Cytology

3rd week Lecture

Chromosomes
Review of Mitosis
Meiosis
Chromosomes
• What is a chromosome?
• In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is
packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA
tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones
that support its structure.
• Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not
even under a microscope—when the cell is not dividing.
However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes
more tightly packed during cell division and is then
visible under a microscope. Most of what researchers
know about chromosomes was learned by observing
chromosomes during cell division.
• Each chromosome has a constriction point called the
centromere, which divides the chromosome into two
sections, or “arms.”
• The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the “p
arm.”
• The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q
arm.”
• The location of the centromere on each chromosome
gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be
used to help describe the location of specific genes
• A chromosome is a
deoxyribonucleic acid (
DNA) molecule with part
or all of the genetic
material (genome) of an
organism.
• Most eukaryotic
 chromosomes include 
packaging proteins which,
aided by 
chaperone proteins, bind
to and condense the DNA
molecule to prevent it
from becoming an
unmanageable tangle
• Chromosomes are normally visible under a 
light microscope only when the cell is
undergoing the metaphase of cell division
 (where all chromosomes are aligned in the
center of the cell in their condensed form).[3]
 Before this happens, every chromosome is
copied once (S phase), and the copy is joined
to the original by a centromere, resulting
either in an X-shaped structure (pictured
here) if the centromere is located in the
middle of the chromosome or a two-arm
structure if the centromere is located near one
of the ends.
• The original chromosome and the copy are
now called sister chromatids. During
metaphase the X-shape structure is called a
metaphase chromosome. In this highly
condensed form chromosomes are easiest to
distinguish and study.[4] In animal cells,
chromosomes reach their highest compaction
level in anaphase during 
chromosome segregation.
• Chromosomal recombination during 
meiosis and subsequent 
sexual reproduction play a significant role
in genetic diversity. If these structures are
manipulated incorrectly, through processes
known as chromosomal instability and
translocation, the cell may undergo 
mitotic catastrophe.
• Usually, this will make the cell initiate 
apoptosis leading to its own death, but
sometimes mutations in the cell hamper
this process and thus cause progression of 
cancer.
• Some use the term chromosome in a wider
sense, to refer to the individualized
portions of chromatin in cells, either
visible or not under light microscopy.
Others use the concept in a narrower
sense, to refer to the individualized
portions of chromatin during cell division,
visible under light microscopy due to high
condensation.
Diagram of a replicated and condensed 
metaphase eukaryotic chromosome. (1) 
Chromatid – one of the two identical parts of
the chromosome after S phase. (2) 
Centromere – the point where the two
chromatids touch. (3) Short arm (p).(4) Long
arm (q).
Etymology
The word chromosome (/ˈkroʊməˌsoʊm, -
ˌzoʊm/[6][7]) comes from the Greek
χρῶμα (chroma, "colour") and σῶμα
(soma, "body"), describing their strong
staining by particular dyes.[8] The term
was coined by the German scientist von
Waldeyer-Hartz,[9] referring to the term
chromatin, which was itself introduced by
Walther Flemming, who discovered cell
division.

Some of the early karyological terms have

become outdated.[10][11] For example,
Chromatin (Flemming 1880) and
Chromosom (Waldeyer 1888), both ascribe
color to a non-colored state.
History of discovery
Walter Sutton (left) and Theodor Boveri
(right) independently developed the chromosome theory of
inheritance in 1902.
The German scientists Schleiden,[4] Virchow and
Bütschli were among the first scientists who first
recognized the structures now familiar as chromosomes.
[13]

In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s,

Theodor Boveri gave the definitive demonstration that
chromosomes are the vectors of heredity; his two
principles or postulates were the
1.continuity of chromosomes and the
2.individuality of chromosomes.
It is the second of these principles that was so
original.Wilhelm Roux suggested that each chromosome
carries a different genetic configuration Boveri was able to
test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at
the start of the 1900s of Gregor Mendel's earlier work,
Boveri was able to point out the connection between the
rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes.
Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists:
Edmund Beecher Wilson, Nettie Stevens, Walter Sutton and
Theophilus Painter were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson,
Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him).[14]
In his famous textbook The Cell in Development
and Heredity, Wilson linked together the
independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both
around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of
inheritance the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory
(the names are sometimes reversed).[15] Ernst
Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested
by some famous geneticists: William Bateson,
Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H.
Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic turn of mind.
Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome
maps in Morgan's own lab.[16]

The number of human chromosomes was published

in 1923 by Theophilus Painter. By inspection
through the microscope, he counted 24 pairs, which
would mean 48 chromosomes. His error was copied
by others and it was not until 1956 that the true
number, 46, was determined by Indonesia-
born cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio.
Prokaryotes
The prokaryotes – bacteria and archaea – typically have
a single circular chromosome, but many variations
exist. The chromosomes of most bacteria, which some
authors prefer to call genophores, can range in size
from only 130,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic
 bacteria Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola and 
Candidatus Tremblaya princeps, to more than
14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium 
Sorangium cellulosum.
Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable
exception to this arrangement, with bacteria such as 
Borrelia burgdorferi, the cause of Lyme disease,
containing a single linear chromosome.

Structure in sequences
Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based
structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a
one-point (the origin of replication) from which
replication starts, whereas some archaea contain
multiple replication origins.
The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in 
operons, and do not usually contain introns, unlike
eukaryotes.
DNA packaging
Prokaryotes do not possess nuclei. Instead, their
DNA is organized into a structure called the nucleoi
d.The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a
defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is,
however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled
by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins,
which associate with the bacterial chromosom.
 In archaea, the DNA in chromosomes is even more
organized, with the DNA packaged within structures
similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes.

Certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other 

extrachromosomal DNA. These are circular
structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA
and play a role in horizontal gene transfer.In
prokaryotes (see nucleoids) and viruses, the DNA is
often densely packed and organized; in the case of 
archaea, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in
the case of bacteria, by histone-like proteins.
Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the 
plasma membrane of the bacteria. In molecular
biology application, this allows for its isolation from
plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and
pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA).
Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like
eukaryotic DNA, generally supercoiled. The DNA
must first be released into its relaxed state for access
for transcription, regulation, and replication
Eukaryotes

Organization of DNA in a eukaryotic cell.

Chromosomes in eukaryotes are composed of chromatin
fiber. Chromatin fiber is made of nucleosomes (histone
octamers with part of a DNA strand attached to and wrapped
around it). Chromatin fibers are packaged by proteins into a
condensed structure called chromatin.

Chromatin contains the vast majority of DNA and a small

amount inherited maternally, can be found in the
mitochondria. Chromatin is present in most cells, with a few
exceptions, for example, red blood cells.

Chromatin allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into

the cell nucleus. During cell division chromatin condenses
further to form microscopically visible chromosomes. The
structure of chromosomes varies through the cell cycle.
During cellular division chromosomes are replicated,
divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so
as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their
progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or
unduplicated. Unduplicated chromosomes are single double
helixes, whereas duplicated chromosomes contain two
identical copies (called chromatids or sister chromatids)
joined by a centromere.
The major structures in DNA compaction:
DNA, the nucleosome, the 10 nm "beads-on-a-
string" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the metaphase
chromosome.
Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei such as those
found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess
multiple large linear chromosomes contained in
the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one
centromere, with one or two arms projecting
from the centromere, although, under most
circumstances, these arms are not visible as
such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small
circular mitochondrial genome, and some
eukaryotes may have additional small circular
or linear cytoplasmic chromosomes.

In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the

uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered
structure, where it is wrapped around histones
(structural proteins), forming a composite
material called chromatin
Interphase chromatin
During interphase (the period of the cell cycle
where the cell is not dividing), two types of
chromatin can be distinguished:

Euchromatin, which consists of DNA that is

active, e.g., being expressed as protein.
Heterochromatin, which consists of mostly
inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural
purposes during the chromosomal stages.
Heterochromatin can be further
distinguished into two types:
Constitutive heterochromatin, which is
never expressed. It is located around the
centromere and usually contains repetitive
sequences.
Facultative heterochromatin, which is
sometimes expressed.
Metaphase chromatin and division
Human chromosomes during metaphase
In the early stages of mitosis or meiosis (cell division), the chromatin
double helix become more and more condensed. They cease to
function as accessible genetic material (transcription stops) and
become a compact transportable form. This compact form makes the
individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four arm
structure, a pair of sister chromatids attached to each other at the
centromere. The shorter arms are called p arms (from the French
petit, small) and the longer arms are called q arms (q follows p in
the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q
is short for queue meaning tail in French[30]). This is the only natural
context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical
microscope.

Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly

organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin
loops.[31]

During mitosis, microtubules grow from centrosomes located at

opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at
specialized structures called kinetochores, one of which is
present on each sister chromatid. A special DNA base sequence in the
region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins,
longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules then pull the
chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell
inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the
chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed. In spite of
their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed,
which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell
nucleus.
Human chromosomes
Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two
types: autosomes (body chromosome(s)) and
allosome (sex chromosome(s)).
Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and
are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The
autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary
information. All act in the same way during cell
division. Human cells have 23 pairs of
chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair
of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell.
In addition to these, human cells have many
hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome.
Sequencing of the human genome has provided a
great deal of information about each of the
chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics
for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's
human genome information in the Vertebrate
Genome Annotation (VEGA) database.[32] Number
of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on gene
predictions. Total chromosome length is an estimate
as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced
heterochromatin region
Onion (Allium) cells in different phases of the cell cycle enlarged 800 diameters.
a. non-dividing cells
b. nuclei preparing for division (spireme-stage)
c. dividing cells showing mitotic figures
e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division
 Phases of Mitosis

Interphase

The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It

alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell
prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is
divided into three phases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and
G2 (second gap). During all three parts of interphase, the cell
grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles.
However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S
phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates
its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2),
and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle.[27] All these
phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by cyclins, cyclin-
dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins. The phases
follow one another in strict order and there are "checkpoints" that
give the cell cues to proceed from one phase to another. Cells may
also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G0
phase to stop dividing. This can occur when cells become
overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they
differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is
the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons. Some G0 cells
have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle.
chromatids are joined at the centromere.

Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does not resume until
late anaphase to early G1 phase.The nucleolus also disappears during
early prophase.

Condensing chromosomes.
Interphase nucleus (left), condensing chromosomes (middle) and
condensed chromosomes (right).
Close to the nucleus of animal cells are structures called centrosomes,
consisting of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a loose collection of
proteins. The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's
microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which
is duplicated by the cell before a new round of mitosis begins, giving a
pair of centrosomes. The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help
form a microtubule spindle apparatus. Motor proteins then push the
centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite sides of the cell.
Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are
not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus, since they are
absent from plants,[29] and are not absolutely required for animal cell
mitosi

                 
Condensing chromosomes. Interphase nucleus (left), condensing
chromosomes (middle) and condensed chromosomes (right).
 Mitosis
• In cell biology, mitosis (/maɪˈtoʊsɪs/) is a part of the cell cycle when
replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell
division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the number
of chromosomes is maintained.[1] In general, mitosis (division of the
nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the
DNA is replicated) and is often accompanied or followed by 
cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and 
cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of
these cellular components.[2] Mitosis and cytokinesis together define
the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the
mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.
• The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the
completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages
are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated,
condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each
chromosome to opposite sides of the cell.[3] The result is two genetically
identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to
divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells. [4] Producing three
or more daughter cells instead of the normal two is a mitotic error
called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis (direct cell triplication /
multiplication).[5] Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis
 (programmed cell death) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancer
 can arise from such mutations.
• Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells, which lack
a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission.
• Mitosis varies between organisms.[7] For example, animal cells undergo
an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the
chromosomes separate, whereas fungi undergo a "closed" mitosis,
where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.
• Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as 
mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start
of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division.
Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells –
which are produced by meiosis.
preprophase is characterized by the formation
of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments
(called preprophase band) underneath
the plasma membrane around the equatorial
plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band
marks the position where the cell will eventually
divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the 
flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead,
microtubules form a spindle on the surface of
the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle
by the chromosomes themselves, after the
nuclear envelope breaks down.[29] The
preprophase band disappears during nuclear
envelope breakdown and spindle formation in
prometaphase.
envelope.
In late prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules begin to
search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores.

 A kinetochore is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding
structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere
during late prophase.A number of polar microtubules find
and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from
the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle.[40]
 Although the kinetochore structure and function are not
fully understood, it is known that it contains some form
of molecular motor.[41] When a microtubule connects with
the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from 
ATP to "crawl" up the tube toward the originating
centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with
polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules,
provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the
chromosome's two chromatids.[41]
centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes
towards opposite ends of the cell. The resulting
tension causes the chromosomes to align along the
metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an
imaginary line that is centrally located between the
two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of
the cell).[40] To ensure equitable distribution of
chromosomes at the end of mitosis, the metaphase
checkpoint guarantees that kinetochores are
properly attached to the mitotic spindle and that
the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase
plate.[42] If the cell successfully passes through
the metaphase checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase

A cell in late metaphase. All

chromosomes (blue) but one have
arrived at the metaphase plate.
to opposite ends of the cell.
During anaphase B, polar microtubules
push against each other, causing the cell
to elongate.In late anaphase, 
chromosomes also reach their overall
maximal condensation level, to help 
chromosome segregation and the re-
formation of the nucleus.[45] In most
animal cells, anaphase A precedes
anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg
cells demonstrate the opposite order of
events
new nuclear envelope forms using the
membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old
nuclear envelope. The new envelope forms
around each set of separated daughter
chromosomes (though the membrane does
not enclose the centrosomes) and the
nucleolus reappears. Both sets of
chromosomes, now surrounded by new
nuclear membrane, begin to "relax" or
decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each
daughter nucleus has an identical set of
chromosomes. Cell division may or may not
occur at this time depending on the organism
coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast
and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei.
The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for
higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast
microtubule array during cytokinesis.[30]:64–7, 328–9
Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of
its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the
M-phase.
There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur
separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei.
The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi,
slime molds, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon
is found in various other organisms. Even in animals,
cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for
instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic
development.[48]

Function

Cilliate undergoing
cytokinesis, with the
cleavage furrow being
clearly visible
 Function
Mitosis "function" or significance relies on the maintenance of the
chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are
alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of
the parent cell.

Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances:

Development and growth: The number of cells within an
organism increases by mitosis. This is the basis of the development
of a multicellular body from a single cell, i.e., zygote and also the
basis of the growth of a multicellular body.
Cell replacement: In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive
tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones.
New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the
cells being replaced. In like manner, red blood cells have short
lifespan (only about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by
mitosis.
Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate body parts.
The production of new cells in such instances is achieved by
mitosis. For example, starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis.
Asexual reproduction: Some organisms produce
genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction. For
example, the hydra reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at
the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called a bud.
Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new
individual. The same division happens during asexual reproduction
or vegetative propagation in plants.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dw
AFZb8juMQ&t=134s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNT
gT616t1I

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=DwAFZb8juMQ&t=134s