Embryology

NJERU, A. M.
MSN (Med/Surg)
Gametogenesis
• Gametogenesis occurs when a haploid cell (n) is formed
from a diploid cell (2n) through meiosis.
• Gametogenesis in the male spermatogenesis and it produces
spermatozoa while in the female, it is called oogenesis and
results in the formation of ova.

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Spermatogenesis

• Males start producing sperm when they reach puberty,

which is usually from 10-16 years old.
• Biological males continually produce sperm in large
quantities (approximately 200 million a day).
• Sperm production occurs in the testes of the male,
specifically in the seminiferous tubules.
• In the testicles, a blood-testis barrier forms to keep the
tubules separate from the systemic circulation.
• Sertoli cells form the blood-testis barrier.
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• This is important in preventing substances found in blood
from affecting the developing sperm.
• These products might include hormones or waste products.
• It is also important as it prevents the immune system of the
male from recognizing the sperm as foreign since they are
genetically different from the male antigens.
• Spermatogonia are the initial pool of diploid cells that divide
by mitosis to give two identical cells.

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• One of these cells will be used to replenish the pool of
spermatogonia; A1 spermatogonia.
• This replenishment of spermatogonia means that males are
fertile throughout their adult life.
• The other cell (type B spermatogonium), will eventually form
mature sperm.
• Type B spermatogonia replicate by mitosis several times to
form identical diploid cells linked by cytoplasm bridges.

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• These cells are now known as primary spermatocytes.
• Primary spermatocytes then undergo meiosis.
• Meiosis I produces two haploid cells, known as secondary
spermatocytes.
• Meiosis II produces four haploid cells, known as spermatids.
• The cytoplasmic bridges break down and the spermatids are
released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule; a
process called spermiation.

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• The spermatids undergo spermiogenesis (remodelling and
differentiation into mature spermatozoa) as they travel along
the seminiferous tubules until they reach the epididymis.
• From the seminiferous tubule, cells will travel to the rete
testis which “concentrate” the sperm by removing excess
fluid.
• Then, cells move to the epididymis where the sperm is
stored and undergoes the final stages of maturation.
• Spermatogenesis takes approximately 70 days.
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• In order for sperm production to be continuous and not
intermittent, multiple spermatogenic processes are occurring
simultaneously within the same seminiferous tubule.
• New groups of spermatogonia arising every 16 days
(spermatogenic cycle), with each populations being at
different stages of spermatogenesis.
• Once sperm leave the male body and enter the female
reproductive tract, the conditions cause the sperm to
undergo capacitation.
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• This is the removal of cholesterol and glycoproteins from the
head of the sperm cell to allow it to bind to the zona
pellucida of the egg cell.

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Oogenesis

• Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis in that it begins in

the fetus prior to birth.
• Primordial germ cells (which originate in the yolk sac of the
embryo) move to colonize the cortex of the primordial
gonad.
• Replication by mitosis peaks at approximately 7 million by
mid-gestation (~20 weeks).
• Cell death occurs after this peak to leave 2 million cells.
• Meiosis I begins before birth and forms primary oocytes.

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• There is therefore a finite supply of ova.
• Primary oocytes are arranged in the gonads as clusters.
• They have flattened epithelial cells surrounding them, and
this is called the primary follicle.
• During childhood, further atresia (cell death) occurs, leaving
about 40,000 eggs at puberty.
• Once puberty begins, a number of primary oocytes (15-20)
begin to mature each month, although only one of these
reaches full maturation to become an oocyte.
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• The primary oocytes undergo 3 stages:
i. Pre-Antral Stage
• The primary oocyte is still in meiosis I, but will grow
dramatically in this stage.
• The follicular cells grow and proliferate to form a stratified
cuboidal epithelium.
• Now, called granulosa cells which secrete glycoproteins.
• The glycoproteins form the zona pellucida around the
primary oocyte.
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• Surrounding connective tissue cells also differentiates to
become the theca folliculi, a specialized layer of surrounding
cells that is responsive to LH and can secrete androgens
under its influence.
ii. Antral Stage
• Fluid filled spaces form between granulosa cells, which
eventually combine to form a central fluid filled space called
the antrum.
• We now call the follicles secondary follicles.
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• In each cycle, one of these secondary follicles becomes
dominant and develops further under the influence of FSH,
LH and estrogen.
iii. Pre-Ovulatory Stage
• The LH surge induces this stage and meiosis I is now
complete.
• Inside the follicle, two unequally sized haploid cells form.
• One of the daughter cells receives far less cytoplasm than
the other.
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• This forms the first polar body, which will not go on to form
an ovum.
• Another haploid cell is also formed, known as the secondary
oocyte.
• Both daughter cells then undergo meiosis II.
• An initial polar body will replicate to give two polar bodies
but the secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase of meiosis II.
• This happens 3 hours prior to ovulation.

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Ovulation
• Now, the follicle has grown in size and is mature; it is called
a Graafian follicle.
• An LH surge occurs and increases collagenase activity which
disrupts collagen weakening of the follicular wall.
• This, combined with muscular contractions of the ovarian
wall, results in the ovum being released from the ovary.
• The ovum is then taken up into the fallopian tube via
the fimbriae.
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Fertilization – the final stage of female gametogenesis
• The secondary oocyte will only complete meiosis II
following fertilization.
• Here, it gives off a third polar body.
• Following meiosis II, a fertilized egg results.
• If fertilization doesn’t occurs, the oocyte degenerates 24
hours after ovulation, remaining arrested in meiosis II.

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• If fertilization does occur, peristaltic movements of the
fallopian tube move the egg to the uterus where it can
implant into the posterior uterine wall.

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Human Development
• The prenatal stage of development begins at the time of
conception or fertilization.
• The period of prenatal development continues until the birth
of the child about 39 weeks later.
• The science of the development of the offspring before birth
is called embryology.

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Fertilization to Implantation
• After ovulation the discharged ovum first enters the
abdominal cavity and then finds its way into the uterine
tubes.
• Sperm cells that are deposited in the vagina must enter and
“swim” through the uterus and through the uterine tube to
meet the ovum.
• Fertilization most often occurs in the outer one-third of the
oviduct.
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• The fertilized ovum or zygote is genetically complete; it
represents a new single-celled offspring.
• The zygote immediately begins mitotic division, and in about
3 days a solid mass of cells called a morula is formed.
• The cells of the morula continue to divide, and by the time
the developing embryo reaches the uterus, it is a hollow ball
of cells called a blastocyst.

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• During the 10 days from the time of fertilization to the time
when the blastocyst completes implantation in the uterine
lining, few nutrients from the mother are available.
• The rapid cell division taking place up to the blastocyst stage
occurs with no significant increase in total mass compared
with the zygote.
• One of the specializations of the ovum is its incredible store
of nutrients that help support this embryonic development
until implantation has occurred.

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• The blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells and an inner
cell mass.
• As the blastocyst develops, it forms a structure with two
cavities, the yolk sac and amniotic cavity.
• Since uterine fluids provide nutrients to the developing
embryo in humans until the placenta develops, the function
of the yolk sac is not a nutritive one.
• Instead, it has other functions, including production of blood
cells.
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• The amniotic cavity becomes a fluid-filled, shock-absorbing
sac, in which the embryo floats during development.
• The chorion, develops into an important fetal membrane in
the placenta.
• The chorionic villi connect the blood vessels of the chorion to
the rest of the placenta.
• The placenta anchors the developing fetus to the uterus and
provides a medium for the exchange of nutrients and waste
products between mother and baby.
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• The placenta is a unique structure that has a temporary but
very important series of functions during pregnancy.
• It is composed of tissues from mother and child and
functions not only as a structural “anchor” and nutritive
bridge but also as an excretory, respiratory, and endocrine
organ.
• Placental tissue normally separates the maternal blood,
which fills the lacunae of the placenta, from the fetal blood
so that no intermixing occurs.
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• The placental tissue that separates maternal and fetal blood
also serves as an effective “barrier” that can protect the
fetus from harmful substances that may enter the mother’s
bloodstream.
• Unfortunately, toxic substances, such as alcohol and some
infectious organisms, may penetrate this protective placental
barrier and injure the developing baby.
• However, cytomegalovirus (CMV) or Treponema pallidum,
can easily pass through the placenta and cause
developmental defects in the fetus .
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Periods of Development

• The length of pregnancy (about 39 weeks)—called the

gestation period—is divided into three 3-month segments
called trimesters.
• A number of terms are used to describe development during
these periods known as the first, second, and third
trimesters of pregnancy.
• During the first trimester, or 3 months, of pregnancy, many
terms are used.
• Zygote describes the ovum just after fertilization by a sperm
cell.
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• After about 3 days of constant cell division, the solid mass of
cells, identified earlier as the morula, enters the uterus.
• Continued development transforms the morula into the
hollow blastocyst, which then implants into the uterine wall.
• The embryonic phase of development extends from the third
week after fertilization until the end of week 8 of gestation.
• During this period in the first trimester, the term embryo is
used to describe the developing offspring.

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• The fetal phase is used to indicate the period of development
extending from week 9 to week 39.
• During this period, the term embryo is replaced by fetus.
• By day 35 of gestation, the heart is beating and, although the
embryo is only 8 mm long, the eyes and so-called “limb
buds,” which ultimately form the arms and legs, are clearly
visible.
• At the end of the first trimester of gestation, the fetus body
size is about 7 to 8 cm (3.2 inches) long.
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• The facial features of the fetus are apparent, the limbs are
complete, and gender can be identified.
• By month 4 all organ systems are complete and in place.

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Formation of the Primary Germ Layers

• At the very beginning of the embryonic stage, all the cells are
stem cells.
• Stem cells are unspecialized cells that reproduce to form
specific lines of specialized cells.
• At this stage, they have their highest “stemness” or potency
— that is, they are capable of producing many different kinds
of cells in the body.
• Some stem cells remain throughout development and
maturity such as the hematopoietic stem cells found in adult
bone marrow.
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• Adult stem cells replace the specialized cells in a tissue and
thus ensure stable, functional populations of the cell types
needed for survival.
• Early in the first trimester of pregnancy, three layers of stem
cells develop that embryologists call the primary germ
layers.
• Each layer gives rise to definite structures such as the skin,
nervous tissue, muscles, or digestive organs.

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• The three germ layers are; endoderm (inner layer),
ectoderm (outer layer) and mesoderm (middle layer).

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Histogenesis and Organogenesis

• The study of how the primary germ layers develop into many
different kinds of tissues is called histogenesis.
• The way that those tissues arrange themselves into organs is
called organogenesis.
• Human development begins when two sex cells unite to form
a single-celled zygote
• Then the offspring’s body evolves by a series of processes
consisting of cell differentiation, multiplication, growth, and
rearrangement, all of which take place in a definite, orderly
sequence.
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• Development of structure and function go hand in hand.
• From 4 months of gestation, when every organ system is
complete and in place, until term (about 280 days), fetal
development is mainly a matter of growth.

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