REVIEWER FOR THE LECTURE CLASS IN GENERAL ZOOLOGY

1ST TOPIC: CELL DIVISION (MEIOSIS)

> MEIOSIS
- Gametes cells undergo division.
- The number of chromosomes are reduced in half.
- 8 stages in total.
- Happens in germ cells (egg and sperm cells).
- Purpose is sexual reproduction.
- Produces 4 haploid daughter cells.
- Genetic variation increases.
- Starts with a single parent cell and produces new cells.

> 2 STAGES OF MEIOSIS: MEIOSIS I - REDUCTIONAL STAGE & MEIOSIS II -

EQUATIONAL STAGE
> OOGENESIS
- A process which involves the development and maturation of female
gametes or sex cells.

1. Primordial Germ Cells: Primordial germ cells are the embryonic

precursors that differentiate into gametes or egg cells. They migrate to
the developing gonads during embryonic development, where they give
rise to oogonia.

2. Oogonium (Diploid): Oogonia are diploid cells derived from primordial

germ cells. Through mitotic divisions, they produce oogonia, the cells that will
later differentiate into primary oocytes.

3. Primary Oocyte: Primary oocytes are diploid cells that result from the
differentiation of oogonia. These cells are arrested in prophase I of
meiosis and represent the early stage of oocyte development.

4. First Meiotic Division: Before birth, some primary oocytes initiate meiosis I
but arrest in prophase I until puberty. This marks the beginning of the
reduction in chromosome number necessary for the formation of mature
eggs.

5. First Polar Body: As the first meiotic division progresses, the primary
oocyte forms a secondary oocyte and a non-functional polar body. The
 polar body contains excess genetic material and is typically smaller due
to the uneven distribution of cytoplasm.

6. Secondary Oocyte: The secondary oocyte is a haploid cell arrested at

metaphase II. It is released from the ovary during ovulation, marking the
entry of the oocyte into the final stages of meiosis.

7. Ruptured Follicle/Ovulation: Ovulation is the process where the mature

follicle ruptures, releasing the secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube.
This event is a crucial step in the journey of the egg toward potential
fertilisation.

8. Second Meiotic Division: If fertilised by a sperm, the secondary oocyte

completes meiosis II. This division results in the formation of a mature
egg (ovum) and a second polar body, marking the final reduction in
chromosome number.

9. Second Polar Body: The second polar body, similar to the first polar body,
is non-functional and contains excess genetic material. It does not play
a role in fertilisation and usually degenerates.

10. Ovum (Haploid): The ovum is the mature, fertilizable egg that contains
the genetic material and most of the cytoplasm required for early embryonic
development. It represents the final product of oogenesis.

11. Ootid (Haploid): The term "ootid" is sometimes used interchangeably with
ovum and refers to the haploid cell resulting from the second meiotic
division. This cell is ready for fertilisation.

12. Corpus Luteum: After ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into the
corpus luteum. This structure secretes hormones, particularly
progesterone, which prepares the uterus for a potential pregnancy by
thickening the endometrial lining.

13. Mature Follicle: A mature follicle is an ovarian follicle that has undergone
maturation, containing a secondary oocyte. The rupture of the mature
follicle during ovulation releases the secondary oocyte for potential
fertilisation.

14. Ovary: The ovary is the female reproductive organ responsible for
producing eggs (ova) and hormones. It plays a central role in the process
of oogenesis.
 15. Primary Follicle: A primary follicle is an immature ovarian follicle
consisting of an oocyte surrounded by follicle cells. As the follicle
matures, it undergoes changes that eventually lead to ovulation.

OVERVIEW OF OOGENESIS:
● Oogenesis is the process of egg cell development in the ovaries.
● It begins with primordial germ cells, which differentiate into oogonia.
● Oogonia undergo mitotic divisions to become primary oocytes.
● Primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis until puberty.
● At puberty, one or a few primary oocytes resume meiosis I each menstrual
cycle.
● Meiosis I results in the formation of secondary oocytes and first polar bodies.
● The secondary oocyte is released during ovulation and arrested in metaphase
II.
● If fertilised, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, forming a mature egg
and second polar body.
● The mature egg (ovum) is ready for fertilisation and contributes most
cytoplasm for early embryonic development.
● The ovarian follicles, including the mature follicle and corpus luteum, play key
roles in supporting oogenesis.

> SPERMATOGENESIS
- Involves the production and maturation of sperm cells in the testes.
1. Seminiferous Tubule: This is the structure in the testes where
spermatogenesis takes place. It is a long, coiled tubule where the
different stages of sperm cell development occur.

2. Primordial Germ Cell: These are the initial cells that give rise to sperm
cells. They are diploid cells, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes.

3. Spermatogonium: Primordial germ cells undergo mitotic division to

produce spermatogonia. Spermatogonia are also diploid cells and are
the stem cells for sperm production.

4. Primary Spermatocyte (Diploid): Spermatogonia undergo further mitotic

division to form primary spermatocytes. These cells are still diploid and
enter prophase of meiosis I.

5. First Meiotic Division: The primary spermatocytes undergo the first

meiotic division, resulting in the formation of two secondary
spermatocytes. This division reduces the chromosome number from diploid
to haploid.

6. Secondary Spermatocyte (Haploid): Secondary spermatocytes are the

result of the first meiotic division in spermatogenesis. They are haploid
cells, meaning they have half the number of chromosomes as the original cell
(spermatogonium). Secondary spermatocytes are produced when primary
spermatocytes undergo meiosis I.

7. Second meiotic division: Each secondary spermatocyte then undergoes the

second meiotic division, resulting in the formation of four haploid
spermatids.

8. Spermatids (Haploid): Spermatids are the next stage after secondary

spermatocytes in spermatogenesis. They are also haploid cells and are
formed when secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II. Spermatids
have half the chromosome number of the original spermatogonium and are
the immediate precursors to mature sperm.

9. Spermiogenesis: Spermatids undergo a process called spermiogenesis,

during which they undergo structural changes and differentiation to form
mature sperm cells.

10. Sperm Cells: Finally, the spermatids mature into sperm cells, also known as
spermatozoa. These are the functional male reproductive cells capable
of fertilising an egg.
 11. Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of the
testis. It serves as a storage and maturation site for sperm. Sperm
undergo a maturation process in the epididymis, acquiring motility and
the ability to fertilise an egg.

12. Testis: The testis (plural: testes) is the male reproductive organ
responsible for producing sperm and testosterone. Sperm production
occurs within the testis, specifically in structures called seminiferous tubules.

13. Sertoli Cell: Sertoli cells are supportive cells found in the seminiferous
tubules of the testis. They provide physical and nutritional support to
developing sperm cells during spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells play a
crucial role in regulating the process of sperm production.

OVERVIEW OF SPERMATOGENESIS:
● Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm cell development in the testes.
● It begins with spermatogonia, which are diploid cells.
● Spermatogonia undergo mitotic divisions to produce primary spermatocytes.
● Primary spermatocytes then undergo meiosis I, producing secondary
spermatocytes (haploid).
● Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II, yielding spermatids (haploid).
● Spermatids mature into sperm cells in the epididymis.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES:

● Homologous Chromosomes: Chromosome pairs that carry genes for the

same traits, one from each parent.
● Diploid (2n): Cells with a complete set of chromosomes (two sets, one from
each parent).
● Haploid (n): Cells with half the number of chromosomes, as in gametes
(sperm and eggs).
● Synapsis: The pairing of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of
meiosis.
● Crossing Over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes during prophase I.
● Chiasmata: The points where homologous chromosomes exchange genetic
material.
● Meiosis I: The first division of meiosis, reducing chromosome number by half.
● Meiosis II: The second division of meiosis, similar to mitosis but starting with
haploid cells.
● Stem Cell: Spermatogonia (sperm cell) for male & Oogonia (egg cell) for
female.
● Tetrad: A group of four chromatids formed during synapsis in prophase I.
● Centromere: The region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined
and to which spindle fibres attach during cell division.
● Chromatids: The two identical copies of a replicated chromosome, connected
by a centromere.
● Sister Chromatids: Identical chromatids produced by the replication of a
single chromosome.
● Chromosome: A thread-like structure composed of DNA and proteins that
carries genetic information.
● Centriole: A small organelle in animal cells that helps organise the spindle
fibres during cell division.
● Nucleolus: A dense region within the cell nucleus where ribosomal RNA
synthesis occurs.
● Nuclear Envelope: The double membrane surrounding the cell nucleus.
● Plasma Membrane: The outer membrane of a cell that separates it from the
external environment.
● Kinetochore: A protein structure on chromatids where spindle fibres attach
during cell division.
● Spindle Fibre: Microtubules that form the mitotic spindle during cell division,
guiding chromosome movement.
● Microtubules: Cytoskeletal components made of tubulin proteins, forming
structures like the mitotic spindle.
● Cleavage Furrow: The indentation that forms during cytokinesis in animal
cells, leading to cell division.
● Chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes
in a cell's nucleus.
 2ND TOPIC: CELL TRANSPORT

CELL MEMBRANE
1. All cells have a cell membrane.
2. Functions: A. Controls what enters and exits the cell to maintain an
internal balance called homeostasis. B. Provides protection and support
for the cell
3. Structure of Cell Membrane: Lipid Bilayer - 2 layers of phospholipids.
a. Phosphate head is polar (water loving).
b. Fatty acid tails are nonpolar (water fearing).
c. Proteins embedded in the membrane.

4. Cell membranes have pores (holes) in it.

a. Selectively Permeable: Allows some molecules in and keeps other
molecules out.
b. The structure helps it be selective!
TYPES OF CELLULAR TRANSPORT

1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- Cell uses NO ENERGY.
- Molecules move randomly.
- Molecules spread out from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. (HIGH > LOW)

> TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT

● DIFFUSION
- Random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration.
- Diffusion continues until all molecules are evenly spaced
(equilibrium is reached). Note: molecules will still move around but stay
spread out.

● FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Diffusion of specific particles through transport proteins found in the
membrane.
A. Transport Proteins are specific – they “select” only certain
molecules to cross the membrane.
B. Transports larger or charged molecules.
 ● OSMOSIS
- Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
- Water moves from high to low concentrations.
- Water moves freely through pores.

> EFFECTS OF OSMOSIS ON LIFE

Water is so small and there is so much of it the cell can’t control its movement
through the cell membrane.

➔ HYPOTONIC SOLUTION - The solution has a lower concentration of

solutes and a higher concentration of water than inside the cell. (Low
solute; High water) Result: Water moves from the solution to inside the cell.
Cell Swells and bursts open (Cytolysis)!
➔ HYPERTONIC SOLUTION - The solution has a higher concentration of
solutes and a lower concentration of water than inside the cell. (High
solute; Low water) Result: Water moves from inside the cell into the solution.
Cell shrinks (Plasmolysis)!
➔ ISOTONIC SOLUTION - The concentration of solutes in the solution is equal
to the concentration of solutes inside the cell. Result: Water moves equally in
both directions and the cell remains the same size! (Dynamic Equilibrium)!

> How Organisms Deal with Osmotic Pressure

- Bacteria and plants have cell walls that prevent them from over-expanding.
In plants the pressure exerted on the cell wall is called turgor pressure.
- A protist like paramecium has contractile vacuoles that collect water
flowing in and pump it out to prevent them from over-expanding.
- Salt water fish pump salt out of their specialised gills so they do not
dehydrate.
- Animal cells are bathed in blood. Kidneys keep the blood isotonic by
removing excess salt and water.

2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Cell USES ENERGY.
- Actively moves molecules to where they are needed.
- Movement from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration. (LOW > HIGH)

> TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

● PROTEIN PUMPS
- Transport proteins that require energy to do work.
- Protein changes shape to move molecules, this requires energy!
- Example: Sodium/Potassium Pumps are important in nerve responses.
● ENDOCYTOSIS
- Taking bulky material into a cell.
- Uses energy.
- Cell membrane in-folds around food particle “cell eating.”
- Forms food vacuole & digests food.
- This is how white blood cells eat bacteria!

● EXOCYTOSIS
- Forces material out of the cell in bulk.
- Membrane surrounding the material fuses with the cell membrane.
- Cell changes shape – requires energy. EX: Hormones or wastes
released from cell.
 3RD TOPIC: ANIMAL TISSUES

TISSUES
- Cells that are similar in structure, function and are grouped together is
called TISSUE.
- The branch of biology that deals with the study of tissues is called
HISTOLOGY.

TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUES:

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
> EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Covers the surface of the body and lines the body cavities. Functions include:
secretion, excretion, filtration, absorption, protection, cellular transport.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF EPITHELIUM

1. ACCORDING TO THE LAYERS OF THE CELL:

SIMPLE - Arranged in single layers. It is generally found where absorption and

filtration occur.

STRATIFIED - Made up of two or more layers of cells. Being considerably more

durable than the simple epithelia, these epithelia function primarily to protect.

PSEUDO STRATIFIED - Consists of one layer of cells, but appears stratified

because the height of the cells differs.
 2. ACCORDING TO THE SHAPE OF THE CELL

SQUAMOUS CELLS - Contains flat cells arranged like tiles that are polygonal in
shape; they can be found lining the skin.

CUBOIDAL CELLS - Box-like cells or tube-like in shape which are found lining the
kidney.
COLUMNAR CELLS - Column-like cells that are taller than wider.

3. ACCORDING TO THE FUNCTION

Germinal - Lining the inner walls or tubules of the reproductive organs thus, it’s
for the reproduction.

Sensory - For transmitting impulses and receiving external stimuli.

Glandular - For secreting products necessary for use by an animal.

Two types of gland:

1. Endocrine – Secretes products directly into the bloodstream. Ductless

glands. ex. Pituitary gland for growth.
2. Exocrine – secretes their products into ducts. With ducts. Ex. Sebaceous
glands & salivary glands.

TYPES OF EXOCRINE GLANDS

I. UNICELLULAR GLANDS - One celled glands. Ex. Goblet cells - located at

the tunica mucosa of the small intestine of the frog.
II. MULTICELLULAR GLANDS - Made up of many cells. Maybe tubular or
saccular glands.
 4. ACCORDING TO THE EMBRYOLOGICAL ORIGIN

A. Mesothelium spreads over the walls of the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
B. Endothelium lines the blood vessel and the heart.
C. Ectothelium covers the surface of the body.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Combining the shapes and number of layers of cells, an epithelial can be generally
classified into:
> CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Provide the framework that supports the other tissue of the body.
- Derived from the mesoderm germ layer, a generalised embryonic tissue.
- Differs from the epithelium because of the presence of:
A. An extracellular matrix
B. Fibers
C. Cells
Function: important in maintaining the form of the body, organs and tissues.
1. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
1.1 Dense connective tissue:
A. Dense regular – Made up of tendons and ligaments. Fibers oriented
in one direction.
B. Dense irregular – Made up of dermis of the skin. Fibers are
irregularly arranged.
 1.2 Loose Connective Tissue - Tissues are loosely arranged. Cells of this
tissue are mainly fibroblast.

A. Reticular Connective Tissue - framework of reticular cells which makes the

framework of lymph glands, the bone marrow, the spleen, liver and other
organs.

B. Adipose or Fat Tissue - cells are rounded or polygonal with thin layers of
cytoplasm and the nucleus at one side.
C. Areolar Connective Tissue
- The prototype of connective tissue.
- Made up of loosely arranged fibers with scattered cells.
- Found in lamina propia or basement membrane.

2. SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2.1 Cartilage
- Appear in between bones to serve as cushion.
- They can be seen in ears, nose and trachea.
- Cells present are called CHONDROCYTES.
- The membrane covering is known as PERICHONDRIUM.

A. Hyaline Cartilage - Amorphous, firm matrix with imperceptible network of

collagen fibers. Found in: embryonic skeleton, articular ends of bones, nose,
tracheal rings, ends of ribs, larynx, and bronchi.

B. Elastic Cartilage - Made up of elastic fibers, seen as components of

external ear and epiglottis.
 C. Fibro Cartilage - Intercellular substance contains collagenous fibers that
are branched. Found in intervertebral disc & pubic symphysis.

2.2 Bones
- Dense organic matrix with mineral deposit and calcium phosphate which is
also known as osseous tissue.
- Bone cells are called osteoblasts that later mature into osteocytes which
function for growth and repair.
- Membrane covering the bone is known as the periosteum.

Cross Section of the Bone

- The bony substance or bone matrix is arranged in regular concentric layers
or lamellae.
- Within the bone matrix is scattered numerous minute spaces or lacunae, in
which the bone cells or osteocytes are located in life.
- Arising from the lacunae are numerous thin branching canals, the
canaliculi, which lead the neighbouring lacunae.
- The central cavity where the blood vessels pass and into which the canaliculi
from the innermost row open directly is the haversian canal.
- The concentric lamellae with their lacunae and canaliculi together with a
haversian canal constitute a haversian canal system.
 2.3 Blood
- A fluid or liquid tissue consisting of a liquid part called plasma and formed
elements such as red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
- Function: For the transport and distribution of food materials, gases like
oxygen and carbon dioxide, hormones and other products. Hemoglobin is
responsible for giving red colour to the blood.

TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS

1. Erythrocytes or the red blood cells (RBC) which are responsible for
transporting O2 and nutrients to the different parts of the body. Its origin is
from the redbone marrow of long bones.
- Human RBC – circular, smaller and without nucleus.
- Frog’s RBC – oval, larger and with a nucleus.
- Male – 5,500,000 RBC per cubic mm of blood.
- Female – 5,000,000 RBC per cubic mm of blood.

2. Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC) are considered as the soldiers of

the body. They fight against infection, inflammation and for defence. Its origin
is from the lymph glands and some from bone marrow. 4,500-11,000 /cubic
mm.
> MUSCLE TISSUE
- Make it possible for body parts of a person or animal to move. All
muscular tissue contains actin filaments and myosin filaments, which form a
striated pattern in skeletal and cardiac but not in smooth muscles.
- Function: is to produce force and cause motion. Muscles can cause either
locomotion of the organism itself or movement of internal organs.

MUSCLE FIBERS
- Muscles are made up of muscle fibers (fascicles) enveloped by a
connective tissue known as the epimysium.
- Each bundle (fasciculus) is further enclosed by a connective tissue known
as the perimysium, which is an inner extension of epimysium.
- Four or more muscle fibers are in turn enclosed by another connective
tissue known as endomysium which is an inner section of perimysium.

Two (2) types of Muscle Tissue according to Nervous Control:

1. Voluntary - Also known as skeletal muscle tissue. Under conscious control.
Responsible for the movement of bones and the body as a whole. Voluntary
muscles are connected to bones by tendons and work in pairs (agonist and
antagonist) to produce movement.
2. Involuntary - Includes smooth muscle tissue and cardiac muscle tissue. Not
under conscious control. Functions automatically, without direct input from the
nervous system for each contraction. Found in organs, blood vessels, and the
heart.
Two (2) types of Muscle as to Striations:
1. Striated - Also known as skeletal or voluntary muscle. Characterized by
alternating light and dark bands, or striations, under a microscope. Voluntary
 control. Responsible for body movement, such as walking, talking, and other
conscious movements. Connected to bones by tendons.
2. Unstriated - Also known as smooth or involuntary muscle. Lacks the visible
striations seen in skeletal muscle. Involuntary control. Found in the walls of
internal organs, blood vessels, and other structures. Functions to propel
substances through various body channels, like the digestive tract and blood
vessels.
> NERVOUS TISSUE - Highly specialised for irritability and conductivity. A
neuron or nerve cell is the functional unit of nervous tissue. Function: allows an
organism to sense stimuli in both the internal and external environment.

PARTS OF THE NEURON

1. Cell body or cytosomal body - large with a conspicuous nucleus and it has
projections which grow out of the cell body to form the nerve fibers
which are the dendrites and axon.
2. Axon - the long and thicker unbranched fibers that conduct messages
away from the cell body.
3. Dendrites - shorter, thinner and numerous branched fibers that conduct
messages towards the cell body.

TYPES OF NEURON

1. ACCORDING TO THE DIRECTION

I. Sensory (afferent) - carry impulses from the sensory receptors (sense

organ or skin) to the nerve centres (brain or spinal cord).
II. Motor (efferent) - carry impulses from the nerve receptors to the
effectors like muscles or organs.
III. Associative (interneuron) - connects the sensory from the motor neurons.
 2. ACCORDING TO THE STRUCTURE
A. Unipolar is made up of one cell body, one
axon. Ex. Found in Earthworms.
B. Bipolar is made up of one cell body, one axon,
and a dendrite. Ex. Found in the nose.
C. Multipolar is made up of one cell body, one
axon, and several dendrites. Ex. Found in the roots
of spinal nerves.

Synapse - the point of contact between the two neurons. Jumping of messages
from one nerve cell to the other nerve cell.

Nerve Fibers - outgrowth extensions of nerve cells which may be an axon or

dendrite. As the nerve fibers extend away from the cell body, they become
surrounded with sheaths.
TYPES OF NERVE FIBERS
1. Myelinated Or Medullated (White) Nerve Fibers - axon is surrounded by
myelin sheath, a semi-fluid fatty material that appears white. Ex. Peripheral
and Sympathetic Nervous System.
2. Non-Medullated or Non-Myelinated (Grey) Nerve Fiber - axon is without
any surrounding of myelin; grey in appearance Ex. Cranial nerves and
Spinal cord. (Central Nervous System)

PARTS OF THE MEDULLATED NERVE FIBER

1. Axis Cylinder - the cell process; central core.
2. Myelin Sheath - semi-fluid material responsible for white colour. It
functions to the conduction of nerve impulses.
3. Neurilemma - envelopes the nerve fibers and is the outer covering. It
plays an important role in regeneration of damaged fibers.

CROSS SECTION OF THE NERVE

- The nerve bundles of fascicles joined together by connective tissue.
- Two or three fascicles are bound together by a connective tissue, the
epineurium, which extend inward to enclose each bundle forming the
perineurium or to pass inward between nerve fibers as the endoneurium.
- The nerve fibers are the tiny rounded structures inside each fascicle.