GENETICS LAB REVIEWER
MICROSCOPE
Eyepiece/Ocular lens- lens where the
viewer sees through the specimen.
Diopter Adjustment- corrects distance
between vision depending on viewer’s
comfortability
Revolving Nosepiece/Rotating turret-
shift from one lens to another. Contains 4
objective lenses.
➢ Objective lens: scanner, LPO,
HPO, Oil Immersion (Cedar wood
oil)
➢ PM: 4x, 10x, 40x, 100x
➢ TM: 40x, 100x, 400x, 1000x
➢ General view: red & yellow
➢ Specific view: blue & white/black
Stage- platform where you place the
slide/specimen.
Stage clip- metal clip that holds the slide in
place.
Stage control- to maneuver the direction of
the stage such as forward, backward, and
sideways.
Aperture- the hole in the middle of the
stage where light passes through.
Iris diaphragm- regulates/controls the
amount of light from the condenser.
Condenser- gather and focuses the light
coming from the illuminator.
Illuminator- light source made up of voltage
bulb.
Course adjustment (knob)- used for
general view of the specimen.
Fine adjustment (knob)- used for
specific/more detailed view of the specimen.
Brightness adjustment (knob)- controls
the intensity of light from the illuminator.
Power switch- turn on/off the microscope
Main Parts: Base, Head, and Arm
CELL ANATOMY
Cell
- basic unit of life.
- Microscopic unit made up of fatty
materials filled with a water-based
mixture of molecules and tiny
particles.
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
- Composed of a bilayer of
phospholipid molecules embedded
with other molecules
- Involved in transport, communication
between the inside and outside of
the cell.
Cytoplasm
- The material enclosed by the cell
membrane.
- It includes organelles and the liquid
inside the cell.
Nucleus
- A double-walled, large bubble
containing the cell’s genetic code
- The code is in the form of DNA
located in the strands called
chromatin
Nucleolus
- Tiny nucleus
- A small area within the nucleus for
the synthesis of RNA (produces
proteins)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- A network of membranous tubes and
canals winding through the interior of
the cell.
- A rough ER is specked with tiny
granules (ribosomes)
- Transports proteins synthesized by
ribosomes and other molecules
synthesized within its membrane
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Without ribosomes
Ribosomes
- tiny body that serves as sites for
protein synthesis
- Some ribosomes are found on the
outer surface of ER, while other are
found scattered elsewhere within the
cell.
Golgi Apparatus
- It appears as a stack of flattened
sacs
- The apparatuses receives material
from the ER, processes it, then
packages it in tiny vesicles for
possible export from the cell
Mitochondria
- Singular- Mitochondrion
- Tiny bodies similar to bacteria that
serves as sites for ATP synthesis
(energy conversion)
- Have an outer membrane, forming a
round/oblong capsule
- It also has a folded inner membrane
called “cristae”
Haemophilia- excessive bleeding
Lysosomes
- Vesicles containing digestive
enzymes that digest foreign particles
and worn out cell parts.
Microtubules
- Very tiny hollow beams that form
part of the supporting cell skeleton
(cytoskeleton).
- They also form parts of other cell
organelles such as: flagella, cilia,
centrioles, spindle fibers
- Other components of the
cytoskeleton include microfilaments
and intermediate filaments.
- The cytoskeleton gives shape to the
cell, provides the mechanisms for
movement and provide attachment
points for organelles.
Centrosome
- Microtubule organizing center
- A dense area of cell fluid near the
nucleus
- The centrosome contains a pair of
centrioles, cylinders formed from the
centrosome during cell division.
- Spindle fibers distribute DNA equally
to the resulting daughter cells.
Assorted Organelles
Microvilli- tiny, finger-like projections of the
cell that increase the membrane’s surface
area for more efficient absorption.
Cilia- numerous short, hair-like organelles
that propel material along a cell’s surface
Flagella- are single long hair-like organelles
found in sperm cells that propel them
through the reproductive tract towards the
egg.
Vesicles- are membranous bubbles
(contains proteins) that may be formed by
the Golgi bodies or by pinching inward of
cell membrane to engulf external
substances.
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MITOSIS
- a.k.a: Dividing stage
-The product of mitosis is to produce
identical cells
Cell cycle - Series of events or sequence of
activities as the cell prepares itself for cell
division.
- Interphase and Mitosis: 2 major
stages of cell cycle.
Interphase (25 hours)
- Preparation stage
- Also known as “Non-dividing phase”
- Active Stage
G0 - (Indefinite) a.k.a : Apoptosis-
Programmed cell death (optional)
G1 - (8 hours) - Developing organelles in
normal metabolic processes
S - (6-8 hours) - synthesis (where DNA
replication occurs)
G2 - (8 hours) - Final preparation
Prophase: +- 1 hour
- Where nucleus will disappear
- Centrosomes are now preparing in
releasing spindle fibers, it goes to
the other opposite sides
- It has thread-like projections
(Chromatin)
Metaphase: < 1 hour
- Nuclear envelope should be
completely gone
- Chromosomes will be on the
center/metaphase plate
- Chromosomes align and spindle
fibers will attach at the centromere
Anaphase: < 30 minutes
- Spindle fibers will pull apart at the
centrosome and it will be called
chromatid
- Chromatid will goto opposite sides
- Chromatid will become
chromosomes
- Cleavage furrow may start to appear
Telophase/cytokinesis: minutes
- Nucleulus will reappear
- Spindle fibers start to retract
- Nuclear envelope gradually appears
Chromatin- Thread like components that
condenses and when it widens, it will be
“chromosomes”
Chromosomes- When chromatin
condenses and widens
Chromatids or Sister Chromatids
- Parents in Anaphase
- When chromosomes are pulled
apart equally
Centromere - Where spindle fibers are
attached
Kinetochore - Protein found inside the
centromere
Telomere - The upper and lower tips of
chromosomes
Equator - Also known as “Metaphase plate”
Spindle Fibers - Network of microtubules
that aid by pulling the chromosomes in
equal half.
P arm - Short arm of the chromosomes
(Upper Part)
Q arm - Long arm of the chromosomes
(Lower Part)
Cleavage Furrow - Pinching of the cell that
signifies that the cell is about to
separate/divide.
Metastasis - Cancer from organ to another
Cytokinesis
- Actual division
- Has 2 identical daughter cells as a
product
Lifespan of a cell : 120 days
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MEIOSIS
2 Divisions: Meiosis 1 & Meiosis 2
Meiosis 1 (Reduction division)- it reduces
the number of replicated chromosomes from
46 to 23.
Meiosis 2 (Equational division)- it
produces four daughter cells from the
previous 2 daughter cells in Meiosis 1 by
splitting the replicated chromosome.
Meiosis- for regeneration and occurs for
reproduction (when an egg cell and sperm
cell unites)
Mitosis- occurs throughout lifetime and its
main purpose is to avoid genetic overloaded
cell
Polyploid- a conditions where a cell is
genetically overloaded
Down syndrome- excess chromosome 21
Jacob Syndrome- lacks 1 chromosome.
Occurs in females but female reproductive
system does not develop including the
female characteristics.
Klinefelter syndrome- occurs in males. An
example of extra chromosome. Having
female characteristics.
Interphase
- Gap 0 or apoptosis is optional and
indefinite
- Gap 1 development of normal
metabolic processes and organelles
- Synthesis- DNA replication
- Gap 2- final preparation
Prophase I
- Nucleolus disappears
- Nuclear membrane will gradually
disintegrate
- Chromatin condenses into
chromosome
- Centrosome goes to opposite
direction and start to release spindle
fibers
- Chromosomes line up and finds a
partner and become a homologous
pair
- Recombination synapsis or crossing
over occurs (exchange of genetic
information)
Metaphase I
- Nuclear membrane should be
completely gone
- Homologs go to the center
(equatorial plate)
- Centrosome will release spindle
fibers and attach to the centromere
Anaphase I
- Homologs split apart and go into
different directions
- Presence of cleavage furrow
Telophase I
- Nucleolus reappears
- Reappearance of nuclear membrane
- Chromosomes decondense into
chromatids
- Spindle fibers retract
Cytokinesis
- actual division
- Non-identical daughter cells
Interphase
- Cell is still immature which is why
organelles must be completed first
- Genetic information must be
replicated
- Maturation and completion of
organelles
Prophase II
- Nucleus will disappear
- Nuclear membrane will disintegrate
- Chromatin condenses into
chromosome
- Centrosome will go to opposite
directions and starts to release
spindle fibers
- Recombination synapsis does not
occur
Metaphase II
- Nuclear membrane must be
completely gone so that
chromosomes may position at the
equatorial/metaphase plate
Anaphase II
- Cleavage furrow is visible
- Chromosomes pull apart into
chromatids
Telophase II
- Spindle fibers retract
- Nucleus will reappear
- Nuclear envelope will also reappear
- Chromatid decondense into
chromatin
Cytokinesis
- 4 non-identical daughter cells
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
OVARY - It is known to be the female
gonad.
-After puberty every month the ovary will
release the most mature oocyte egg cell.
UTERINE TUBES / FALLOPIAN TUBES
- The passageway for egg cell.
- A tube with finger-like projections that
carries the oocyte to the uterus.
UTERUS – The womb
- It is a muscular sac like organ
FUNDUS – Part of the uterus located above
the uterine/ fallopian tubes.
FIMBRAE – These are thin long processes
that surrounds the entrance of the uterine
tubes
CERVIX – It is the narrower part located
below the body of the uterus
VAGINA – Female organ serves as an
opening for sexual intercourse
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
EJACULATION
The discharge from the penis that delivers
about 200-600 Million sperm cells.
PLACENTA- An organ that develops in your
uterus during pregnancy.
- It provides oxygen and nutrients to the
growing baby and it removes waste
products from the baby’s blood.
3 GLANDS THAT ADD SECRETION
PROSTATE GLAND – Produces thin, milky,
alkaline fluid that activates the sperm to
swim.
SEMINAL VESICLES – Secretes fructose
(energy rich sugar) and hormone-like
prostaglandins, which may stimulate
contractions in the female.
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS – Secrete an
alkaline mucus that coats the urethra before
sperm are released

TESTES
- Male gonad
- Contains about 125 meter long network of
seminiferous tubules.
- One that manufacturers or produces the
sperm cell.
SCROTUM – Sac that protects the testes
EPIDIDYMIS – Tightly coiled tube where
sperm cells mature and stored.
URETHRA – Where urine and sperm cells
passes through
DUCTUS/ VAS DEFERENS – It emerges
from the epididymis and ascends along the
posterior side of the testes to become
associated with the blood vessels and
nerves that supply the testes
GENETICS LEC REVIEWER

History of Genetics

Genetics - It is a branch of biology

concerned with the study of heredity and
variation.

Timeline:
Between 8000 and 1000 B.C
Horses, camels, oxen and wolves were
domesticated, and selective breeding of
these species soon followed.
5000 B.C.
Cultivation of many plants including maize ,
wheat, rice, and the date palm
500-400 B.C.
Hippocratic School of Medicine treatise on
“the seed”