1.

Growth in Plants vs Growth in Animals

Growth is the permanent increase in an organism’s size caused by an increase
in the number of cells by mitosis (splitting of body cells) and the size of cells by
osmosis (the movement of water molecules from a solution with a high
concentration of water molecules to a solution with a lower concentration of
water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane).
Development is the process by which organisms become more complex as
they grow due to cell specialization (the process wherein “general” or
“common” cells evolve to form specific cells that have specific functions).
Stages of Growth and Development
- Stage 1 – Mitosis
- Stage 2 – Osmosis
- Stage 3 – Cell Specialization
Measuring Growth
- Measuring the increase in length or height, body volume, mass of the
organism, area of organism (ex. Area of a leaf’s surface).
2. Germination
Germination is the growth of the seed into a seedling. The seed contains the
embryo which is made up of the radicle which grows into the root and the
plumule which grows into the shoot. The parent plant releases it with store of
food in the cotyledon or endosperm.
Conditions
- Water – This moves into the micropyle to all the cells which activates the
enzymes to break down starch to glucose for respiration.

- Oxygen – This is needed for respiration.

- Warmth – A suitable temperature close to the optimum temperature for

enzyme activity.
**Some plants respond more to light and a certain ph.

Types of Germination
Epigleal
In this, the cotyledon rises above the ground and opens to photosynthesize for
a while before leaves grow out and photosynthesize and the radicle goes down
to become the root.

Hypogeal
In this, the cotyledon remains below the ground and the plumle rises out from
the ground and leaves grow and begin photosynthesizing while the radicle
goes down to become the root.
3. Nutrition
Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and utilizing the food for
their growth and development. It provides them with the substances they
need to grow and repair cells, and the energy needed for survival.

Types of Nutrition
Autotrophs
These are organisms that make their own food. Organisms use simple
inorganic substances from the air and soil (such as carbon dioxide and water)
to build the organic compound (glucose) that they need. All green plants and
some bacteria are autotrophs. They use energy from sunlight to complete this
process (photosynthesis).

Heterotrophic
These are organisms that cannot make their own food. These organisms take
in complex organic substances which are generally made by plants.
Heterotrophs break down, or digest the complex organic substances to
produce the food substances they need. All animals are heterotrophs which
feed on plants and/or other animals. Fungi, some bacteria and some
protoctists are also heterotrophic.
4. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants absorb sunlight and
combine carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and release oxygen as a
byproduct.
Stages of Photosynthesis
Light Dependent Stage
This stage splits the water molecule into oxygen and hydrogen. Oxygen
diffuses from the leaf as the byproduct and hydrogen enters the dark stage.

Light Independent/Dark Stage

The hydrogen molecule from the light stage will reduce carbon dioxide to
glucose through a chemical process called reduction (adding hydrogen to a
substance).

Equation for photosynthesis

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis are light intensity (how much sunlight
or artificial light the plant is exposed to and for how long), carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature (If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis
will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesize if it gets too hot.)
5. Plant Cells vs Animal Cells
The cell is the structural and functional unit of organisms. They are
microscopic structures that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Organelles
- Cell Wall – Only found in plat cells, it is made out of cellulose and it gives
shape and adds protection. It also helps the plant stay upright and is fully
permeable.

- Cell Membrane – This is made up a lipid bi-layer that forms a boundary

between the cells and its surroundings. It is selectively permeable and
controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

- Nucleus – This is the brain of the cell and it controls all activities of the cell.
It contains chromosomes which hold genetic material.

- Cytoplasm – This is a jelly-like substance that holds all the cell organelles. It
is made up of 90% water and is the place where all cell reactions take place.

- Vacuole –This area stores water and dissolved substances and is important
for the exchange of substances.

- Mitochondria –This is the powerhouse of the cell and the place where
energy is produced. The energy is in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate).

- Chloroplast –These are only present in plant cells and they contain the
green pigment chlorophyll which captures sunlight for photosynthesis. The
chloroplast is responsible for making food.

- Ribosomes- These are structures usually connected to the endoplasmic

reticulum that is responsible for making protein.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum –This is a system that forms a series of flattened
sacs within the cytoplasm of plant cells and serves multiple functions, being
important particularly in the synthesis, folding, modification, and transport
of proteins.

- Golgi Apparatus –These are stacks of membrane responsible for processing

and transporting proteins they picked up from the Endoplasmic Reticulum.

- Glycogen Granules –These are food stores in the animal cell

- Starch Grain –These are food stores in the plant cell.

Differences between plant and animal cell
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1. Has a cell wall Does not have a cell wall
2. Has a chloroplast Does not have a chloroplast
3. Stores food as starch Stores food as glycogen
4. Nucleus pushed to the side Has a central nucleus
5. Fixed Shape Variable
6. No centriole Has centrioles
7. One large vacuole Many smaller vacuoles
Osmosis
The movement of water molecules from a solution with a high concentration of
water molecules to a solution with a lower concentration of water molecules
through a semi-permeable membrane.

Hypotonic –The solution that the cell is placed in is dilute meaning it has a lot of
water molecules. Therefore the cell gains water and expands. This cell is
described as turgid.

Hypertonic –The solution that the cell is placed in is concentrated with solutes
and a low number of water molecules. Therefore the cell loses water and shrivels.
This cell is described as flaccid.

Isotonic –This means that the solutes on the inside and outside of the cell are
equal.
6. Effects of Climate Change
Climate change is a change in the long term state of the atmosphere over
multiple decades or longer.
Causes
- Greenhouse gases which causes the greenhouse effect (Carbon Dioxide,
Methane, Nitrous Oxide, soot and fluorinated gases.) The greenhouse
effect is caused by the release of these gases due to human activities and
they trap the suns heat making the Earth warmer and due to the increase
of the Earth’s temperature over a long period of time this results in Global
Warming.

Effects
- The Earth becomes warmer disrupting the functioning of many organisms
that thrive in their optimal temperature.

- Changes in the water cycle

- The polar ice caps may melt resulting in the rise of ocean levels and
flooding low-lying areas.

Conservation
Conservation means saving for the future. Some of the methods implemented
are to:
- Pass laws to protect the environment
- Controlling pollution from farming and industry
- Restricting human access to certain areas regarded as nature reserves
- Restoring damage caused by human activity.
7. Blood Components, Sickle Cell Anemia, Genetic Diagram
Blood is a liquid connective tissues that contains important things such as cells,
nutrients and hormones. It helps to maintain homeostasis and transports
gases, wastes and nutrients and helps to seal injuries and fight infections.

Blood Cells
These are made in the bone marrow and there are three main groups.
Red Blood Cells –These are disc shaped cells that contain the red pigment
hemoglobin that gives blood its colour. Red blood cells do not have a nuclei
causing them to be short-lived and carry oxygen throughout the body.

White Blood Cells –These have a nucleus and are involved in the destruction of
microorganisms are separated into two main types: lymphocytes and
phagocytes. These microorganisms are called antigens.

Lymphocytes –When antigens come in contact with these, the lymphocytes

are stimulated to produce antibodies that begin the process of destroying the
antigens.

Phagocytes –These complete the job by engulfing the antigens, digesting them
and killing them.

Platelets –These are fragments of the cells made in the bone marrow. They are
very small but are important for blood clotting which is activated after
receiving an injury.
Sickle Cell Anemia
This is when the red blood cells are shaped like sickles instead of a normal disc.

Red blood cells are made to carry oxygen, so when the cells are sickled, they
carry less oxygen.
Symptoms
- Shortness of breath
- Pale skin
- Easily tired/fatigued
- Decrease in cognitive functions
- Shape causes cells to stick in capillaries which can result in stroke

Genetic Diagrams
Honestly don’t know how to explain this part so please watch the video below.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0BaWSsFXT0
8. Menstrual Cycle, Birth Control, STI’s
Menstrual Cycle
This is a cycle spanning 28 days with 2 main events:
Ovulation –Release of an ovum from the ovary
Menstruation –The loss of the uterus lining from the body occurring about 14
days after ovulation if fertilization has not occurred.

Four hormones stimulate this process:

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) –Secreted by the pituitary gland and
stimulates a Graafian follide to develop in an ovary and an ovum to mature
also producing oestrogen. (Beginning of cycle)
Oestrogen –Produced by the Graafian follide and stimulates the uterus lining
to thicken and increase blood production. It stimulates the pituitary gland to
stop secreting FSH and start secreting luteinizing hormone. (Week 2)
Luteinising Hormone (LH) –Secreted by the pituitary gland. A sudden rise in LH
causes ovulation to take place. LH stimulates the corpus luteum to develop in
the ovary and secrete progesterone. (Middle)
Progesterone –This is produced by the corpus luteum during the third week of
the cycle. This causes the uterus lining to slightly thicken and remain thick. If
fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates during the fourth
week and reduces secretion of progesterone. The decrease in progesterone
causes the uterus lining to begin to break down, and the pituitary gland to
secrete FSH at the end of the fourth week.
STI’s
These are caused by bacteria, virus and fungi.
Some examples are HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and AIDS (acquired
immune deficiency syndrome) and AIDS is caused by HIV.
Symptoms
Gonorrhea
Men –Becomes painful to pass urine
Women –Pain in passing urine and yellow discharge from vagina

Chlamydia –Bleeding during sex

Treatments
A virus would be treated using an antiviral drug.
Chlamydia is caused by a bacterium and its treatment would be an antibiotic.
Effects
Untreated STI’s can lead to infertility, cancer and can even lead to death.

Birth Control
This is a process by which men and women utilize several drugs or materials to
prevent pregnancy
Types
Surgical/Sterilization
Tubal Ligation –This relates to females and occurs when the physician ties the
fallopian tubes so that an egg won’t come down to the uterus to join with a
sperm. This is very effective and won’t prevent STI’s.
Vasectomy –This relates to men and occurs when the physician cuts and seals
the vas deferens. This is very effective and won’t prevent STI’s.
Hormonal
–This includes birth control pills and IUD’s and around 6-9% of women get
pregnant each year using this method.

Barrier
-This includes the condom, spermicide and diaphragm. Around 25% of women
using this method get pregnant each year and can prevent STI’s.

Rhythm
-This method is used by women who study their menstrual cycle and only have
sex during the ‘safe periods’.

Abstinence
-As the name implies, they just don’t have any intercourse

Compiled By Kalel Wilson of Cornwall College 11 Science 2. Good Luck!