ANA213 (EMBRYOLOGY)

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
DR. EMMANUEL.O BIENONWU
 It
deals with the prenatal stage of
development from formation of gametes,
fertilization, formation of zygote,
development of embryo & fetus to the birth
of a new individual.

 Two basic processes involved are growth &

differentiation. These lead to formation of
various tissues and organs in body
specialized to perform specific functions.

 Growth takes places through CELL DIVISION

so lets look at CELL DIVISION
2 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS--- - INVOLVES SOMATIC OR NON
REPRODUCTIVE
OR NON SEX CELLS
MEIOSIS------INVOLVES REPRODUCTIVE CELLS OR
SEX CELLS
• IT IS ESSENTIAL FOR GROWTH AND REPAIR
OF DAMAGED CELLS (HEALING
• THE UNCONTROLLED GROWTH OF CELLS IN HUMAN
LEADS TO CANCER
ERRORS OF MEIOSIS—
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
TRISOMY 23
ANA213 (EMBRYOLOGY)
GAMETOGENESIS
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
DR. EMMANUEL.O BIENONWU
(SEX CELLS)
ALSO PREVENTS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
FROM RECOGNISING THE SPERM AS
FOREIGN
STAGES/PHASES OF SPERMATOGENESIS
 Spermatocytogenesis (mitotic phase)----
FORMATION OF THE SPERMATOCYTE
(PRIMARY)
 Spermatidogenesis (meiotic phase)-----
FORMATION OF THE SECONDARY
SPERMATOCYTE & SPERMATIDS
 Spermiogenesis-----FORMATION OF THE
SPERMATOZOA
 Spermiation--SPERM
Maturation(differentiation phase)
 SPERMATOCYTOGENESIS
• Spermatogonia are the initial pool of diploid cells that
divide by mitosis to give 2 identical cells.

• One will be used to replenish the pool of spermatogonia

– these cells are A1 spermatogonia. This replenishment
of spermatogonia means that males are fertile
throughout their adult life. The other cell – type B
spermatogonium – will eventually form mature sperm.

• Type B spermatogonia replicate by mitosis several times

to form identical diploid cells linked by cytoplasm
bridges, these cells are now known as PRIMARY
SPERMATOCYTES.
 SPERMATIDOGENESIS
• Primary spermatocytes then
undergo meiosis.
• Meiosis I produces two haploid cells,
known as secondary spermatocytes.
• Meiosis II produces four haploid
cells, known as spermatids. (SEE
DIAGRAM)
 SPERMIOGENESIS
• Prior to spermiogenesis, the spermatids are still
rounded and large due to the cytoplasmic
structures that are still intact.

• They will go through changes in their form so that

they become adapted for fertilization.

• They will have a distinct, more compacted, smaller,

& streamlined head with an anterior acrosome, a
thickened mid-piece containing a ring of
mitochondria, and a flagellum at the posterior.
• SPERMIOGENESIS is generally
comprised of four major phases:
 Golgi phase
 Cap phase
 Tail phase and
 Maturation phase (Spermiation)
The Golgi phase
• The spermatid is prepared to acquire the major parts
of a sperm cell: a head, a mid-piece, and a tail.
• called as such (GP) because of the intensified activity
of the Golgi apparatus.
• THE GOLGI APPARATUS produces & release lytic
enzymes that will gather inside the future acrosome
(cap phase).
• At the other end of the spermatid, a mid-piece form.
The area thickens as mitochondria fill in this part.
• Also during this phase, the genetic material (DNA)
undergoes packaging as protamines replace histones.
CAP PHASE---- formation of the
acrosomal cap
• The acrosomal cap or acrosome is
a membrane-bound compartment
at the tip of the head of the
spermatid.
• It forms when the Golgi apparatus
surrounds the anterior of the
spermatid to form the acrosome.
The tail phase is characterized by the elongation
of microtubules on one of the centrioles of the
spermatid to become the tail.
• The microtubules form an axoneme. The
axonome contains microtubules that are
arranged in a 9 + 2 configuration. This means that
a pair of microtubules lies at the center and then
surrounded by 9 outer doublet microtubules.
• The developing germ cell orients itself such that
the growing tail is directed toward the center of
the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.
 SPERMIATION(MATURATION)
• The final product of spermiogenesis is a
non-motile mature spermatozoon.
• Thus, the spermatozoa after this stage will
still be sterile since they are not yet
motile.
• They become motile cells when they
further develop in the epididymis.
• The migration of the spermatozoon to the
epididymis to become a motile sperm cell
is called spermiation.
SPERM CELL
• Spermatogenesis takes approximately 70
days, therefore in order for sperm production
to be continuous and not intermittent,
multiple spermatogenic processes are
occurring simultaneously within the same
seminiferous tubule, with new groups of
spermatogonia arising every 16 days
(spermatogenic cycle).

• Each of these populations of spermatogenic

cells will be at different stages of
spermatogenesis.
 OOGENESIS-PROLIFERATION, GROWTH,
MATURATION
• Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis in that it
begins in the foetus prior to birth.
• Primordial germ cells (which originate in the yolk
sac of the embryo) move to colonise the cortex of
the primordial gonad. Replication by mitosis
peaks at approximately 7 million by mid-
gestation (~20 weeks).
• Cell death occurs after this peak to leave 2 million
cells.
• Meiosis I begins before birth and forms primary
oocytes. There is therefore a finite supply of ova.
• Primary oocytes are arranged in the
gonads as clusters. They have flattened
epithelial cells surrounding them, and this
is called the primary follicle.
• During childhood, further atresia (cell
death) occurs, leaving ~40,000 eggs at
puberty.
• Once puberty begins, a number of primary
oocytes (15-20) begin to mature each
month, although only one of these reaches
full maturation to become an oocyte.
• The primary oocytes undergo 3 stages:
• Pre-antral.
• Antral.
• Preovulatory.
• Pre-Antral Stage
 The primary oocyte is still in meiosis I, but will grow
dramatically in this stage. The follicular cells grow and
proliferate to form a stratified cuboidal epithelium. Now, we
call these granulosa cells & they secrete glycoproteins.
These chemicals form the zona pellucida around the
primary oocyte.
 Surrounding connective tissue cells also differentiates to
become the theca folliculi, a specialised layer of
surrounding cells that is responsive to LH and can secrete
androgens under its influence.
• Antral Stage
Fluid filled spaces form between
granulosa cells, these eventually combine
together to form a central fluid filled
space called the antrum.
We now call the follicles secondary
follicles. In each monthly cycle one of
these secondary follicles becomes
dominant and develops further under the
influence of FSH, LH and oestrogen.
• Pre-Ovulatory Stage
• The LH surge induces this stage and meiosis I is now
complete. Inside the follicle, 2 unequally sized
haploid cells form. One of the daughter cells
receives far less cytoplasm than the other and forms
the first polar body, which will not go on to form an
ovum.
• Another haploid cell is also formed, known as the
secondary oocyte. Both daughter cells then undergo
meiosis II.
• An initial polar body will replicate to give two polar
bodies but the secondary oocyte arrests in
metaphase of meiosis II. This happens 3 hours prior
to ovulation.
Ovulation
• Now, the follicle has grown in size and is mature –
it is called a Graafian follicle.
• An LH surge occurs and increases collagenase
activity. This is an enzyme that disrupts collagen.
Therefore, there is weakening of the follicular
wall. This, combined with muscular contractions
of the ovarian wall, results in the ovum being
released from the ovary.
• The ovum is then taken up into the fallopian tube
via the fimbriae (finger-like projections of the
fallopian tube).
Fertilisation – the final stage of OOGENESIS
• The secondary oocyte will only complete meiosis
II following fertilisation. Here, it gives off a third
polar body. Following meiosis II, a fertilised egg
results. If fertilisation doesn’t occurs, the oocyte
degenerates 24 hours after ovulation, remaining
arrested in meiosis II.
• If fertilisation does occur, peristaltic
movements of the fallopian tube move the egg
to the uterus where it can implant into the
posterior uterine wall.
ANA213 (EMBRYOLOGY)
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
DR. EMMANUEL.O BIENONWU
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• During each menstrual cycle, an egg
develops and is released from the ovaries.
The lining of the uterus builds up.

• If a pregnancy doesn’t happen, the uterine

lining sheds during a menstrual period.
Then the cycle starts again.

• There are 4 phases of the menstrual cycle

lasts for about 16 days. It can range from 11 to 27 days, depending on your cycle.

LAST FOR ABOUT 16 DAYS ON AVERAGE.

11-27DAYS
Ovulation phase is the only time during your
menstrual cycle when you can get pregnant. You
can tell that you’re ovulating by symptoms like
these:
• a slight rise in basal body temperature
• thicker discharge that has the texture of egg
whites

Ovulation happens at around day 14 if you have a

28-day cycle — right in the middle of your
menstrual cycle. It lasts about 24 hours. After a
day, the egg will die or dissolve if it isn’t fertilized.
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)
• If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus
luteum will shrink away &be resorbed.
• This leads to decreased levels of estrogen &
progesterone, which causes the onset of your
period.
• The uterine lining will shed during your
period.
• The luteal phase lasts for 11 to 17 days. The
average length is 14 days
Menstrual phase
• The menstrual phase is the first stage of the
menstrual cycle. It’s also when you get your period.
• This phase starts when an egg from the previous
cycle isn’t fertilized. Because pregnancy hasn’t taken
place, levels of the hormones estrogen and
progesterone drop.
• The thickened lining of the uterus, which would
support a pregnancy, is no longer needed, so it
sheds through the vagina.
• During your period, you release a combination of
blood, mucus, and tissue from your uterus.
APPLIED ANATOMY
 ANA213 (EMBRYOLOGY)
FERTILIZATION & 1ST WEEK OF
DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
DR. EMMANUEL.O BIENONWU
 STAGES OF FERTILIZATION
 CAPACITATION (CHEMICAL ATTACTION)

 ACROSOMAL REACTION

 CORTICAL REACTION

 FUSION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE OF OOCYTE

AND SPERM

 FUSION OF SPERM & EGG PRONUCLEI

WHEN MORE THAN ONE
SPERM MANAGES TO ENTER
THE OVUM
• DISPERMY=2,
• TRIPLOIDY=3
THE FETUS NEARLY ALWAYS
ABORT
WEEK 1: Days 1-6(PRE EMBRYONIC PERIOD)
• Fertilization, day 1---We have seen

• Cleavage, day 2-3

• Compaction, day 3

• Formation of blastocyst, day 4

• Ends with implantation, day 6

CLEAVAGE HAPPENS DURING THE PRE-
EMBRYONIC PERIOD
 2 CELL STAGE-CLEAVAGE
• Individual cells = blastomeres

• Mitotic divisions maintain

2N (diploid) complement

• Cells become smaller

• Blastomeres are equivalent

(aka totipotent).
 4 CELL STAGE- CLEAVAGE

4 equivalent blastomeres still in zona

pellucida
8 Cell Stage (3rd Cleavage)

Blastomeres still equivalent

 Embryo undergoes compaction after 8-cell stage:
first differentiation of embryonic lineages

Caused by increased cell-cell adhesion

Cells that are forced to the outside of the morula are destined
to become trophoblast--cells that will form placenta
The inner cells will form the embryo proper and are called the
inner cell mass (ICM).
 Formation of the blastocyst

Sodium channels appear on the surface of the

outer trophoblast cells; sodium & water are pumped
into the forming blastocoele.
Note that the embryo is still contained in the zona
pellucida.
BLASTOCYST
Monozygotic twinning typically occurs
during cleavage/blastocyst stages
 “Hatching” of the blastocyst:
preparation for implantation(1ST STAGE)

Hatching of the embryo from the zona pellucida occurs just

prior to implantation. Occasionally, the inability to hatch
results in infertility, and premature hatching can result in
abnormal implantation in the uterine tube.
ANA213 (EMBRYOLOGY)
2ND WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
DR. EMMANUEL.O BIENONWU
MATERNAL SINUSOIDS--DILATED BLOOD CAPILARIES
BILAMINAR GERM DISC
THE CAVITIES ACTUALLY CONFLUENCE OR
MERGE DISPLACING OR MAKING THE
PRIMITIVE YOLK SAC SMALLER FORMING
THE SECONDARY YOLK SAC
NOTE THE REMINANT OF THE EXO
COELOMIC CAVITY IS THE EXOCOELOMIC
CYST
RECAP
 **Note

ALSO----IMPLANTATION IS
COMPLETED IN THE 2ND WEEK OF
DEVELOPMENT
**NOTE ALSO FORMATION OF PRIMARY VILLI
ANA213 (EMBRYOLOGY)
3rd WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
DR. EMMANUEL.O BIENONWU
GASTRULATION
• The process by which the bilaminar disc is
converted into a trilaminar disc

• It is the beginning of morphogenesis

(formation of body form)

• Consists of formation of the primitive streak,

the three germ layers & the notochord

• Embryo is referred to as a Gastrula

NEURENTERIC CANAL.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE NOTORCHORD
• Defines primordial axis of the embryo
• Provides rigidity to the embryo
• Serves as a basis for the development of the
axial skeleton
• Indicates the future site of the vertebral
bodies/column
• Regulates differentiation of surrounding
structures including the overlying ectoderm
(neural plate) and mesoderm (somites).
CAUDAL DYSGENESIS (SIRENOMELIA)
SACROCOCCYGEAL TERATOMA
 NEURULATION

 It is the process by which the neural tube is formed.

• The stages of neurulation include the formation of:

• Neural plate
• Neural groove
• Neural folds & their fusion
• Neural crest cells
• Neural tube

• Begins during early part of the 4th week (22-23 days)

• Ends by the end of 4th week (27 days)
• Is induced by the notochord
 NEURULATION
• Under the
inducing effect of
the developing

notochord, the
overlying
ectodermal cells
thickens to form
the neural plate
• The neural plate
first appears:
• Cranial to the
primitive node and
• Dorsal to the
developing
notochord & the
mesoderm
adjacent to it
• On 18th day: the neural
plate invaginates to
form neural groove &
neural folds
Some neuroectodermal cells along the crest
of the neural fold differentiate as the neural
crest cells.

NEURAL CREST CELLS

NEURAL FOLD
• By the end of 3rd week,
the neural folds move
to the midline and fuse
to form the neural tube

• The fusion begins in the

future cervical region
and then extends both
in cranial and caudal
direction
• The cranial ⅓ of
the neural tube
represent the
future brain

• The caudal ⅔
represents the
future spinal cord
PLACENTA 206 12/04/2024

 This is a fetomaternal organ.

 It has two components:
 Fetal part – develops from the chorionic sac
 Maternal part – derived from the endometrium
 The placenta and the umbilical cord are a transport
system for substances between the mother and the fetus.

 Function Of The Placenta:

1. Protection.
2. Nutrition.
3. Respiration.
4. Excretion.
5. Hormone production, (progesterone,estrogen,Gonadotrophins
 207 12/04/2024

Development of the placenta

 As the trophoblast continues to erode more
and more sinusoids, maternal blood begins
to flow through the trophoblastic system,
establishing the uteroplacental
circulation.
 The trophoblast is characterized by villous
structures.
 208 12/04/2024

Development of the placenta

 Cells of the cytotrophoblast
proliferate locally and
penetrate into the
syncytiotrophoblast
 forming cellular columns
surrounded by syncytium.
 Cellular columns with the
syncytial covering are
known as primary villi
 209 12/04/2024

Development of the placenta

 During further development mesodermal cells
penetrate the core of primary villi and grow
toward the decidua.
 The newly formed structure is known as a
secondary villus.
 By the end of the third week, mesodermal cells in
the core of the villus begin to differentiate into
blood cells and small blood vessels,
 Forming the villous capillary system known as a
tertiary villus or a definitive placental villus.
 210 12/04/2024

Source: Gary et al 2015. LARSEN'S HUMAN EMBRYOLOGY, 5

 211 12/04/2024

Souce: Sadler et al 2015 Langman’s Medical Embryology

 212 12/04/2024

Development of the placenta

 Capillaries in tertiary villi make contact
with capillaries developing in the
mesoderm of the chorionic plate and in the
connecting stalk.
 These vessels establish contact with the
intraembryonic circulatory system,
connecting the placenta and the embryo.
 213 12/04/2024

Development of the placenta

 Hence,when the heart begins to beat in the
fourth week of development, the villous
system is ready to supply the embryo
proper with essential nutrients and oxygen.
 214 12/04/2024

Variants Placenta
 Accreta , increta, percreta, previa
 Bilobed
 Circumvallate
 Placenta Membranacea
 Succenturiate
 Battledore Placenta
 215 12/04/2024

Anomalies of Placenta

Source: Prof. Saeed Makarem

 216 12/04/2024

Source: Prof. Saeed Makarem

 217 12/04/2024

Source: Prof. Saeed Makarem

 218 12/04/2024

Source: Prof. Saeed Makarem

BATTLEDORE
PLACENTA

VELAMENTOUS
INSERTION OF
CORD
12/04/2024 219
Source: Prof. Saeed Makarem
 220 12/04/2024

Thank you
 221 12/04/2024

References
 Sadler TW. Langman’s Medical Embryology.
13thEd,Philadelphia. 2014. p43 – 71
 Gray CS,Steven BB, Philip RB,Philipa RF.
Larsen's Human Embryology 15th Ed, churchill
Livingstone. P34 - 50