EMBRYOLOGY

CELL DIVISION AND

GAMETOGENESIS
 DEFINITION OF EMBRYOLOGY
•Embryology is the study of the origin and
development of an organism.
•In humans, development starts when an
egg (oocyte) from female and a sperm
(spermatozoa) from male unite and give
rise to a new organism, the zygote in a
process is called fertilization.
 Definition of terms
• Oocyte (L. ovum, egg). oocytes or mature oocytes. The
female germ or sex cells are produced in the ovaries.
When mature, the oocytes are called secondary
• Sperm (Gr. sperma, seed). The sperm, or
spermatozoon, refers to the male germ cell produced
in the testes (testicles). Numerous sperms
(spermatozoa) are expelled from the male urethra
during ejaculation.
• Zygote. This cell results from the union of an oocyte
and a sperm during fertilization. A zygote or embryo is
the beginning of a new human being.
• Embryo- the developing human during
its early stages of development and it
extends to the end of the 8th week
(56days).
• Primordium-The beginning or first
discernible indication of an organ or
structure, the terms enlarge or rudiment
means the same.
• Fetus-After the embryonic period (8
weeks) and until birth, the developing
human is called a fetus
• Trimester-A period of three calendar
months during a pregnancy.
• PRENATAL PERIOD-The period before
birth.
• Postnatal Period. The period occurring
after birth.
• Infancy refers to the earliest period of
extra uterine life, roughly the first year
after birth. An infant aged 1 month or
younger is called a newborn or neonate
• Childhood is the period from approximately
13 months until puberty.
• Puberty occurs usually between the ages of
12 and 15 years in girls and 13 and 16 years
in boys, during which secondary sexual
characteristics develop and the capability of
sexual reproduction is attained.
• Adolescence is the period from
approximately 11 to 19 years of age, which
is characterized by rapid physical and sexual
maturation
• Adulthood- attainment of full
growth and maturity, is generally
reached between the ages of 18
and 21 years
 SIGNIFICANCE OF EMBRYOLOGY
• Bridges the gap between prenatal
development and obstetrics, perinatal
medicine, pediatrics, and clinical
anatomy.

• Develops knowledge concerning the

beginnings of human life and the
changes occurring during prenatal
development.
Is of practical value in helping to
understand the causes of variations
in human structure.

Illuminates gross anatomy and

explains how normal and abnormal
relations develop.
 PRIMORDIAL GERM CELLS
These are cells that forms male and
female gametes (sperms and oocytes).
• Gametes are derived from
primordial germ cells (PGCs) that are
formed in the epiblast during the
second week and that move to the
wall of the yolk sac
• During the fourth week these cells
begin to migrate from the yolk sac
toward the developing gonads,
where they arrive by the end of the
fifth week.
• Mitotic divisions increase their
number during their migration and
also when they arrive in the gonad.
In preparation for fertilization,
germ cells undergo
gametogenesis,
which includes meiosis, to reduce
the number of chromosomes and
cytodifferentiation to complete
their maturation.
 CELL DIVISION
Cell division is classified into two types
•Mitotic division= the cell divides and give rise
to two daughter cells with same number of
chromosomes as the mother cell-occur in
somatic cells
•Meiotic division= cell divides and give rise to 4
daughter cells with half number of
chromosomes and half DNA material-only occur
in germ cells
 A-MITOSIS
• Mitosis is the process whereby one cell
divides, giving rise to two daughter cells
that are genetically identical to the
parent cell.
• Each daughter cell receives the
complete complement of 46
chromosomes
• Before a cell enters mitosis, each
chromosome replicates its deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
• Stages of mitosis include
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Prometaphase
4. Metaphase
5. Anaphase
6. Telophase
1-Interphase
• the cell prepares itself for cell division.
Interphase is divided into three
phases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis),
and G2 (second gap).
• During all three phases, the cell grows
by producing proteins and cytoplasmic
organelles. However, chromosomes
are replicated only during the S phase.
• Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues
to grow as it duplicates its
chromosomes (S), grows more and
prepares for mitosis (G2), and
finally it divides (M) before
restarting the cycle (check cell
cycle)
2-Prophase
chromatin coil and condenses together
into a highly ordered structure called a
chromosome. Since the genetic material
has already been duplicated earlier in S
phase, the replicated chromosomes have
two sister chromatids, bound together at
the centromere by the cohesin protein
complex.
3-Prometaphase
the physical barrier that encloses the
nucleus, called the nuclear envelope,
breaks down freeing the sister chromatids
from the nucleus, which is necessary for
separating the nuclear material into two
cells.
4-Metaphase
 is characterized by the lining up of the
chromosomes along the equator of
the cell or what is called
the metaphase plate. The nuclear
envelope has totally disintegrated and
the polar fibers have reached the
centromeres of the chromosomes and
have begun interacting with them.
5- Anaphase
• Chromosomes migrate towards the
opposite poles

• first, the proteins that bind sister 

chromatids together are cleaved. These
sister chromatids now become separate
daughter chromosomes, and are pulled
apart.
6-TELOPHASE.
• The daughter chromosomes are at the
opposite poles of the cell. The
chromosomes uncoil and lengthen, and
the cell cytoplasm divide and gives rise
to two daughter cells.

•  includes the start of cytokinesis. In

animal cells
 CYTOKINESIS
• cytokinesis starts with a cleavage
furrow or indentation around the
middle that eventually pinches in,
dividing the cell in two. In plants,
cytokinesis begins with a series of
vesicles that form at the equator of the
cell, which subsequently join until the
cell is divided in two.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

Development and growth

Cell replacement
Regeneration
Asexual reproduction ie budding
 MEIOSIS
• Is a special type of cell division that produces
gametes with half as many chromosomes.
• Only occurs in gametes
• The daughter cells are not identical to parent
cell.
• Half the number of chromosomes are
produced
• Divided into 2 stages
• PROPHASE 1
• DNA replication precedes the start of meiosis I.
During prophase I, homologous chromosomes
pair and form synapses, a step unique to meiosis.
The paired chromosomes are called bivalents,
and the formation of chiasmata caused by
genetic recombination becomes apparent.

• . Note that the bivalent has two chromosomes

and four chromatids, with one chromosome
coming from each parent.
• PROMETAPHASE 1
• The nuclear membrane disappears.
One kinetochore forms per
chromosome rather than one per
chromatid, and the chromosomes
attached to spindle fibers begin to
move.
• METAPHASE 1
• Bivalents, each composed of two
chromosomes (four chromatids) align at
the metaphase plate. The orientation is
random, with either parental homologue
on a side. This means that there is a 50-
50 chance for the daughter cells to get
either the mother's or father's
homologue for each chromosome.
• ANAPHASE 1
• Chiasmata separate.
Chromosomes, each with two
chromatids, move to separate
poles. Each of the daughter cells
is now haploid (23
chromosomes), but each
chromosome has two
chromatids.
• TELOPHASE 1
• Nuclear envelopes may reform,
or the cell may quickly start
meiosis II.
• Cytokinesis
• Analogous to mitosis where two
complete daughter cells form.
MEIOSIS 2
• Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. However,
there is no "S" phase. The chromatids of
each chromosome are no longer identical
because of recombination. Meiosis II
separates the chromatids producing two
daughter cells each with 23
chromosomes (haploid), and each
chromosome has only one chromatid.
 GAMETOGENESIS
• This is the formation of male and
female gametes from the primordial
germ cells.
• During the process the gametes
undergo chromosomal and
morphological changes in preparation
for fertilization
• Primordial germ cells have 46
chromosomes
• First, the number of chromosomes is
reduced to half (23)= meiotic division.
• Second, there is alteration in shape. The
female germ cell in the ovary becomes
larger as its cytoplasm increases.
• The male germ cell in the testis becomes
smaller as it loose a lot of cytoplasm and
develops a head, neck, tail.
• Its divided into spermatogenesis and
oogenesis
 1-Oogenesis
• This is the formation of the
female gametes and the process
occur in two stages ie
• 1 prenatal maturation
• 2postnatal maturation
• Prenatal maturation-b4 birtth
• Primordial germ cells are formed in the
epiblast during the second week and
appear in the wall of yolk sac at the end
of the 3rd week of gestation.
• The germs cells then migrate to the
developing ovaries where they arrive in
the fifth week5th week and differentiate
into oogonia.
• These cells undergo a number of
mitotic divisions and by end 3rd
month, they are arranged in
clusters and are surrounded by flat
epithelial cells.
• oogonia continue with mitotic
division while some differentiate
into much larger primary oocyst
The primary oocyst replicates their
DNA and enters the prophase of the
1st meiotic division, and they are
surrounded individually by flat
epithelial cells.
A primary oocyte, together with its
surrounding flat epithelial cells is
known as a primordial follicle.
• Mitotic division continues and by
5 month of development, the
th

total number of germ cells

reaches its maximum estimated
at 7 million. Then cells
degeneration (atresia) starts, for
both oogonia and primary oocyst
• By 7th month, majority of oogonia
have degenerated and the
surviving primary oocytes have
entered the prophase of the 1st
meiotic division.
• However, they don’t proceed into
the metaphase but enter into a
resting phase during prophase
called dictyotene stage.
• Post natal maturation-after birth
• At birth, all primary oocytes have
finished the prophase of the 1st
meiotic division.
• Primary oocytes remain in prophase
and do not finish their first meiotic
division before puberty is reached
• With the onset of puberty, (1) a
number of primordial follicles begin
to mature with each ovarian cycle
and (2), the primary oocytes
complete their first meiotic division.
• The primary oocyte, still in dictyotene
stage increases in size while the
surrounding flat epithelial cells, the
follicular cells change from flat to
cuboidal.
• The follicle is now called the primary
follicle. The primary oocyte is
initially in intimate contact with the
surrounding follicular cells but later,
a layer of acellular material called
zona pellucida develops In between
the follicular cells and the primary
oocyst.
• As growth continues, the follicular cells
proliferate, forming a thick cellular layer
around the oocyte. In between follicular cells,
fluid filled cavities are formed which later
coalesce to form one big cavity= follicular
antrum.
• The follicular cells that remain surrounding the
oocyte are known as cumulus oophorus. A
mature follicle is called tertiary or vesicular
follicle.
It is surrounded by two layers of
connective tissues; an outer
fibrous layer called theca externa,
and an inner layer called theca
interna, which is rich in blood
vessels.
With each ovarian cycle, a number of
follicles begin to develop but only one
reaches maturity while the other
degenerate.
As soon as the follicle is mature, the
primary oocyte resumes its first meiotic
division. The results are 2 daughter cells=
(i)secondary oocyte, which receive almost
all the cytoplasm, and (ii)the polar body,
which hardly receive any cytoplasm.
• The secondary oocyte is shed from the ovary and
it will only complete its 2nd meiotic division if it is
fertilised, otherwise it degenerates
approximately 24 hours after ovulation.
 2-SPERMATOGENESIS
• the maturation process from primordial
germ cell to mature male gametes.
• The primordial germ cells in males
migrate to the sex cords of the testis and
they don’t differentiate until puberty
unlike in females where differentiation
begins in the third month
• At birth, the germ cells can be
recognised and are surrounded by
supportive cells, which later becomes
the sunstentacular or sertoli cells.
Shortly before puberty, the sex cord
acquires a lumen and becomes the
seminiferous tubules. At the same
time, the primordial germ cells give
rise to spermatogonia
• Spermatogonia differentiate into primary
spermatocytes. The primary
spermatocytes replicate their DNA and
then enter the prophase of the 1st meiotic
division. The prophase lasts about 16
days, and then the following phases are
completed and two secondary
spermatocytes are formed. Each of these
cells enter the 2nd meiotic division and
results in production of two spermatids.
• Spermiogenesis= conversion of
spermatid to spermatozoa
• The spermatid undergoes series of
changes which results in production of
the spermatozoa. The changes include;
1. formation of acrosome,
2. condensation of nucleus,
3. formation of neck, body, tail,
4. shedding of most of cytoplasm.
• It takes approximately 61 days for
a spermatogonia to develop into
a spermatozoa.
• When fully formed, spermatozoa
are pushed from seminiferous
tubules and are stored in the
epididymis where they are
capacitated=become motile.
• Abnormal spermatozoa are often
seen; giant, dwarf, deformed head,
tail, sometimes joined. If abnormality
affects more than 25% of
spermatozoa, fertility is usually
impaired.