSIS
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
● Double-helix organic molecule
● Chemical component of DNA: deoxyribose sugar,
phosphate group, and nitrogen base
● Held together by hydrogen bond
CHROMOSOMES INTERPHASE
● Visible thread-like ● First segment of a cell’s life span
structures that bear the ● Accommodates all the processes so that a cell may
genetic carry out its assigned function
information of the organism ● Cell shows its complete organelles
● Occurs in pairs; humans have ● Metabolic or resting stage of cell division
23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes, total of 46. GROWTH 1 PHASE (G1) OR GAP 1
● Human nucleus has 46 ● Normal metabolic activities occur
chromosomes which are ● Undergoes growth and maturation
retained or divided in the
● Increase in mass to prepare for cell division
process of cell division
● Doubling of biomolecules
○ Diploid or 2n - number of chromosomes is at
● “Checkpoint”
46
● One of the important processes is the production of
○ Haploid or n - number of chromosomes is
nucleotides that are used for the replication of DNA
reduced to 23

SYNTHESIS PHASE (S PHASE)

FORMS OF CHROMOSOMES DURING CELL CYCLE
● Takes up 20% of the cell cycle
● Doubling of genetic material
CHROMATIN - thread-like (G1)
● Replication provides the future daughter cells with the
SISTER CHROMATIDS - replicated DNA (S phase) joined by a
same genetic material from the parent cell
common centromere
CONDENSED VISIBLE FORM - before or during cell cycle
GROWTH 2 PHASE (G2) OR GAP 2
● Last and shortest stage in interphase
● Doubling of all organelles
● Cell if ready for division; can produce proteins
necessary for processing of chromosomes and
breaking down nuclear envelope
MITOSIS
● Division of body/somatic cells
● Happens in all types of cells except gametes
● Involves 4 stages (PMAT)

CELL CYCLE
- Has two major periods: interphase and cell division
PHASES OF MITOSIS

PROPHASE
● Chromosomes coil,
thicken, shorten, and
condense
● Centrioles move
to opposite poles
forming spindle fibers
 ● Nucleolus disintegrates, nucleus increase in size,
and nuclear membrane disappears
● Longest stage of mitosis

METAPHASE
● Stage of separation
● Chromosomes move
and align along
equatorial plate
or metaphase plate

● Chromosomes move
towards its respective
poles
● Spindle fibers serves as
the guide trails
in
chromosome migration

TELOPHASE
● Stage of cytoplasmic
division and nuclear
reconstruction

● Centromere splits
● Chromatids separate with its own centromere
● Shortest stage of mitosis
● Must be thoroughly accomplished to ensure that
future daughter cells will have exact copies of the
chromosomes

ANAPHASE
● Stage of migration
● Chromosomes reach its respective poles and will
undergo coiling
● Cell plate (plant cell) or cleavage furrow (animal cell)
forms
● Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
● Two new cells are formed receiving the same number ● Embryonic development ● Growth
and identical sets of chromosomes
● Repair of injured tissues
● Replacement of worn out tissues
KARYOKINESIS
- Complete division of nucleus to
MODULE 11: CELL CYCLE - MEIOSIS
form two new daughter nuclei
- Assures the equal distribution of genetic materials MEIOSIS
between two newly produced nuclei
● Occurs in reproductive cells undergoing two successive
CYTOKINESIS nuclear cell division; normal diploid number of
- Complete disintegration of the cleavage furrow and chromosomes will be reduced to haploid
division of cytoplasm which creates two new daughter FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION
cells
- Ensures that both daughter cells have all cell PROPHASE 1
organelles in them, including the two nuclei ● Chromosomes are visible; thicker and shorter
● Nuclear membrane disappears
 LEPTOTENE
- Visible long thin threads
- Replication of chromosome material
- Enlarged nucleus
ZYGOTENE
- Paired thread
- Homologous chromosomes enter a very close zipper
like pairing (synapsis)
- Two chromosomes may exchange fragments by a
process called crossing over; site of crossing over
is known as chiasmata
PACHYTENE
- Thick thread
- Chromosomes shortens and coils - Each
homologous chromosome consists of two sister
chromatids associated with twin sister chromatids of
their homologous partner; group of four chromatids
is known as bivalent or tetrad
DIPLOTENE
- Visible separations occur except for specific regions
where actual physical crossing over appears to have
taken place between chromosomes and seems to be
the only remaining force holding each bivalent
together until metaphase
DIAKINESIS
- Coiling and contraction of the chromosomes
continue until they are thickened
- Bivalent migrates close to the nuclear membrane
● Two new nuclei formed from meiosis 1 will undergo
second cell division by a process that is similar to
mitosis.
● Often referred to as meiotic mitotic division
resulting in the formation of four haploid nuclei
PROPHASE 2
● Cells have one chromosome from each homologous
pair
● New spindle forms around chromosomes
METAPHASE 2
● Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate,
centromeres divide; separation of each chromosome
from its replicate
ANAPHASE 2
● Each new daughter chromosome moves to opposite
poles
TELOPHASE 2
● Spindle disappears, nuclei are formed, cytokinesis
takes place
● Each nucleus contains just one set of chromosomes
with a single chromatid
IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS
● Production of gametes during meiosis
● Oogenesis - female gametogenesis; the haploid cells
results in three polar bodies and one egg
● Spermatogenesis - male gametogenesis; haploid
cells becomes a spermatozoa (sperm cell)

CANCER
METAPHASE 1
● Develops when the apoptosis or the process of self-
● Complete disappearance of nuclear membrane
destruction of cells is defective
● Spindle fiber forms
● Afflicted cells will increase uncontrollably, thereby
● Bivalents attach themselves by their centromeres to
producing masses
the spindle and lie on the metaphase plate
○ Benign - does not spread, doesn’t affect its
surrounding cell
ANAPHASE 1
○ Malignant - severely affects its surrounding
● Homologous chromosome separates, moving to the
cells and spread it to different body parts
opposite ends of the spindle
● May undergo a process called metastasis or the
● Centromeres do not divide; each chromosome
departure of a cancer cell from its original location and
continues to consist of two chromatids
travel to the different body parts through blood
● Attribute to viruses and some substances (e.g.
TELOPHASE 1
carcinogen); can alter DNA sequence and lead to
● Chromosomes are still doubled and are in S and G1
damaging the cell structure
stages
● Nuclear membrane reappears, chromosomes
regroup, and spindle fiber disappears

INTERKINESIS Almost the

same as interphase, but no DNA replication because
chromosomes are already duplicated SECOND
MEIOTIC DIVISION
MODULE 12: CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM
 TRANSPORT MECHANISM
- Refers to the different pathways and processes a cell
must move substances in, out, and around itself FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Allow the cell to regulate what solutes enter/exit the
cell and the quantity being transported
CELL MEMBRANE IN CELL TRANSPORT
- Serves as the boundary between the cell’s internal
and external environment
- Regulates all substances that enter and exit the cell
- Exhibits selective permeability (semi-permeable
membrane)
- Composed of hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
- Plasma membrane is represented using a model
known as the fluid mosaic
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLECULES THAT
AFFECT THEIR ABILITY TO CROSS THE CELL OSMOSIS
MEMBRANE:
● Size (macro and micro molecules)
● Charge (polarity of molecules)
● Solubility (water and lipid soluble)
TYPES OF CELL TRANSPORT
● Diffusion may be affected by temperature, pressure,
concentration gradient, and solvent density
● Transport proteins are
specific to the type of
molecules they can
transport across the
membrane
● Makes use of special
proteins called integral
membrane proteins
○ Carrier protein - contain tunnels or opening
that serve as passageway for molecules
○ Channel protein - undergo temporary binding
to the molecules, resulting in conformational
change that moves the molecule through the
membrane
● Water moves in the direction of the solutes until the
number of free water molecules is equal (osmotic
balance)
● Movement is influenced by the presence of solutes
and their ability to pass through the membrane
● Channels allow water molecules to move across the
membrane in large quantities (aquaporins)
○ Hypotonic - low concentration of solutes;
water will move into the cell (swell or burst)
○ Hypertonic - high concentration of solutes;
water will move out of the cell (shrink or
plasmolyze)
○ Isotonic - no difference
in osmotic concentration

TONICITY IN PLANTS
- Inside of the cell is naturally hypertonic due to the
large amount of solutes in the central vacuole.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- Constant osmotic pressure is being inserted on the
● Does not require the use of energy plasma membrane, causing it to be pushed firmly against the
● Relies on the concentration gradient (difference cell wall
between the concentration of a substance present - Internal pressure created is called turgor
inside and outside of cell membrane) of solutes to
pressure,
move them across the membrane
provides plant cells
● Occurs when particles from a highly concentrated field
their normal
are exposed to an area with low concentration
turgid
● Move along the concentration gradient (high to low)
appearance
- If not
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
placed in
● Random movement
of a hypotonic
particles in an area solution, they
● Particles from will not appear as
highly concentrated turgid
area naturally - If placed in an isotonic solution, the lower turgor
pressure causes the plant to appear flaccid
move to an
- If placed in a hypertonic solution, plasma membrane
area where there are fewer
shrinks away from the cell wall
particles
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
● Move against the concentration gradient (low to high)
● Relies on the expense of cell energy (ATP)
● Most common example is Sodium-Potassium Pump

THREE TYPES OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS CAPABLE OF

PUSHING THE PARTICLES
● Uniport -
transport a molecule
in one
direction
● Symport-
transport two different
molecules in the same
direction
● Antiport - transport different molecules
in opposite directions

INTRACELLULAR TRANSPORT
● Observed in plant cell (cytoplasmic streaming or
cyclosis)
● Refers to the circular movement of the cytoplasm
within the cell
● Coordinated movement of particles and organelles
through the cytoplasm in a helical path down one side
of the cell and up the other side

BULK TRANSPORT / BULK FLOW / MASS MOVEMENT

● Movement of macromolecules; requires energy
○ Endocytosis - cells take in substance from
outside the cell by engulfing them in a
vesicle
■ Phagocytosis - cell eating
■ Pinocytosis - cell drinking
■ Receptor Mediated -
capture specific target molecules
○ Exocytosis - cells release particles into the
extracellular space