M 1 - A1.
Scientific Method: WHILE-LAB The compound microscope which is commonly
Scientific Method has the following steps:
 Observation. This is with the use of the senses
to notice something. It is something that tickles
the mind and leads to asking questions.
 Identification of the Problem. This a question
which is related to the observation.
 Formulation of the Hypothesis. It is
considered as a tentative answer to the
problem, since its validity has to be tested and
verified.
 Experimentation. This is designed to know the
validity of the hypothesis. This can be done in
the laboratory room with the use of laboratory
materials, but this is not always the case,
because a simple interview with concerned
individuals can be considered a form of
experiment.
 Conclusion. This is the result pf the
experiment. It confirms the validity of the
hypothesis, which determines whether it is
accepted or not. It is therefore considered as
the correct answer to the problem.
10 Tips on Microscope Care:
1. Handle the microscope with care
2. Keep lenses clear of slides
3. Clean after using
4. Cover when not in use
5. Look after the bulb
6. Store in a clean dry place
7. Use only special lens paper or wipes in
cleaning
8. Keep the user’s manual ad wrenches in a safe
place
9. Perform a maintenance check
10. Have the microscope serviced professionally.
One of the most important instruments in all
Biological Science courses is the microscope. It is
a specialized optical instrument designed to
examine small structures that are not seen by the
naked eyes.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was one of
those microscopists who made the first simple and
single-lensed microscope. With his microscope, he
was able to isolate and observe various organisms
from different water sources, human mouth and,
intestine, in which he identified them as "very little
animalcules".
used in any Biological Science course, is
composed of parts that are classified into three (3),
these are the Mechanical Parts, which are the
metal parts that make up the entire
microscope; Illuminating Parts, that are very
important in the supply of light; and the Optical
Parts, which are the magnifying parts of the
microscope.
The Mechanical Parts:
1. Base. Is the "foot" to support the entire
microscope.
2. Pillar. Is the part that connects the base to the
other parts of the microscope.
3. Inclination Joint. It is a screw at the sides of
the pillar that is used to tilt the microscope.
4. Arm. Is a curve part at one side of the
microscope, connecting its upper parts, which
are the optical parts, and the lower parts, which
are the illuminating parts. This is also
considered as the handle used in carrying the
microscope.
5. Stage. This is a platform that serves as the
area where the slide with the specimen to be
studied is placed. It is provided with Stage
Clips to hold the slide in placed or
a Caliper which is a mechanism to hold and
move the slide to any directions.
6. Body Tube. The bigger cylindrical tube that
gives a considerable distance between the
ocular and the objectives.
7. Draw Tube. Smaller tube above the body tube,
holding the ocular.
8. Dustshield. A circular structure that protects
the objectives from the accumulation of dust
particles.
9. Revolving Nosepiece. Just below the
dustshield where the objectives are attached. It
allows easy shifting of the objective lens.
10. Coarse Adjustment Knobs. These are the
bigger knobs that are located at the sides of the
arm, either at its upper part or lower part. It is
used to move the body tube or the stage up
and down to achieve the general image of the
specimen during initial focusing with the Low
Power Objective.
11. Fine Adjustment Knobs. Is the smaller knob
which is used when focusing under the High
Power Objective or Oil Immersion Objective.
The Illuminating Parts:
1. Mirror. This functions to gather the amount of
light needed in microscopy. It is located just
below the stage, and it has two (2) surfaces,
the flat or the plane mirror which is used with
the natural sunlight or daylight as source of
illumination, and the concave surface with the
use of artificial light or fluorescent lamp.
2. Substage:
o Iris Diaphragm. This is for the regulation of
light.
o Abbe Condenser. This is for the
concentration of light to the specimen.
The Optical or Magnifying Parts:
1. Ocular or Eyepiece. This magnifies the
secondary image of the specimen and it has
magnifying power ranging from 5X to 15X. This
is held by the draw tube.
2. Objective Lens. Magnify the primary image of
the specimen. They are held by the revolving
nosepiece.
3. Low Power Objective. Magnifies the general
parts or the entire image of the specimen. It has
a magnifying power of 5X - 10X.
4. High Power Objective. Magnifies the detailed
parts of the specimen, and has a magnifying
power ranging from 40X to 60X.
5. Oil Immersion Objective. This is used when
examining bacteria or any other
microorganisms. It has a magnifying power
ranging from 90X to 1000X, It is used with
cedarwood oil.
6. The main function of the microscope is to
magnify the image of a very small object or
specimen, which refers to
as magnification, and this is the number of
times the actual size of the specimen is
enlarged. So that, the Total
Magnification of the microscope is
determined by the magnifying power of the
ocular and the objective lens used, with this
formula:
7. TO = MOC X MOB
8. where: TO = Total Magnification
9. MOC = Magnification of the
Ocular Lens
10. MOB = Magnification of the
Objective Lens
M2 - A1. The Animal Cell: PRE-LAB
Cells
All living things are made of cells! Learn
how they work and what they are made of! Cell
organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, ribosomes, lysosomes and many more can
be found here. You'll be amazed at what happens in
each of your cells!
"Why do you think the cell is considered as the
“basic structural and functional unit of life?” . . .
The cell is the smallest part in an organism’s body
and that it is capable and responsible in performing
all the biological processes that living things need
for survival.
It was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, when
he examined the corks of plants and observed tiny
boxes which described as like the rooms in
monastery and called them “cell”.
In the study of the cell, which is the science
of cytology, the cell is known for having 3 Main
Parts, these are the: (1) Cell Membrane, (2)
Cytoplasm, and (3) Nucleus.
The cell membrane is the envelope of the cell
which gives shape, and serves as a covering and
protective agent of the cell. It is a semi-permeable
membrane that controls the molecules that may go
into and out of the cell. In addition to the cell
membrane, plants cell have cell wall that gives
support and strength.
The cytoplasm is the intracellular environment
which contains the organelles which are tiny
structures responsible in performing important
metabolic activities. These organelles are the:
 Centrioles in centrosomes that are for the
formation of spindle fibers which are essential
in cell division. These are present only in animal
cells.
 Chloroplast which is present only in plants.
This contains the green pigment,
called chlorophyll, essential in the process of
photosynthesis.
 Endoplasmic reticulum which is considered inorganic compounds needed by the organelles to
as the “circulatory system of the cell”, which carry the metabolic properties of the cell.
is of two(2) types, these are the rough ER
(rER) and smooth ER (sER). The rough ER is The organic compounds in the cytoplasm include
lined with ribosomes, so that it is for the the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Whereas,
distribution of proteins, while the smooth ER is the inorganic compounds are water, carbon
for the transportation of other materials, such dioxide, minerals and electrolytes.
as carbohydrates and lipids.
 Golgi complex known as the packaging plant
and secretory vesicle of the cell. It collects
materials from the different organelles and
disposed them off via secretory vesicles which
are formed at the cell membrane.
 Lysosomes which are known as the “suicide
sacs” that secrete lysozymes for digestion.

 Mitochondria is the “powerhouse of the

cell”, because it is responsible in the
production of Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP), as the energy source.
 Ribosomes are spherical bodies for protein
synthesis.
 Vacuoles are for the storage of materials. Inorganic
Functions / Significance
Usually at the center of the cell is a more or less
Compounds
rounded structure, the nucleus, which is
considered the “brain of the cell”. Its content is  Lubricant and cushion
called the nucleoplasm which is enclosed by a  Mechanism to maintain
double membrane lining, the nuclear body temperature
membrane. In the nucleus are
 Water  Component of liquid
the chromosomes that contain the genetic
materials, DNA, and a spherical body called mixtures
the nucleolus, which is for the production of  Roles in chemical
ribosomes. reactions
M2 - A2. Physicochemical Properties of the Cell:
WHILE-LAB
 Important in the body
Why is the cytoplasm considered as the “living
substance of the cell”? . . .
Examples:
The cell is considered as a system with mixture of
many different substances, whose mutual  Salts -Bile salts: breakdown fats
interactions result in the varied phenomena that we
relate it with life. -Calcium phosphate salts:
forms the mineral
The physicochemical properties of the cell is not
only about its structural attributes and chemical contents of teeth and
components, but it also refers to how they make up bones
for the behavior of the cell and affect its functions.
 Dissociate in water into
The intracellular environment of the cell refers to electrolytes
the cytoplasm which is composed of the jelly-  Acids and
like cytosol, a water-based solution that serves as
the ground substance to where the organelles are Bases They can very much
suspended. It also contains the organic and change the properties of
the solutions in which they
are dissolved
M2 - A3. Cell Division: WHILE-LAB
Cell Division is a process by which the cell divides
and produces new ones, the daughter cells. This is
a basic process in all living things which is
important for the maintenance of the genome,
reproduction, growth and replacement of worn out
cells.
There are four stages of Mitosis, these are:
 Prophase.
o At first, chromosomes are observed as
long, thin and coiled filaments,
called chromatids. Then eventually they
become short and thick with two identical
strands held by the centromere.
o The nuclear membrane disintegrates and
the nucleolus disappears.
o Centrioles in the centrosomes move
toward the opposite poles forming
the asters that become the spindle fibers.
 Metaphase.
o Centromeres of the chromosomes are
attached to the spindle fibers and aligned at
the equator of the cell.
 Anaphase.
o Separation of the chromosomes moving to
the opposite poles.
 Telophase.
o Cleavage furrow is formed to divide the
cytoplasm and produce the two daughter
cells.
o Nuclear
membrane and nucleolus reappear.
o Chromosomes are again long and
threadlike.
M2 - A4. The Animal Tissues: WHILE-LAB-2
Tissues are groups of similar or different cells,
performing definite function.
There are 5 main types of tissue, these are:
1. Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissues are usually located at the external
parts of the body or at surfaces lining organs or
cavities. Thus, they are mainly to cover and
protect, but other functions are absorption,
secretion and excretion.
Basically, they are made up of tightly packed
cells held together by a connective tissue,
the basement membrane. The free apical edge
or surface of the tissue is opposite the basement
membrane where the cells have no attachment.
The types of epithelial tissue are based from the
number of cell layers and type of cell shape. As
to number of cell layers, epithelial tissue can
be simple with only one layer of cells,
and stratified if it has more than one layer of cells.
Whereas, as to cell shape, there are three types,
these are squamous, cuboidal and columnar. So,
the types of epithelial tissue are:
2. Connective Tissues
Connective tissues are known for tissues
that bind and support other tissues and organs.
What makes them different from other tissues is
their having a ground substance, called
the extracellular matrix, to where their other
structures, such as cells and fibres, are suspende
The various types of connective tissue are:
3. Vascular Tissues
Vascular tissues refer to the blood. In some
references, this is included as one of the types of
connective tissue, because it also has extracellular
matrix. However, it has been extracted from
connective tissue, because other authors or
scientists have differentiated its matrix as in liquid
form, which is the plasma, from the jelly-like of the
connective tissue. Also, these vascular tissues are
not for binding of various tissues or organs, but
they are mainly for the transportation of
materials within the body.
The vascular tissues are:
4. Muscular Tissues
Muscular tissues are mainly for contraction to
create movement. They are mainly composed
of muscle filaments for contraction, these are
the actin and myosin.
They are classified according to location, structure
and action. As to location, they are identified as
(1) cardiac muscles for the heart muscles,
(2) skeletal muscles referring to those that are
attached to bones, and (3) visceral muscles of the
internal organs. According to structures, there two
types, these are (1) striated, which are long
filaments with dark and light bands, and
(2) unstriated or smooth which are spindle-
shaped without striations. For the types as
to action or function, these are (1) voluntary, with
controlled action, and (2) involuntary with
uncontrolled action.
5. Nervous Tissues
They are for the conduction of impulses. They
are mainly made up of cell
body and processes. The two types
of processes are the axon, that carry impulses
away from the cell body, and the dendrite that
carry impulses toward the cell body.
M2 - A5. Organs: WHILE-LAB
Organs are formed by groups of tissues that
perform definite functions. These are specifically
studied in the field of biological science
called organology.
Here, you are going to examine the
different Organs of the Frog, and identify their
structures and functions.
I. Blood Vessels. These are the circulatory tubes
that are for the passageway of blood.
The wall of these blood vessels is composed
basically of the following layers:
1. Tunica adventitia which is also called Tunica
externa, is the outermost layer and made up of
loose connective tissue.
2. Tunica media is the thickest middle layer, with
smooth muscles.
3. Tunica intima or Tunica interna is the
innermost layer that contains elastic fibers and
smooth muscles.
4. Endothelium is the layer lining the lumen, which
is the central cavity of the vessel. This is composed
of a single layer of squamous cells.
II. Skin. This is mainly for protection. In
amphibians, it is important in the process of
respiration and water absorption.
It has two(2) main layers, the:
A. Epidermis, which is the outer layer, and it
is composed of the following sub-layers:
1. Stratum corneum is the outermost or
most superficial layer of the organ. This
is made up of squamous cells that
undergo molting or ecdysis, which is
the shedding off of the skin.
2. Stratum germinativum or also known
as the Stratum Malpighi, contains
mitotic columnar cells that are actively
dividing, producing new cells. It is also
where the chromatophores for
pigmentation are found.
B. The dermis is the inner layer, which is also
composed of two(2) sub layers, these are:
1. Stratum laxum or Stratum
spongiosum is a layer of connective
tissue. It is where the cutaneous glands
are located, which are the mucus
gland that produces slimy materials to
keep the skin moist, and the poison
gland that secretes an alkaloid, itchy
material for the protection of the animal.
2. Stratum compactum is the innermost
layer of the frog's skin that has compact
connective tissue fibers.
III. The two(2) main Organs of the Gastro-
Intestinal Tract:
2. A. Stomach. This is a J-shaped organ
where partial digestion of food takes place.
It has internal folds that aid in the process of
digestion, these are known as rugae.
3. B. Small Intestine. Is a long tube for the
final digestion of food and absorption of
water. Its internal folds are called villi.
IV. Liver. This is the largest gland of the body. It
secretes bile which is an enzyme for the
emulsification of fats. It is composed of polygonal
cells that are separated by spaces,
called sinusoids or blood capillaries. The cavities
in the organ are the:
1. Blood vessels. Biggest among the spaces,
with different sizes.
2. Bile ducts. Small cavities lined with cuboidal
cells.
3. Arterioles. Thick-walled, small cavities.
4. Bile capillaries. Smallest cavities with fewer
cuboidal cells.
VI. Reproductive Organs. These are
the gonads that function in the production
of gametes or sex cells and sex hormones.
A. Ovary. This is the female gonad which is for the
production of egg cells and female sex hormones,
the estrogen and progesterone. It is suspended to
the dorsal body wall by its mesentery,
the mesovarium, and covered by the outer
layer, Theca externa and inner layer, Theca
interna.

Also, the organ is composed of irregular pinkish

structures as pigment granules.

B. Testes. The male gonad is made up of

numerous, seminiferous tubules which are
composed of blood vessels, nerves, and interstitial
cells, called the cells of Leydig, for the production
V. Kidney. This is the main excretory organ which and development of the male gametes, the sperm
functions as the disposal agent for nitrogenous cells and male hormones, the testosterone. This
waste. It is a bean-shaped organ which is filled with is covered by the outer visceral peritoneum, and
cavities or spaces, that are identified as: inner Tunica albuginea, and it is supported by its
mesentery, the mesorchium.
1. Mesonephric duct or Wolffian duct. This is
located at the sides of the kidney, with a lumen
lined with epithelial cells.
2. Renal Portal Vein. It is a space filled with red
blood cells
3. Uriniferous Tubules. These are cavities lined
with cuboidal cells.
4. Bowman's Capsule. These contain a ball of
capillaries, called glomerulus.
VII. Spinal Cord. This is enclosed in the vertebral
column which is composed of nerves that carry
messages from the brain to the different parts of the
body and vice versa. It is composed of
the following parts:
1. Canalis centralis. This is the central canal
which is lined with simple columnar epithelium,
called ependymal cells.
2. Two(2) Layers:
o Dura mater: Outer layer
o Pia mater: Inner layer
3. Two(2) Central Areas:
o White matter: Outer
o Gray matter: Inner part which contains
nerve cells and neuroglia cells. The dorsal
part is with the slender extensions, called
the dorsal horns, wheres the ventral part is
with the broad extensions, called
the ventral horns with stellate motor cells.
4. Two(2) Septa:
o Ventral Septum: Is the ventral fissure
which is the broader surface with blood
vessels, called as the ventral spinal artery.
o Dorsal Septum: Is a narrower dorsal
fissure.
M3 - Overview and Learning Objectives
M3 - Organ Systems
M3 - A1. Anatomical Terms, Planes and Axes:
WHILE-LAB
Anatomical Terms
 Anterior, Cephalic or Cranial -the front or
head end
 Posterior or Caudal -the hind or tail end
 Medial -at or near the middle or midline of a
body or organ
 Lateral -the side of a body (right and left
sides)
 Dorsal -the back, upper side, or upper part
 Ventral -the belly, lower side, or lower part
 Central -the part nearest the middle
 Peripheral -the part nearest the surface
 Proximal -near the main mass of the
body/point of attachment
 Distal -away from the main mass of the
body/point of attachment
 Superior -above
 Inferior –below
Anatomic Axes
 Longitudinal Axis -anterior-posterior axis
 Dorso-ventral Axis -up/down axis
 Left-Right Axis
Anatomic Planes
 Sagittal plane / Sagittal section -a cut in this
plane; longitudinal section through the median
vertical plane that divides the body into right
and left halves
 Parasagittal section -section to one side of the
midline, separates right and left portions of
unequal size
 Frontal plane / Frontal section -a cut in this
plane; longitudinal section made at right angles
to a sagittal section
 Transverse plane / Transverse section or
Cross section -a cut in this plane; any section
made through and at right angles to the
longitudinal axis
M3 - A2. Frog's External Parts and Functions:
WHILE-LAB
Neck - extension of the head; no associated
coelom
*usually absent in fishes and amphibians
3. Tail - extends beyond the anus/vent; comprise of
body-wall muscles, axial skeleton, nerves and
blood vessels
*present in the vertebrate embryo but may be
absent in some adult vertebrates
4. Appendages - two pairs (Forelimbs and
Hindlimbs) are connected to the trunk
*may be lost or vestigial in some vertebrates
such as snakes and lizards

M3 - A3. Frog's Skeletal System: WHILE-LAB

Frog’s body form possesses a distinct shape and

proportions that give them an advantage in
inhabiting both land and water.
Its body is divided into head and trunk; there is
no neck and tail. The brain and the sense organs
are contained within the head. On the other hand,
most of the internal organs or viscera occupying
one cavity, that is the coelom or abdominal
cavity are in the trunk.
Each forelimb and hindlimb is made up of three
segments but differ in terms of size.
In this activity, you will learn the different external
parts of the frog and the differences between the
male frog and female frog.

Body Regions Support of the frog’s body is provided by

1. Head - situated “ahead”; contains the brain and
the sense organs
2. Trunk - where the body cavity or coelom is
found, this encloses the internal organs or viscera
a framework that includes cartilage and bone.
The long axis of the frog’s skeletal system is
formed by the skull at the tip followed by
the vertebral column and sternum. Resembling
an inverted Y is the long axis mentioned earlier
and the two hind limbs attached to the pelvic
girdle. On the other hand, the
short forelimbs connected to the pectoral
girdle, makes a V shape. This basic design of the
frog’s skeleton tends to be similar with that of the
human skeleton.
M3 - Activity 4. Frog's Muscular System: While-lab
M3 - Activity 4. Muscular System of the Frog
Frogs share a similar arrangement of muscles with
other tetrapods as well as man.
This arrangement is actually parallel with the
skeletal system. It is organized as Cranial
musculature (Extrinsic eyeball muscles, Jaw and
pharyngeal muscles) and Post cranial
musculature (Axial muscles and Appendicular
muscles).
Feeding and breathing is associated with cranial
musculature while the one that defines
the animal’s posture and move the
appendages is the post cranial musculature.
M3 - Activity 5. Frog's Digestive System: While-lab
M3 - Activity 5. Digestive System of the Frog
A very similar structure and function is notable in
the digestive system of frogs and humans. Length
of the tube is primarily the difference which has
something to do with the size and nature of the
food ingested.
The digestive tract or alimentary canal is
differentiated into 4 regions. Mouth or oral
cavity together with esophagus serves as the
reception region wherein digestion and swallowing,
respectively, occurs. Stomach is referred to as
storage region because it basically stores partially
digested food but it also takes part in digestion.
Digestive and absorption region is the role of
the small intestine, here the two segments
namely duodenum and ileum have their
respective functions. Finally, excretion and water
absorption region is the large intestine. The
undigested materials move to the cloaca and into
the anus.
Attached to the digestive tract are two digestive
glands, the liver and the pancreas that also
contributes in digestion through their secretions.
M3 - Activity 6. Frog's Respiratory System: While-lab
M3 - Activity 6. Respiratory System of the Frog
Adult frog when it stays on land, utilizes
the lungs, a pair of soft, simple and sac-like organs
for gas exchange (O2 and CO2). Other components
of the respiratory system are the nasal
chamber (with external or anterior nares and
internal or posterior nares), oral cavity, pharynx,
larynx, bronchus, and lungs.
The respiratory system is also involved in sound
production (vocalization). Vocal sacs that are
found in most male frogs are capable of producing
sounds that help the animal to announce its
presence and possibly attract a sexual partner.
The thin, soft and moist skin also functions for gas
exchange when the frog is in water.
M3 - Activity 7. Frog's Circulatory System:
While-lab
M3 - Activity 7. Circulatory System of the Frog
Solid and liquid parts made up the frog
blood. Plasma is the liquid part that contains the
solid components - erythrocytes, leucocytes and
thrombocytes.
M3 - Activity 7. While-lab (Part 2)

The circulatory system includes the blood

described as a moving fluid that carries oxygen and
eliminates carbon dioxide, movement of the blood
in a series of vessels (arteries, veins and
capillaries) is possible through a muscular pumping
organ, that is the heart.
The frog heart has a pericardium as its covering,
found within the pericardial cavity that is inside the
abdominal cavity. It has three chambers - 2 upper
chambers called right atrium and left atrium and
one lower chamber, referred to as ventricle.
M3 - Activity 8. Frog's Excretory System: While-
lab
M3 - Activity 8. Excretory System of the Frog
Excretory system and reproductive systems are
closely related in both structure and function, that
is why they can be called collectively as Urogenital
system.
Kidneys, accessory parts and their ducts are the
components of the excretory system. Excretory
(Urinary) system is responsible for elimination of
nitrogenous wastes in the form of urine and
regulation of water/salt balance in the body fluids.
Kidneys produce the liquid waste that passes
through the mesonephric duct and into
the cloaca. On the other hand, large intestine
releases solid waste and is also directed into
the cloaca. The anus serves as an opening for the
exit of these waste materials.
M3 - Activity 9. Frog's Reproductive System: While-
lab
M3 - Activity 9. Reproductive System of the Frog
Gonads or reproductive organs and its
accessory parts and ducts comprise
the reproductive system. Formation of ova and
sperm and production of hormones are linked with
this system.
The female frog’s reproductive system has a
pair of ovaries that is attached to the body wall, and
also a pair of oviducts or fallopian tubes located
laterally in the abdomen. Oviducts have an
anterior opening (Ostium) and an enlarged
posterior end (Ovisac).
The male frog’s reproductive system includes
the testes, accessory glands and ducts. The
channel for the release of urine, egg and sperm is
the cloaca.
M3 - Activity 10. Frog's Nervous System: While-lab
M3 - Activity 10. Nervous System of the Frog
Nervous system in frog is well-developed and is
made up of the following structures that can be
grouped as Central Nervous System
(CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord
and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes
paired cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Frog’s brain is divided into forebrain, midbrain
and hindbrain. Spinal cord has an
attached sympathetic trunk with swellings that
contain nerve cell bodies or ganglia.
M3 - Activity 10. While-lab (Part 2)
Activity 10. Nervous System of the Frog

Nervous System
Functions:

 Sensory Input: through its receptors, it keeps

the organism in touch with the external and
internal environment
 Integration: it is the major controlling,
regulatory, and communicating system of the
body
 Homeostasis: together with the endocrine
system, it is responsible in regulating and
maintaining homeostasis
 Control of Muscles and Glands: it participates in
controlling skeletal, cardiac and smooth
muscles, and many glands

3 Divisions:

1. Central Nervous System


o Responsible for information processing
o Compose of the brain and spinal cord

2. Peripheral Nervous System


o Includes all the nerves of the body outside
the brain and spinal cord
o Cranial Nerves and Spinal Nerves

3. Autonomic Nervous System


o Composed of the Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Nervous System