Week 0 1.
Base – heavy Y-shaped foot on which the microscope
Introduction to Biology
Emergent Properties – characteristics of a
system that do not appear in any of the
system’s components.
A Pattern in Life’s Organization:
1. Atom 7. Multi-celled organism
2. Molecule 8. Population
3. Cell 9. Community
4. Tissue 10. Ecosystem
5. Organ 11. Biosphere
6. Organ System
The Compound Light Microscope
Types of Microscope:
1. Dissecting Microscope – used for the
examination of gross specimens and for their
dissection under low power.
2. Ultraviolet Microscope - is a type of light
microscopy that utilizes UV light to generate a magnified image
of the sample being analyzed. As a result of the shorter
wavelength of UV light than visible light, it is possible to view
samples with
greater magnification and resolution.
Example: breast tissue with nerves coursing over and
through a layer of intact fat cells.
3. Electron Microscope - is a technique for
obtaining high resolution images of biological and
non-biological specimens.
Example: Scanning EM and Transmission EM
(Demodex folliculorum/eyelash mites)
4. Compound light microscope – it contains a
combination of lenses and can magnify objects normally not
seen with the naked eye.
5. Phase-contrast microscope – make it
possible to see different parts in cells without using stains.
Parts of the Compound Light Microscope
A. Mechanical Parts – These consist of precise parts, chiefly
made of metal, that support and adjust the optical and
illuminating parts.
stands.
2. Pillar – short supporting piece arising from the base.
3. Arm – short curved handle used in carrying the
microscope.
4. Inclination joint – joint between the pillar and the arm
used to tilt the upper parts.
5. Body tube – attached to the arm; bears the lenses.
6. Draw tube – upper portion of the body tube which
bears the eyepiece.
7. Revolving nosepiece – revolving structure at the lower
end of the body tube, which bears the lower lenses or
objectives.
8. Dust shield – metallic structure above the nosepiece,
which protects the lower lenses or objectives.
9. Coarse adjustment knob – screw used to bring the
specimen into focus.
10. Fine adjustment knob – screw below the coarse
adjustment knob used for more delicate focusing.
11. Stage – platform with a central aperture and two clips
to hold the slide being studied.
B. Illuminating Parts – these consist of parts used to illuminate
the specimen or object.
1. Mirror – found below the stage; has a concave and a flat
surface, both of which gather and direct light to
illuminate the object.
2. Iris diaphragm – found above the mirror; consists of
several metal blades which form a circular opening that
may be enlarged or reduced to control the amount of
light reaching the object.
3. Condenser – found immediately beneath the stage. The
iris diaphragm and the condenser constitute the
substage.
C. Optical Parts – These consist principally of special types of
carefully ground and polished glasses aligned on an optical axis
for the enlargement of the image of the specimen.
1. Eyepiece or ocular – 6X, 10X, or 15X; it is found on top
of the body tube. This is the part used to peep through
the microscope. It is
made of a metal tube with two lenses – a small one at
the top of the eyepiece and a larger one below. The
eyepiece should only be removed to check whether the
specimen is at the center or to replace it with another
eyepiece. Various eyepieces have different powers of
magnification. These can be distinguished by the
number engraved on the top of the eyepiece. Without it,
dust will enter the tube and settle on the objectives.
❖ Objectives
a. Low-Power Objective (LPO; 4X-10X) – with this
objective, the object may be more easily found and then
moved to the center of the field. (The lowest
magnification is 4X; this is usually called the scanner.)
b. High-Power Objective (HPO; 40X-60X) – with this
objective, greater magnification is obtained so that the
detailed structure can be studied.
c. Oil-Immersion Objective (OIO; 100X) – with this
objective, greater magnification than HPO is obtained.
This is often used in microbiological examination and
 makes use of special oil that reduces the diffusion of
light
rays passing (through the oil) from the specimen to the
objective.
Proper Use and Care of the Compound Light Microscope
1. Always carry the microscope with both hands.
Hold the arm with one hand while the other hand supports the
base.
2. Always use the microscope with the tube
perpendicular to your work surface, especially when working
with fresh mounts or with any slide being examined under the
oil-immersion objective. The oil
and fluid mountants of the specimen tend to flow onto the stage
if the microscope is inclined.
3. Keep the microscope dust-free. Develop the
habit of cleaning the microscope before and after using it. Use
clean soft cloth for cleaning the body , and lens paper for
cleaning the lenses and the mirror. Lens paper moistened with
xylol is used to remove the immersion oil.
4. The coarse adjustment screw is used to bring
the object into focus, while the fine adjustment screw is used to
obtain a more sensitive and gradual adjustment for focusing
through the different planes
and depths of the object.
5. A great deal of success in microscopic
examination is dependent upon the adjustment and control of
illumination. This is done by reflecting light from the best
source, raising or lowering the
condenser, and opening or closing the diaphragm.
Magnification – refers to the number of times
An object is enlarged, or reduced, by lens systems or
in drawings.
Linear magnification – the eyepiece further magnifies the
image formed by the objective so that the image seen by the eye
has a magnification equal to the product of the magnification of
the two lens
systems.
Table 1. Calculating Total Magnification in the
Compound Light Microscope
by a figure indicating the number of times the drawing is bigger
than the actual
specimen (e.g., X2,X3,X50). If the drawing is a reduced image of
the actual specimen, this is indicated by a fraction (e.g., X1/2,
X1/4, X2/3).
To determine the magnification of microscope objects,
the formula is
as follows:
Magnification = size of drawing (in mm)/size of specimen (in
mm)
Week 1
History of the Cell Theory
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
● Who first coined the term “cells” in his bestselling
book Micrographia in 1665.
● He observed a slice of cork in a microscope and
said: “... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated
and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were
not regular . . . These pores, or cells, . . . Were indeed the first
microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen,
for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any
mention of them before this. . .”
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1705)
➢ A Dutch scientist who observed many cells and
organisms such as rotifers, bacteria, sperm cells, and
blood cells.
Henri Dutrochet (1776-1847)
➢ A French physiologist who suggested that the cell is
not only a structural unit of life but also a physiological one.
Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881)
➢ Extensively studied plants and their cells. He
proposed that all plants are made up of cells.
Theodor Schwann (1810-1882)
➢ Said the same thing about animals. Like his fellow
German scientist, he suggested that every animal is
composed of cells and products of cells.
Robert Remak (1815-1865)
➢ Disputed Schleiden’s hypothesis on the formation
of cells and claimed that cells arise from pre-existing cells
through cell division.

Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902)

➢ Suggested the same, which he popularized by using
the Latin phrase ‘Omnis cellula e cellula’ in his essay ‘Cell
Pathology.’

The cell is the smallest entity that exhibits the

characteristics of life. These are:
Magnification 1. Reproduction 6. Homeostasis
When illustrating a specimen viewed under the 2. Development 7. Organization
microscope, the magnification of the drawing in relation to the 3. Movement 8. Presence of genes
actual specimen must always be indicated under the drawing. 4. Responsiveness 9. Evolution
This is done by writing a 5. Metabolism
multiplication sign followed by a figure indicating under the
drawing. This is done by writing a multiplication sign followed
Cell Theory - Based on the works of Schwann, Schleiden,
Differences: Genetic material
Virchow, Remak, and other scientists, the Cell theory states
that: Prokaryotic • Simpler and less complex.
1. All organisms are made up of cells. Cells • Short, double-stranded, circular loop of
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of DNA
life.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. Eukaryotic • Double stranded and made up of DNA.
Cells • Long and linear form and is located inside
the nucleus.
Modern Interpretation of the Cell Theory - New tenets have
• DNA is coiled around histone proteins.
been added to supplement the cell theory due • It has non-coding regions known as
to discoveries brought about by advancements in technology. introns.
These tenets are as follows: • The coding regions are known as exons.
1. Energy flows within cells.
2. Cell contains a genetic material that can be passed
on. Differences: Ribosomes
3. The activity of an organism depends on the activity
Prokaryotic • A bit smaller (70S)
of each individual, independent cell. Cells
4. The genetic makeup of the cells of organisms that
belong to the same species is the same. Eukaryotic • 80S
Cells •Svedberg (S) is a unit of measurement
for the rate of settling down of particles in a
Week 2
particular medium.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic •Estimates the overall size of a particle.
Prokaryotic
➢ Greek words ‘pro’, which means ‘before’, and ‘karyon’,
which means ‘nut or kernel’, referring to the nucleus. Differences: Size and complexity
Example: singled-celled bacterium, Escherichia coli (It
is found in human digestive tract) Prokaryotic • Small
Cells • Smallest prokaryotic cell: 200 to 300
Prokaryotic
nanometers in diameter.
➢ Greek words ‘eu’, which means ‘true’, and ‘karyon’
• Largest prokaryotic cell: 100 to 300
means ‘nut or kernel’.
micrometers (100,000 to 300,000
nanometers) – Thiomargarita namibiensis
Three Domain System
1. Archaea
Eukaryotic • Smallest eukaryotic cell: 0.8 micrometer
➢ are not considered true bacteria.
Cells (800 nanometer)
➢ because of introns where eukaryotes have.
• Largest prokaryotic cell: 33.6 meters or
2. Bacteria
33.6 billion nanometers
3. Eukarya/Eukaryota

“A prokaryotic organism can either be bacterium or an archeon”

Side of Area of Surface Volume SA to V
Eukaryotic Organisms: cube one side area ratio
1. Kingdom Protista
2. Kingdom Fungi 1 cm 1 cm2 6 sides * 1 cm3 6/1 = 6
3. Kingdom Plantae 1 cm2
4. Kingdom Animalia
2 cm 4 cm2 6 sides * 8 cm3 34/8 = 3
4 cm2
Differences: Organelles
4 cm 16 cm2 6 sides * 64 cm3 96/64 =
Prokaryotic • No membrane-bound organelles
16 cm2 1.5
Cells • It has pili (singular pilus) - DNA transfer
• Fimbriae - shorter, more numerous and
adhering cell to a surface.
• Nucleoid region
• Plasmids - tiny circular DNA

Eukaryotic • Have membrane-bound organelles

Cells • Centrioles - for cell division..
• Plasmodesmata - intercellular connections.
 ➢ Any subcellular compartment in a eukaryotic cell
Differences: Reproduction
that is not bound by a membrane will not be considered an
organelle.
Prokaryotic • Asexual reproduction (binary fission)
Cells • Conjugation – exchange genetic material
with each other through pili.
• Transformation – alter the characteristics
by taking in DNA from
their environment and no direct contact.
• Transduction – virus is the agent that is
being used to transfer genes from one
bacterium to another.

Eukaryotic • Asexual reproduction or sexual

Cells reproduction
• Budding in yeasts
• Fragmentation in sea stars
• Vegetative reproduction in plants.

Prokaryotic Cell vs. Eukaryotic Cell

- no membrane-bound - organelles are

organelles
- short, circular DNA
- DNA has no introns and
exons
- smaller ribosome
- generally unicellular
- prokaryotic organisms are
usually smaller and less
complex
- usually undergo asexual
reproduction
membrane-bound
- Long, linear DNA wrapped
around histone proteins
- DNA has introns and exons
- large ribosome
- generally intercellular
- eukaryotic organisms are
usually larger and more
complex
Cytoplasm
- usually undergo sexual
➢ Consist of cytosol, organelles, ions, and other
reproduction
molecules.
➢ It is everything in the cell between the
nucleus and the plasma membrane.

Week 3 Cytosol
➢ Is the liquid portion of the cell, a “solution”
Cell Structure and Function
where the organelles are suspended. It includes water, soluble
Organelles
compounds, biomolecules and
➢ Are like ‘little organs’ present inside the cells.
other materials.
➢ Some organelles are present in all types of cells,
while some are unique to the cells of a particular group of
Ribosome
organisms.
➢ Are minuscule structures consisting of small
and large subunits of proteins and RNA molecules.
 ➢ They are the sites of protein synthesis.
➢ Free-floating in the cytoplasm
➢ Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
➢ They manufacture the “proteins”
Cell Membrane
➢ Envelopes each cell of an organism.
➢ It serves as the boundary between what is
inside the cell and its external environment.
➢ It regulates the movement of molecules in
and out of the cell.
➢ Composed primarily of lipids with embedded
proteins and carbohydrates.
➢ Sometimes called the plasma membrane.
Centriole
➢ Are structure that are present only in
animals.
➢ They function during cell division, where
they produce spindle fibers that aid in
chromosome movement.
movement of molecules in and out of the nucleus.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
➢ Is a system of continuous membranes within
the cytoplasm.
➢ It forms sacs called cisternae.
Two types of ER:
1. Rough ER
- for synthesis and packaging of proteins.
2. Smooth ER
- for the synthesis and storage of lipids.
Golgi Apparatus
➢ Or the golgi complex is another
membrane-bound organelle.
➢ Responsible for collecting molecules and
joining them to form macromolecules.
➢ Packaging and transporting molecules in the
cell.
➢ Transported molecules are stored in vesicles.

Cell Wall Lysosome

➢ A rigid structure that aims to protect the cell
and provide structural support.
➢ It is what makes trees hard and robust.
➢ The plant cell wall is primarily composed of
cellulose.
➢ While the fungal cell wall is composed
mainly of chitin.
➢ Cellulose and chitin are both
polysaccharides, which are long chains of simple sugars.
➢ Responsible for breaking down the “food”
that enters the cell, including molecules and viruses.
➢ Contains a set of digestive enzymes.
Peroxisome
➢ Digest toxic materials and differ from
lysosomes in terms of the enzymes that they contain
➢ It contains oxidative enzymes, which are
enzymes that require oxygen.

Plasmodesmata ( singular plasmodesma) Mitochondrion

➢ These are holes in the cell wall that allow the ➢ Powerhouse of the cells.
communication and transportation of materials between ➢ It is where cellular respiration occurs.
adjacent cells. ➢ It has two membranes: inner membrane and
the outer membrane.
Cytoskeleton ➢ Folds of the inner membrane are known as cristae.
➢ Are complex, dynamic networks of proteins
that have diverse functions and structures. Vacuole
➢ In eukaryotic organisms, the filaments that ➢ Only a fluid-filled membrane.
make up the cytoskeleton can be classified into three ➢ Larger in plant cells.
types: microtubules, intermediate filaments, and ➢ Store nutrients, wastes, and water.
microfilaments. They may vary in terms of size,
structure, and function. Plastids
➢ Like mitochondria, it has a double
Three types of cytoskeletal filaments: membrane.
1. Microtubules ➢ Present only in plants and algae.
– these are hollow cylinders about 23 nm in diameter ➢ It is most well-known for its chloroplast.
that help in the maintenance of cell shape and integrity,
transportation of molecules and organelles, cellular movement Thylakoids
and cell wall synthesis. (e.g. spindle fibers and flagella) - disk-like structures inside the plastids.
2. Intermediate filaments Chlorophyll
– diameter of around 10 nm. They are essential in structural - photosynthetic pigment.
support and cell-to-cell junction. (e.g. nuclear envelope and the Grana
keratin proteins in hair) - stacks of thylakoids.
3. Microfilaments Stroma
– these are filaments that are important in - aqueous fluid inside the chloroplast.
cytokinesis, cell shape maintenance, cellular transportation,
and cell contraction.
Week 4
Nucleus
CELL TYPES AND CELL MODIFICATIONS
➢ Is crucial component of any cell as it
contains the genetic material and is the command center of the Plant Tissues
cell. Vascular Plants
➢ It is covered with a nuclear membrane or ➢ Plants with an extensive tissue system that is
nuclear envelope. able to transport water and nutrients to all parts of the plant
➢ It also has nuclear pores that allow the body.
 – structural support and synthesizing organic materials.
➢ Nonvascular plants such as ferns and mosses Three types of Ground Tissues
only share a few characteristics with vascular plants. 1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
Classification of Plant Tissues 3. Sclerenchyma
1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues ➢ These three are also simple permanent tissues.
Meanwhile, in some groups of plants (especially
Meristematic Tissues/Meristems in dicots such as the pea plant), the ground tissues
➢ Greek word ‘merizein’ which means ‘divide’ is divided into the pitch and the cortex.
➢ These areas are responsible for growth and cell
differentiation. Parenchyma
Cell differentiation – refers to the biochemical and Characteristics:
physical changes in cells leading to specialization for a - Composed of thin-walled cells.
particular function. - Repair wounds and damages.
- Made up of cellulose and hemicellulose.
Permanent Tissues Location:
➢ Specialized for a particular function and cease to - Found in soft, young and developing parts of plants.
divide. - It’s the plant body’s most abundant tissues.
➢ Composed of living or dead cells that are already - Main component of the fleshy part of fruits.
permanently positioned in a plant and be classified as either Function:
simple or complex. - Most versatile among all the plant tissue types.
- Aside from wound repair, they function for storage, secretion,
Types of meristems photosynthesis and transport.
1. Apical meristem
2. Lateral meristem Collenchyma
3. Intercalary meristem Characteristics:
- Composed of mature, elongated, flexible and thick-walled
Apical Meristem cells.
➢ Plants are polar organisms, which means that they - Their cell walls are mostly composed of cellulose and pectin
have two opposite ends. and exhibit uneven thickenings.
Two apical meristems: - They are the least common plant tissues.
1. Shoot apical meristem (SAM) Location:
2. Root apical meristem (RAM) - Found in young leaves and stems of plants. They are also
common in leaf petioles and even in aerial roots.
➢ These meristems are responsible for producing Function:
new cells at both ends. - Support young leaves and stems in plants yet do not restrain
➢ Increasing the length of the plants. growth.
➢ Plants are limited many factors, such as
resources, genetics, and ecology. 4 types of collenchyma (based on the arrangement of cell wall
➢ Plants have optimum length and height. thickness)
1. Angular collenchyma
Lateral Meristem 2. Tangential/Lamellar collenchyma
➢ This is made possible by radial or secondary growth. 3. Annular collenchyma
➢ They increase the plant’s diameter as it grows and can 4. Lacunar collenchyma
be found along the sides of the roots and stems.
2 types of Lateral Meristem Sclerenchyma
Characteristics:
1. Vascular cambium - Composed mostly dead, fibrous, crystal-like cells.
- produces the vascular Have a very tough secondary cell wall made up
tissues and responsible for the conduction of water, nutrients, of polymer lignin.
and other metabolites.
2 main types of sclerenchyma tissues:
2. Cork cambium A. Mechanical sclerenchyma
– responsible for producing the cork and epidermis in woody 1. Fibers – are long, thin sclerenchyma.
and herbaceous plants. 2. Sclereids – are shorter, more cuboidal sclerenchyma.

Intercalary meristem B. Water -conducting sclerenchyma

➢ Commonly found in grasses. 1. Tracheids
➢ Allows grasses to rapidly regrow when stepped 2. Vessel elements
on or cut, an adaptation to herbivory and grazing.
Location:
The Three Tissue Systems - Abundant in very hard areas of plants and in
1. Dermal tissue vascular tissues like xylem and phloem.
- protect the entire plant from potentially harmful agents in the
environment. Function:
2. Vascular tissue - Important in transportation or conduction.
– transport of nutrients and substances. ➢ Fibers – structural support while maintaining
3. Ground tissue flexibility.
 ➢ Sclereids – offer support to leaves and stems and
protection of some fruits.
➢ Angiosperms (flowering plants) tend to
concentrate sclerenchyma tissues on their fruits
when the seeds are ready for dispersal. This is to
make the fruit hard and inedible to herbivores.
Examples: Coconut, Nuts
Pith and Cortex
Ground meristem – cells of the ground tissues in
the earliest stages of differentiation.
➢ Both originated from the ground meristem.
➢ Composed of parenchymatous cells, although the
latter is also sparingly made up of collenchymatous cells.
Pith Cortex
- Is the ground tissue - Is the one found
surrounded by the outside the vascular
vascular tissues. tissues.
Vascular Tissues
➢ Considered to be complex permanent tissues.
Provascular meristem – the corresponding
counterpart of the ground meristem in the vascular
tissue.
Xylem
➢ Are vascular tissues responsible for the upward
transport of water and minerals from the roots to the shoots
and leaves.
➢ Transport is made possible by the adhesion and
cohesion of water molecules along the tract.
➢ Composed of tracheary elements (tracheids and vessel
elements), fibers, and parenchyma cells.
➢ Are long, thin cells with tapered ends that are
connected by pits.
Vessel elements
➢ Are larger and less open
➢ The latter’s ends have holes known as
perforations.
➢ A group of vessel elements stacked together is
referred to as a vessel.
Phloem
➢ Are vascular tissues responsible for transporting
photosynthetic products like carbohydrates.
➢ Adjacent to xylem tissues.
➢ The xylem and phloem are often arranged in structures
called vascular bundles.
➢ Composed mainly of living cells.
➢ These living cells are the sieve elements, companion
cells, and parenchyma cells.
➢ Fibers are also present in phloems.
➢ Are living cells with no nuclei and other
membrane-bound organelles.
2 types of sieve elements:
1. Sieve cells – elongated and shape like tracheids.
2. Sieve tube members – shorter and have wider
ends.
➢ Contain sieve pores, which are quite similar to
the perforations found in vessel elements.
Sieve areas – vast clusters of sieve pores.
Sieve tube – which is a stack of sieve tube members. And found
in Angiosperms and more advanced.
Companion cells
➢ Are parenchyma cells that are associated with
sieve tube elements.
➢ Because of the lack of membrane-bound
organelles, sieve tube elements need companion cells to live.
➢ Do metabolic activities for the sieve tube
elements.
➢ Unloading and loading of sugars and other
nutrients.
Dermal tissue
➢ Is known as the protoderm.
➢ Primary growth: only one class of dermal tissue.
➢ Secondary growth: the epidermis differentiated
further and, along with other tissues, forms the periderm.
Epidermis
➢ Is the outermost layer of the plant.
➢ Made up of a single layer of parenchymatous
cells devoid of chloroplasts.
Cuticle
➢ Prevent water loss and the entry of aqueous
substances.
➢ Is a protective layer made up of fatty molecules
known as cutin.
➢ Underneath, epidermal cells are strongly
connected to provide mechanical support and
protection to the plant. The epidermis contains
specialized cells, such as the ones listed:
Hair or trichomes
➢ Are epidermal outgrowths that can be unicellular
or multicellular.
➢ Used as a defense against predators.
Bulliform cells
➢ Are groups of cells that contain large vacuoles
and have thin cell walls.
➢ Serve as water reservoirs.
Stomata (sing. Stoma)
➢ Are pores that control the exchange of gases and
water transpiration in plants.
➢ Their action is facilitated by guard cells.
Secondary Growth
● In certain group of plants, most commonly in
woody plants, the cells between the vascular bundles
continue to divide and differentiate, forming the
vascular cambium.
● This tissue produces the secondary vascular
tissues, the secondary xylem (more commonly known as
wood) and the secondary phloem.
● The secondary phloem is particularly notable as
some of its parenchyma cells undergo cell division once more to
give rise to the cork cambium or the phellogen. When the cork
cambium’s outer cells differentiate, they become cork cells,
which are dead at maturity. These
cork cells eventually pile up form the phellem or
cork.
Phelloderm
➢ An inner cell (or a small number of them) of the
cork cambium may also differentiate into a layer
of living parenchyma cells.
 in the case of blood and lymphatic vessels.
Periderm
➢ Composed of phellem, phellogen and phelloderm. 2. Simple cuboidal epithelium
➢ A thick protective layer of secondary tissue in
stems and roots. Location: ducts of pancreas, liver, salivary glands, and other
➢ It replaces the epidermis. secretory glands; linings of kidney tubules.
➢ Protects plant stems and roots against Function: because of its organelle-rich cytoplasm, it is suitable
desiccation, freezing, herbivory, heat, and other possible for the absorption and secretion of molecules.
damages.
3. Simple columnar epithelium
Week 5-6
Animal Tissue Location: walls of intestines, stomach, bronchus, and
gallbladder; uterine tubes and uterus.
4 Types of Tissues:
Function: Its cells have an organelle-rich cytoplasm, and their
1. Epithelial Tissue 3. Muscle Tissue
lengths are far greater than their widths. Hence, this tissue is
2. Connective Tissue 4. Nervous Tissue
conducive to absorption and secretion. Usually, the cells have
apical structures such as cilia or microvilli.
1. Epithelial Tissue (or epithelia)
- Are composed of thin, tightly-packed cells
4. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
➢ arranged in one or more layers.
➢ Present in the skin and body cavities.
Description: It is called as such because it appears stratified due
➢ They also line internal tubes and cover internal
to the variation in the position of nuclei. However, it is only
organs.
composed of a single layer of cells attached to the basal
➢ Have two surfaces: the apical (exposed to the
membrane
external environment) and the basal surface (adjacent to the
Location: Linings of the trachea and upper respiratory tract;
underlying tissues).
male urethra
➢ Are said to be polar.
Function: It is for secreting and moving mucous.
Functions of Epithelia:
5. Stratified squamous epithelium
1. Protection 4. Secretion
2. Barrier 5. Absorption
Location: linings of the esophagus, larynx, pharynx, vagina, and
3. Passage
anus; outer layer of the cornea.
Function: It is used for preventing water loss and abrasion, as its
How are epithelial classified?
cells are able to regenerate rapidly. The multiple layers also
- Epithelia are classified according to the number of cell layers
allow for the protection of tissues.
and the shape of the cells.
Classification of Epithelia 6. Stratified cuboidal epithelium

No. of Cell Layers
Simple epithelium
(one layer)
Stratified epithelium
(more than one layer)
Cell Shape Location: Ovarian follicles; Linings of ducts of sweat glands,
mammary glands, and other organs.
Squamous Function: It protects the tissues underneath the epithelium.
(flat, scale-like)
7. Stratified columnar epithelium
Cuboidal
(cube-like) Location: larger ducts of secretory glands; Conjunctiva and
retina of the eye; Taste buds in the tongue; Organs in the ears;
Columnar Male urethra.
(tall and thin) Function: It is suitable for secretion and protection. Some of its
cells have specialized structures for sensing stimuli

Types of Epithelia: 8. Transitional epithelium

1. Simple squamous epithelium
2. Simple cuboidal epithelium
3. Simple columnar epithelium
4. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
5. Stratified squamous epithelium
6. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
7. Stratified columnar epithelium
8. Transitional epithelium
1. Simple squamous epithelium
Location: linings of the heart and blood vessels; walls
of alveoli in the lungs; lining of the lymphatic vessels.
Function:
➢ allow diffusion and transport of molecules or
substances.
➢ Used for gas exchange and friction reduction.
➢ Provides a smooth surface for the flow of fluids, like
Location: Linings in the kidney, bladder, and ureter; Only
present in the urinary system.
Function: It allows the organs to stretch or to be flexible. It is
called as such because it was once thought to be a “transition”
region from a stratified squamous epithelium to a stratified
columnar one.
2. Connective Tissue
➢ Composed of cells that are dispersed in
extracellular matrix.
➢ It has three main components: the cells, the
ground substance, and the fibers.
➢ The ground substance and the fibers make up
what is known as the extracellular matrix (ECM).

Ground substance
➢ It usually has a gel-like appearance, although this
appearance may vary based on the connective tissue type.
➢ Long chains of carbohydrates called
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) make up the ground substance.
Classification of Connective Tissue
1. Connective tissue proper
a. loose/areolar connective tissue
b. dense connective tissue
2. Specialized connective tissues
Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Enclosing and separating other tissues.
2. Connecting tissues to one another.
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body.
4. Storing compounds.
5. Cushioning and insulating.
6. Transporting.
7. Protecting.
1. Connective tissue proper
a.Loose/Areolar connective tissue
➢ Main cells are called fibroblasts.
➢ Considered to be the most common cells found in the
connective tissue
➢ Fibrocytes are mature and dormant fibroblasts.
➢ Present with the fibroblasts are large cells known as
macrophages.
➢ 3 types of proteinaceous fibers: collagen, reticular and
elastic fibers.
Location: lining of all organs; dermis of the skin; mucous
membranes in reproductive and urinary tract.
Collagen
➢ Is a strong inelastic fiber made up of the protein.
➢ Reticular fibers are actually a type of collagen
fiber. However, it is, in a way, considered a separate type
because the collagen proteins are made up of finer and form a
netlike structure, hence its name. A reticular fiber is also more
flexible than a collagen fiber and is used to support soft tissues.
Lastly, an elastic fiber is primarily made up of the protein
elastin, giving the fiber its eponymous property.
b. Dense connective tissue
➢ dense collagenous connective tissue (found in tendons,
ligaments, and aponeuroses)
➢ dense elastic connective tissue (found
in ligaments (which link bone to bone at
joints) and tendons (connections between
bones or cartilage and muscle).
➢ Fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
➢ More collagen fibers that are tightly packed
and dense.
Dense irregular connective tissue – not arranged.
Dense regular connective tissue - collagen fibers are arranged
somewhat arbitrarily throughout the ECM.
Location: tendons, ligaments, dermis of the
skin and glands.
Specialized Connective tissues:
Reticular connective tissue
➢ Special fibroblasts known as reticular
cells synthesize the fiber in the ECM of this tissue.
➢ Their fibers are arranged tightly and are
interlaced.
➢ Lymph node and organs, bone marrow
and spleen.
Cartilage
➢ Act as a good shock absorber and also
covers the points of contact between bone, reducing friction
upon articulation. The primary cells are called chondroblasts.
Chondrin – it is a fibrous connective tissue that is rich in a
ground substance.
Lacunae (sing. Lacuna) – after the chondroblasts secrete the
ECM, they become embedded in it and occupy this cavities.
Chondrocytes – once the chondroblasts
become dormant.
a.Cartilage
● hyaline cartilage (flexible, elastic, and dense)
● Fibrocartilage (inflexible, strong, and remarkably rigid)
● elastic cartilage (most flexible, has many elastic fibers)
● hyaline cartilage (Trachea, nose and ribs)
● Fibrocartilage (vertebral discs, some joints,
heart valves)
● elastic cartilage (Ears, epiglottis, and larynx
Location: Trachea, nose, and ribs (hyaline cartilage); Vertebral
discs, some joints, heart valves (fibrocartilage); Ears, epiglottis,
and larynx (elastic cartilage) Additionally, hyaline cartilage can
harden and turn into bone in a process called endochondral
ossification. In fact, this process is how most of your bones as an
adult are formed. Infants, therefore, have much more hyaline
cartilage than adults.
b. Bone
➢ The cells are embedded in a mineralized extracellular
matrix composed mainly of collagen fibers. This matrix is
arranged in circles called lamellae and is rich in calcium
phosphate. Bear in mind, though, that the term “bone” may also
refer to an organ. Each individual bone in your body (e.g., femur)
is considered a distinct organ
Three main types of cells present in bones:
1. Osteoblasts – produce bone matrix
2. Osteocytes – dormant osteoblasts
3. Osteoclasts – break down tissues and are essential for repair
and maintenance
C. Blood
➢ is the most porous out of all the connective tissues.
➢ doesn’t have fibers in its ECM
➢ composed mostly of the ground substance plasma.
Three main cell types of blood:
1. Red blood cells/erythrocytes – carry oxygen to the different
parts of your body.
2. White blood cells/leukocytes – act as your body’s main line of
defense against pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
3. Platelets/thrombocytes – form clots at the site of your wound
to prevent you from losing too much blood.
Lymph – it is an integral component of the immune system.
➢ Derived from blood plasma
➢ contains immune cells, the most common of which are
lymphocytes.
Location: all throughout the body with blood vessels; Lymphatic
system.
Centrifuge - is a device that uses centrifugal force to separate
various components of a fluid.
Adipose tissues – the main cells are called adipocytes.
There are two types of adipose tissue: 2 types of cells present in the nervous tissue:
1. Unilocular/white adipose tissue 1. Neuron
– composed of one large droplet of lipid (fat), giving 2. Glial cells
them their characteristic white coloration. However, depending
on your diet, your unilocular adipose tissue may also have a Neurons
yellowish coloration. ➢ Serving as the main cells of the nervous
2. Multilocular/brown adipose tissue tissue.
– multiple droplets. The reason why the cells are of a ➢ Responsible for creating and transmitting electrical
brownish hue is the several mitochondria found in each. signals throughout the nervous system.

3. Muscle Tissue Parts of Neurons:

1. Cell body – contains nucleus and other organelles.
What are the functions of muscle tissue? 2. Dendrites – extending outward from the cell membrane.
- The main characteristic of muscle tissue is its ability to 3. Axon – transmits signals “away” from the body and toward
contract, or shorten, making movement possible. other neurons. Some axons have portions that are covered by
myelin (structure aids in speeding up the transmission of
There are three types of muscle tissue, and each of them is electrical impulses).
distinguished from the other by several ways: 4. Node of Ranvier – in myelinated axons, nerve impulses jump
from one unmyelinated region.
1.Number of nuclei. Some muscle cells only have one nucleus 5. Oligodendrocytes – the myelin sheath is produced by these
per cell. However, due to the merging of many individual cells cells in CNS (Central Nervous System).
into one single giant, there also exist multinucleated muscle 6. Schwann cells – in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
cells.
CELL MODIFICATIONS
2. Striations. When viewed under a microscope, certain types of - Cells have some forms of adaptations that are manifested.
muscle cells appear to possess alternating “bands” of light and
dark. Together these bands are known as striations. Striations Apical Cell Modifications
result from the special arrangement of structures in each ➢ Some cell modifications that are only present on the
muscle cell. apical surface of epithelial cells.
➢ These modifications include the microvilli, cilia,
3. Type of contraction. Muscles that require you to move them stereocilia, and flagella.
consciously are known as voluntary muscles. On the other
hand, muscles that contract without your conscious 1. Cilia (sing. cilium)
participation are involuntary muscles. ➢ Project from the surface of cells.
➢ They vary in number from none to thousands per cell
Classification of Muscle Tissue and are capable of moving.
➢ Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell.
➢ Cilia are composed of microtubules, organized in a
Characteristi Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
pattern similar to that of centrioles, which are enclosed by the
cs
cell membrane.
➢ Two types of cilia: primary cilia and motile cilia.
Description Striated in Not striated Striated in ➢ Nonmotile cilia or primary cilia are most commonly
appearance, in appearance, found on mammalian cells.
voluntary appearance, involuntary ➢ Motile cilia are important in the movement of
involuntary substances.
➢ Example: respiratory tracts and fallopian tubes.
Location Attached to Digestive Heart ➢ Cilia are numerous on surface cells that line the
bones and respiratory tract.
via tendons Respiratory ➢ Their coordinated movement transports mucus, in
Tract, which dust particles are embedded, upward and away from the
Internal lungs.
Organs ➢ This action helps keep the lungs clear of debris.
➢ When the cross-section of a motile cilium is viewed
Function Maintains Controls Pumps blood under a microscope, microtubules in motile an axoneme can be
body movement found in the center. This structure is made up of microtubules
posture; of internal arranged in what is known as a “9+2” arrangement. Under this
controls organs arrangement, two individual microtubules (singlets) in the
movements center are surrounded by nine evenly-spaced pairs of
with bones microtubules (doublets). On the other hand, primary cilia have a
“9+0” arrangement instead as they lack the two central tubules.
4. Nervous Tissue
2. Stereocilia (sing. stereocilium)
Nerve Tissue ➢ Are similar to microvilli and cilia but are longer and
➢ It is the foremost tissue present in the nonmotile.
nervous system and controls all bodily ➢ Found in epididymis’ epithelial cells, where they help
functions and processes. absorb and secrete molecules by increasing the cell's surface
area.
➢ They are also present in the inner ear.
 ➢ Have sensory function.
3. Flagella (sing. flagellum) ➢ Appear as arm-like projections that function for
➢ They have a structure similar to that of cilia ingestion and movement.
but are much longer, and they usually occur only one ➢ Common in protozoan cells, like in amoebas.
per cell.
➢ Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the Week 8
sperm cell. Cell Cycle
➢ Move in a wavelike (undulating) motion while that of
I. The Cell Cycle
the cilia are sweeping one.
Cells reproduce through a continuous sequence of
➢ Example is sperm cells. Bacteria possess one or
growth and division known as the cell cycle. The cell cycle
two flagella.
consists of two main stages, the growth stage and the division
stage. In the growth stage, called interphase, the cell makes new
4. Microvilli (sing. microvillus)
molecules, which increases the cell’s volume and mass. DNA
➢ These are specialized extensions of the cell
(deoxyribonucleic acid), the molecule that forms the genetic
membranes that are supported by microfilaments, but they do
blueprint of the cell, is copied during interphase in a process
not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
known as DNA replication.
➢ Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and
During the first part of interphase, called gap 1 (G1),
they increase the surface area of those cells.
cells are carrying out metabolic activities to prepare for
➢ They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the
the synthesis phase (S phase). DNA is replicated during the S
intestine, kidney, and other areas in which absorption is an
phase of the cell cycle. Scientists are very interested in what
important function.
stimulates a cell to progress from G1 to S phase. Once a cell has
completed the G1 phase, it can either progress to the S phase or
Lateral and Basal Cell Modifications
enter a rest phase. Cells that enter a rest phase can still
- Include the cellular junctions.
function, but they do not progress through the entire cell cycle
Cellular junctions – are multi-protein
and therefore no new cells are produced.
complexes that serve as connection
Cells that progress through the S phase then enter the
between cells or as connection between
last segment of interphase, called gap 2 (G2). During the G2
cells and their extracellular matrix.
phase, cells are preparing to undergo division. The division
stage involves two processes: mitosis (division of the cell’s
Tight junctions or occluding junctions
nucleus) and cell division. These two processes are the shortest
➢ Found in lateral sides of cells.
events in the cycle of a cell. Cell division involves division of the
➢ Act as regulators of the movement of molecules
cytoplasm of the cell to form two new cells.
between adjacent cells.
➢ Prevent leakage of water, solute molecules, or ions.
II. Errors in the Cell Cycle
➢ The epithelium lining, the intestinal walls and the
A serious error can occur if the mitotic process is
kidney contains these tight junctions.
disrupted by mutations. Mutations can be caused by various
mutagens, such as toxic compounds, radiation, or viruses.
Gap Junctions
Mutations cause a permanent error, or change, in the normal
➢ Are tunnel-like intercellular junctions that connect the
DNA molecule. For example, certain chemical compounds
cytoplasm of two adjacent cells.
found in cigarette smoke can alter the structure of
➢ Allow the cells to exchange signaling molecules easily.
chromosomes in an individual parent cell. These mutations are
➢ Allow cells to communicate and thus are commonly
copied during prophase, when DNA replication takes place.
found in neurons.
When sister chromatids segregate during anaphase, the
mutation is passed to the daughter cells. This mutation will only
Adherens junctions
be found in daughter cells produced from the parent cell that
➢ Connect to cytoskeletons of two adjacent cells.
contained the mutation. Therefore, the mutation is found in a
➢ Maintaining cell-to-cell adhesion and structural
localized group of cells rather than in every cell in the body. For
integrity.
example, toxic compounds found in cigarette smoke can cause a
➢ During embryonic development, these junctions are
change in a gene known as FHIT on chromosome number three
assembled and reassembled for precursor cells to be able to
in humans. In the lungs, cells containing the mutated form of
migrate and transform into more advanced cell types.
the FHIT gene undergo mitosis much more frequently than
normal lung cells. This results in a mass of cells called a tumor.
Desmosomes
Certain genes work like switches to regulate the rate of
➢ Connect to each cell’s intermediate filaments while
mitosis. If these genes are altered by a mutation, the rate of
adherens junctions connect to the actin microfilaments.
mitosis will also be affected. For example, once a cell has
➢ They are very tough cell junctions and present in
completed its cell cycle, certain genes are “switched on,” or
cardiac muscle tissues.
activated. These genes produce proteins that stop the process of
mitosis. When these genes are “switched off,” or inactivated,
Hemidesmosomes
mitosis can continue and the cell can divide to produce new
➢ Adhere cells to the extracellular matrix, specifically to
cells. A mutation could permanently inactivate these genes. As a
the basal lamina.
result, the cell could begin to divide uncontrollably. The rate of
➢ Present in the upper respiratory tract as well as the
mitosis can also be regulated through genes that start cell
intestines.
division. A mutation could cause these genes to be “switched on”
permanently, which would cause uncontrolled cell division.
Pseudopods/pseudopodia (sing. Pseudopodium)
Genes that can be activated by a mutation are called oncogenes.
➢ Are finger-like extensions of the cell membrane and
For example, retinoblastoma is a retinal cancer that is either
cytoplasm.
inherited or results from a mutation to both copies of the
➢ They are neither apical nor basal modifications.
retinoblastoma gene. This mutation results in the formation of a
tumor on the retina of the eye. Wilms tumor is a cancer that can divide in mitosis. Other structures in the cell are also changing
develop as a result of a mutation to the Wilms tumor during prophase. The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus
gene in a kidney cell. Breast cancer is another example of a disappear. Centrioles made up of microtubules migrate to
mutation to both breast cancer 1 (BRCA1) genes. opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibers, also made of
microtubules, start to form between the two centrioles.
Week 8-9
Mitosis 2. Metaphase
The second phase of mitosis is called metaphase.
I. Mitosis
During metaphase, the spindle fibers attach to the centromere
Mitosis and cell division occur in all somatic (body)
of the replicated chromosomes. The chromatids are guided by
cells. New cells that are produced for growth or repair are
the spindle fibers to the middle of the cell, also known as the
identical to the previously existing cells. For example, if skin
cell’s equator. A spindle fiber from one pole is attached to one
cells are damaged, they are replaced with new skin cells — not
chromatid and a spindle fiber from the opposite pole is attached
cells of a different kind. The instructions to form each new cell
to the other chromatid at the centromere. Each chromatid has
are stored in the nucleus of the cell.
its own spindle fiber attachment in order to ensure that each
Chromosomes within the nucleus hold the genetic
new daughter cell will contain one of each of the chromatids
information needed to maintain the cell and to make new
(and therefore the same genetic information).
copies of the cell. Figure shows a typical chromosome in a body
cell. Each chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids,
3. Anaphase
which are held together by a centromere. Sister chromatids are
The third phase of mitosis is called anaphase. During
genetic copies of each other; that is, the DNA in one sister
anaphase, the centromere splits apart and the chromatids are
chromatid is identical to the DNA in the other.
pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. The
The function of mitosis is to maintain the same
chromatids are pulled apart as a result of the shortening of the
number of chromosomes from cell to cell. During cell division,
microtubules that make up the spindle fibers.
the original or parent cell divides to produce two new daughter
cells. Mitosis ensures that each daughter cell contains the same
4. Telophase
number of chromosomes and the same genetic information as
The fourth and last phase of mitosis is called telophase.
the parent cell. A body cell contains two copies of every
Telophase begins when the chromatids have reached the two
chromosome.
opposite poles within the cell. At this time, each of the
During mitosis, a parent cell produces two identical
chromatids is called a single, non-replicated chromosome. The
daughter cells. For example, your skin cells, like all of your
chromosomes now begin to unwind and become less visible.
somatic cells, have 46 chromosomes (two copies of each
chromosome). Before mitosis, the parent skin cell has 46
5. Cytokinesis
chromosomes. After mitosis, the resulting two new daughter
Cell division occurs after mitosis. The separation of
skin cells also each have 46 chromosomes. This is important
the cytoplasm and the formation of two new daughter cells are
because each new skin cell must have a complete set of genetic
called cytokinesis. As part of this process, the spindle fibers are
instructions to maintain itself and to produce new skin cells.
no longer needed, so they break down and disappear. The
nucleolus reappears. A nuclear membrane form around each
Phases of Mitosis
new set of chromosomes, which are located at the opposite
Several events must occur during mitosis to maintain
poles of the cell. The cytoplasm (and all of its contents) divides
the same number of chromosomes from parent cell to daughter
between the two halves of the cell. The final structure to form is
cells. These events, or phases, can be observed most easily in the
the cell membrane. In plant cells, a cell wall forms and separates
rapidly growing areas of plant and animal tissues. For example,
the two newly formed nuclei. After cytokinesis is complete, two
the root tip is an area of the onion that grows rapidly and
new daughter cells have been formed.
therefore contains cells that undergo mitosis frequently. At any
given time, many onion root tip cells are in different phases of
II. Meiosis
mitosis. Although these phases are continuous, for convenience
What is the Function of Meiosis?
they are divided into four main phases ordered according to the
From earlier studies, you learned that reproduction
sequence in which they occur. The phases are called prophase,
involves the union of two cells to form a zygote. The zygote
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Each phase is
contains chromosomes from both parents, but it does not
characterized by a particular arrangement of the chromosomes
contain double the number of chromosomes found in a normal
within the cell and by the appearance or disappearance of other
body cell. How is this possible? The answer lies in a process
cell structures:
called meiosis. Meiosis is a special type of cell division that
occurs only in reproductive organs. Meiosis produces
1. Prophase
reproductive cells called gametes. The gametes, either eggs or
Mitosis begins with the first of the four stages called
sperm, are haploid (n), which means they contain only one copy
prophase. During prophase, chromatin, which is made up of
of each type of chromosome that the diploid (2n) parent cell
DNA and proteins, condenses and thickens to form visible
contains.
duplicated chromosomes. At this stage, each chromosome,
The first part of meiosis reduces the chromosome
having been replicated (copied) during the S phase of
number from diploid to haploid. This is often referred to as
interphase, is X-shaped. Each half of the X is one copy of the
reduction division. For example, human sperm cells contain n =
original chromosome. Since the two halves are connected, they
23 chromosomes compared to the 2n = 46 chromosomes found
are still considered part of a single chromosome. Recall that the
in all somatic cells. Each human sperm or egg cell contains 22
chromosome is made up of two chromatids that are held
autosomes and one sex chromosome (either an X or a Y
together by a centromere. Because there is a copy of each
chromosome). Autosomes are chromosomes that are not
chromosome (two chromatids), it is possible for each of the
directly involved in determining the sex of an individual.
daughter cells to receive a full set of the parent cell’s genes. If
Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and
this copying had not occurred, each of the daughter cells would
one Y chromosome.
get only half of the parent cell’s genes when the chromosomes
Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis involves a sequence of phases that is similar to mitosis:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
However, meiosis involves two sequences of these phases,
called meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I
Interphase
Recall that in mitosis, the chromosomes replicate
during interphase before cell division begins. This also occurs
before meiosis I begins. During replication, the chromosomes
are not condensed and are not easily visible. After replication,
each chromosome is made up of a pair of identical sister
chromatids. The sister chromatids are joined together by a
centromere.
1. Prophase I
In prophase I, similar chromosomes called
homologous chromosomes pair to form homologous pairs. The
homologous pair, which is made up of four chromatids, is called
a tetrad. Each diploid cell has two copies of each chromosome.
One copy of the chromosome pair was “donated” by the female
gamete (egg), and the other copy of the chromosome was
“donated” by the male gamete (sperm). During fertilization, the
union of gametes forms a diploid zygote. All the cells in your
body contain copies of chromosomes of this original diploid
zygote. Therefore, each cell has one copy of each of your
mother’s chromosomes (maternal origin) and one copy of each
of your father’s chromosomes (paternal origin).
Homologous chromosomes are similar to each other
but they are not identical. The chromosomes are
homologous because they are made up of the same genes.
However, although homologous chromosomes
contain the same genes, they may have different forms of these
genes, called alleles. Alleles can be recessive or dominant,
which can determine whether a trait is expressed or not.
During the pairing process, crossing over of chromatids
can occur, in which non-sister chromatids exchange genes, as
shown in. This allows for the recombination of genes in each
chromosome and contributes greatly to genetic variation. As a
result of crossing over, individual chromosomes contain some
genes from maternal origin and some genes from paternal
origin. Without crossing over, every chromosome would either
have only a maternal or paternal origin.
2. Metaphase I
Following prophase I, a spindle fiber attaches to the
centromere of each chromosome. A spindle fiber from one pole
attaches to one pair of sister chromatids, and a spindle fiber
from the opposite pole attaches to the other
pair of sister chromatids in the tetrad. The spindle fibers pull
each tetrad to the equator of the cell. However, the
chromosomes do not line up in a single file as they do in mitosis.
Instead, they line up in their homologous pairs. In each pair, one
homologous chromosome is positioned on one side of the
cell’s equator, and the other homologous chromosome is
positioned on the other side of the cell’s equator. It is important
to note that chromosomes that come from one parent are not
all positioned on the same side of the cell’s equator. Rather, they
are positioned randomly so that some sister chromatids of
maternal origin face one pole while other sister chromatids of
maternal origin faces the other pole of the cell. This random
positioning of tetrads along the cell’s equator is
called independent assortment.
3. Anaphase I
During anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes
separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. They are pulled
apart by the shortening of the spindle fibers. Notice that the
centromere does not split (as it does in mitosis), and that the
sister chromatids are held together. Thus, only one
chromosome from each pair will move to each pole of the cell.
4. Telophase I
Telophase I does not occur in all cells. Where telophase
I does not occur, cell division goes directly to meiosis II. If
telophase does occur, the homologous chromosomes begin to
uncoil and the spindle fibers disappear. The cytoplasm is
divided, the nuclear membrane forms around each group of
homologous chromosomes, and two cells are formed. Each of
these new cells contains one copy of each chromosome.
Because each chromosome already consists of two chromatids,
a second chromosome replication does not take place between
telophase I and prophase II of meiosis. In females, meiosis II
occurs after the egg is fertilized by a sperm cell. At the end of
telophase I, each cell contains some maternal chromosomes
and some paternal chromosomes, due to the independent
assortment of chromosomes during metaphase I. Each cell also
contains chromosomes that are made up of a combination of
maternal and paternal alleles as a result of crossing over during
prophase I.
Meiosis II
The phases of meiosis II are identical to mitosis. The
two cells from telophase I go through prophase II, metaphase II,
anaphase II, and telophase II. Each cell beginning meiosis II is
haploid but consists of replicated chromosomes (each
consisting of two chromatids). At the end of meiosis II, the
daughter cells are still haploid but each cell contains single
unreplicated chromosomes (no longer made up of two
chromatids attached together). The daughter cells at the end of
meiosis II are called gametes in animals and either gametes or
spores in plants.
Meiosis compared to mitosis. The blue chromosomes
were received from one parent and the red chromosomes
were received from the other parent. Crossing over is shown in
non-sister chromatids that are both red and blue.
Gamete Formation
The end result of meiosis is the production of gametes. This
process, called gametogenesis, results in the production of
sperm and eggs. The process of male gamete production in
animals is called spermatogenesis. The process of female
gamete production in animals is called oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
Meiosis in mature males takes place in the testes, the
male reproductive organs. The production of sperm, which
starts with a diploid germ cell called a spermatogonium. This
cell enlarges and undergoes meiosis I and meiosis II. The final
product is four haploid sperm cells. Notice that each sperm cell
has the same number of chromosomes and the same amount of
cytoplasm. Following meiosis II, the sperm cells develop into
mature sperm. Each cell loses cytoplasm and the nucleus forms
into a head. As well, a long, tail-like flagellum is formed for
locomotion. Spermatogenesis can occur throughout the year in
some organisms, including humans. In other organisms, sperm
production occurs only during a certain time of the year called a
breeding season. For example, many species of migratory birds
reproduce only during the spring and summer months.
Oogenesis
In females, meiosis takes place in the ovaries, the
female reproductive organs. The process starts with a diploid
germ cell called an oogonium. This cell enlarges and undergoes
meiosis I and meiosis II. At the end of meiosis I, the cytoplasm is
not equally divided between the two daughter cells. The cell that
receives most of the cytoplasm is called the primary oocyte. The
other cell is called a polar body and is not a viable sex cell. As the
primary oocyte undergoes meiosis II, the cytoplasm is again
unequally divided.
Only one cell becomes an egg, or ovum, and contains
most of the cytoplasm. The other cell, a polar body, is not a
viable sex cell. The purpose of the unequal division of the
cytoplasm is to provide the ovum with sufficient nutrients to
support the developing zygote in the first few days following
fertilization. Meiosis I and meiosis II are not continuous in
many organisms. In humans, for example, meiosis I begins in
the ovarian tissue of the embryo before birth and does not
continue beyond prophase I.
The continuation of meiosis I occurs after the female
reaches puberty. Normally, only one oogonium undergoes this
process each month. Meiosis II takes place after fertilization by
a sperm cell. The production of ova (two or more egg cells) in
females continues from the start of puberty until menopause,
which usually occurs between 40 and 50 years of age.

Meiosis and Genetic Variation

Variation would not have been possible without two
important processes of meiosis. First, the combination of genes
responsible for a trait varies because of crossing over between
chromosomes during prophase I. (The number of crossovers
between non-sister chromatids depends on the size of the
chromosomes. Usually two or three crossovers occur per
chromosome.) Second, variation depends on how each pair of
homologous chromosomes lined up
during metaphase I.
When the chromosomes separate during
anaphase I, some chromosomes of paternal origin move to one
pole of the cell while other chromosomes of paternal origin
move to the other pole. The same applies for chromosomes of
maternal origin. The direction that each chromosome travels is
entirely by chance, or random. Both crossing over and random
segregation work to shuffle the chromosomes and the genes
they carry. This re-assortment is called genetic recombination,
and it contributes greatly to variation among organisms.
Variation among individuals of a species is important
because certain combinations of genes can help an organism
survive better than other combinations of genes can.

Errors in Meiosis
Changes in the structure of a chromosome in gametes
can have severe consequences. These changes, or mutations,
can be passed from one generation to the next when that
gamete combines with another gamete to form a zygote.
Because chromosomes are copied during interphase before
each mitosis, all the cells that develop from this zygote will also
carry the mutation.
The failure of chromosomes to separate properly,
called nondisjunction, can occur during meiosis. This error
results in the addition or deletion of one or more chromosomes
from a gamete.
If a gamete with an extra chromosome is fertilized by a
normal gamete, all the cells that develop from the zygote will
also have an extra chromosome. This is called trisomy. An
example of trisomy in humans is Down Syndrome, in which
there is an extra chromosome number 21.
If the chromosomes do not segregate during meiosis,
this means that the resulting gamete will be diploid rather
than haploid. If a diploid gamete unites with a normal haploid
gamete, the zygote will contain three sets of chromosomes (3n).
This condition is called triploidy. Organisms that have more
than two sets of chromosomes are called polyploids.