CHAPTER 36

How Life Begins - Human Reproduction

Book pages 1046 – 1067

Section 1 reproductive systems

SECTION 2: HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Section 3 birth growth and aging

DETERMINATION OF SEX
Sex chromosomes are the X chromosome and Y chromosome which differ greatly in
size and
A. CHROMOSOMES
The characteristics of organisms are determined by the genetic materials inside their
cells. Genetic information is carried by DNA which is present in the nucleus of a cell.
DNA is a molecule consists of 2 chains twisted around each other forming a
double helix. DNA coils many times around some proteins to form a
chromosome. The sex of human is determined by a pair of sex chromosomes

Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes):

F or female, the pair of sex chromosomes is XX. For male, the pair of sex
chromosomes is XY.
In a female, during meiosis the pair of X chromosomes separates and get into the
eggs.
All the eggs from the female contain X chromosome. In a male, the XY chromosomes
separate during meiosis.
Sperms have U the chance to carry a X chromosome and U the chance to carry a Y
chromosome.
-If a sperm carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes an egg, a boy will be resulted.
- If a sperm carrying a X chromosome fertilizes an egg, a girl will be resulted.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A. STRUCTURES OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Testis (pl. testes)
Each male has a pair of testes in the scrotum.
The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules which are the sites of sperm

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production.

Functions of testis:
® production of sperms (male gametes) from seminiferous
tubules
© production of male hormone (testosterone) from
interstitial cells

2. Epididymis
It is a elongated sac-like structure joining to the testis for the storage of sperms.
3- Sperm duct / Vas deferens (pl. vasa deferentia) It transfers sperms from
epididymis to urethra.

3. Accessory glands: seminal vesicle, prostate gland and Bulbourethral gland

(Cowper’s gland)
• 1 pair of seminal vesicles connected to sperm ducts
• 1 pair of bulbourethral glands connected to urethra
• 1 prostate gland below the urinary bladder and surrounding part of the urethra
These glands secrete seminal fluid which provides a nutritive medium for sperms and
a fluid medium for sperms to move. Prostate gland can also provide propulsive
force during ejaculation of semen. Seminal vesicles are NOT used for the storage of
sperms. Semen = sperms + seminal fluid
About 100 million sperms are present in 1 mL of semen. The volume of semen in
each ejaculation is about 2-4 mL.
4. Penis …… It is a tubular structure for transferring sperms into the female’s vagina. It
consists of spongy / erectile tissue. Vasodilation of arterioles of the penis causes
the spongy tissue filled with blood causing the erection of penis.

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B. PROCESSES OF SPERM PRODUCTION (SPERMATOGENESIS) AND SPERM
MATURATION (SPERMIOGENESIS)

Sperms are produced at the rate of abut 120 million per day.
Spermatogenesis - production of spermatids Spermatogonia are diploid cells (i.e. 2n
or 46 chromosomes) on the seminiferous tubule. At puberty (adolescence), the
spermatogonia undergo mitosis to increase their number. Then the matured
spermatogonia carry mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes (2n).
The primary spermatocytes undergo the 1st division of meiosis to give rise to
secondary spermatocytes

The secondary spermatocytes then undergo the 2nd division of meiosis to give rise to
spermatids.
Spermatids are haploid cells (n) with 23 chromosomes.

1. Spermatogenesis - differentiation and maturation of spermatids into sperms

(spermatozoa)
The Golgi body of spermatid becomes a flattened sac called acrosome containing
hydrolytic enzymes for entering the ovum during fertilization.
The centrioles of spermatid elongates and forming a flagellum which will become
the tail of the sperm.

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Numerous mitochondria are aggregated around the flagellum.
The spermatid becomes a tadpole-shaped cell, it is known as sperm / spermatozoon.
The heads of spermatozoa are then embedded in Sertoli cells (nutritive cells) which
provides nutrients for the maturation of the spermatozoa.
Maturation of sperms requires a temperature at about 32 oC, the testes are therefore
located outside the abdominal cavity but in the scrotum.
Normal body temperature (37 oC) can kill sperms or cause the sperms abnormal.

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 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A. STRUCTURES OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ovary
There are 2 ovaries in the abdominal cavity of a female. Ovary produces ova and
female hormones.

2. Oviduct / Fallopian tube

Oviducts are the site of fertilization.
The released ovum or fertilized egg is transferred through oviduct down to the
uterus.

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3. Uterus
It is divided into 2 layers, namely endometrium and myometrium.
a) Endometrium
~ the inner layer of the uterus with
numerous mucus gland and
~ blood vessels
~ thickness changes during menstrual
cycle
~ for implantation of embryo

b) Myometrium
~ the outer layer of the
uterus
~ made up of muscle
~ contracts during menstruation to shed the thicken endometrium and during
giving birth to
push the baby out

4. Cervix It is the entrance to the uterus from vagina.

5.

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B. PRODUCTION OF FEMALE GAMETES
1. Before birth / Fetal stage
Oogonia in the ovaries undergo mitosis to increase their number.
The oogonia develop into primary oocytes.
The primary oocytes are surrounded by follicular cells to form primary follicles.

2. After birth
About 200,000 primary oocytes are found in each ovary at birth.
The primary follicles remain dormant after birth until puberty.

From Puberty to Menopause

Between puberty and menopause, several primary follicles develop each month
under the influence of the hormone. (Menopause: menstruation stops)
The primary oocytes have entered the first meiotic division. But the division of
cytoplasm in the 1st meiotic division is unequal. A secondary oocyte and a first
polar body (a very small daughter cell from the meiosis I which will not undergo
division anymore) are formed. The secondary oocyte will continue the meiosis only

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 after fertilization. After ovulation, if there is sperm to fertilize the secondary
oocyte, it will enter the 2nd meiotic division.
The division of cytoplasm in the 2nd meiotic division is also unequal. An ovum and
a 2nd polar body are formed.

C. MENSTRUATION / MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstruation is the periodic changes in the lining of the uterus with shedding of the
uterine epithelium. The changes in the uterine lining and ovaries are under the
influences of hormones. The length of the cycle in women is about 28 days.
Follicles under the influence of hormone from the pituitary gland develop.
During the cycle, only one follicle can mature and burst to release the ovum
(secondary oocyte).
Ovulation is the process of releasing an ovum from the ovary. It happens around
the middle of the cycle. The ovum will then be collected by the oviduct and
transferred to the uterus. The lining of the uterus getting thicker and thicker to
prepare for the implantation of embryo. If there is no fertilization, the lining will
shed off at the end of the cycle and causes bleeding (menstrual flow).

FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO

A. FERTILIZATION
After ejaculated into the vagina of the female, sperms remain alive for a few days.
The ovum only remains alive for about 24 hours after ovulation.
For a regular 28-day menstrual cycle, sexual intercourse on days 12 to 16 will have
the greatest chance having fertilization. Sperms swim up to the oviduct and meet
the ovum there.
The released ovum is surrounded by corona radiata (several layers of follicular cells)
and a layer of zona pellucida (a layer of glycoprotein). The acrosome in the head of
the sperm releases its hydrolytic enzymes when the sperm touches the cells of the
corona radiata. The enzymes break down the cells of corona radiata and make a
hole on the zona pellucida.

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The cell membrane of ovum is then broken and the sperm head penetrates into
the ovum with the tail left outside. Then the zona pellucida becomes thickened
and with the formation of the fertilization membrane which prevents the entry
of another sperm. (Polyspermy: fertililzation of an egg by more than
one sperm.) The nucleus of the ovum enters the 2nd meiotic division.
The nuclei of the ovum and the sperm fuse together to give the diploid zygote.

Prevention of Polyspermy:
• Fast block: The egg plasma membrane becomes depolarized (change in the
potential of the cell membrane), therefore no other sperms can fuse with it.
• Slow block: the formation of the fertilization membrane

• B. DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO
• The duration of pregnancy on average is 266 days (38 weeks) from the day of
fertilization and 280 days (40 weeks) from the 1st day of last menstrual period.
• The zygote undergoes cleavage as it passes down the oviduct.
•
(Cleavage: a series of rapid mitotic divisions with no period of growth of the cells,
the cell number increases but the embryo does not increase in size)
The cells formed are called blastomeres.
• Morula: 32-cell stage, a solid ball of blastomeres
• Blastocyst: 64 cells to hundreds of blastomeres, a hollow ball with a fluid-filled
cavity (blastoceol).
• Gastrula: the blastula becomes a three-layered embryo
• ------------ Zygote -------------------- » early cleavage stages -------------» morula »
blastula (blastocyst) ---------------- » gastrula

• When the blastocyst reaches the uterus, it embeds among the cells of the
endometrium of the uterus. This process is called implantation.
A placenta will be developed for the exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes
between the fetus and the mother.
The fetus is linked to the placenta via the umbilical cord.
• The fetus is surrounded by chorion and amnion.
• The amnion secretes amniotic fluid which supports the foetus and protects it from
mechanical shock, desiccation.
Functions of placenta:
• ® site of exchange of metabolites such as gases, nutrients and wastes between the
mother and the fetus

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 It secretes hormones to inhibit contraction of myometrium for maintaining
pregnancy

C. PARTURITION / GIVING BIRTH

Myometrium of the uterus contracts rigorously (labour) to expel the fetus from the
uterus. The amnion and chorion are ruptured and amniotic fluid is released to the
vagina as lubricant for the passage of the fetus.
The cervix dilates.
The fetus is then expelled out and the umbilical cord is tied up and cut.
The placenta will later also be expelled out forming the afterbirth.
CHANGES DURING PURBERTY (secondary sexual characteristics)

Boys Girls
The penis and testes become larger. Development of breasts.
Growth of pubic, axillary and facial hair. Growth of pubic and axillary hair.
The body becomes more muscular and The hips broaden.
shoulders broaden.
Voice deepens. More fat is deposited under the skin.
Starts to have periods (menstruation)

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 CLASS WORK 1
Identify if the following humans are male or female .. normal or abnormal

Organism Male Female Normal Abnormal

44+XX

44+XXY

45+XY

44+X

47+XX

44+XY

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 Home work 1

1. What is a gamete?
________________________________________________________
2. Name the male gamete and the female gamete?
________________________________________________________________
3. State the name of the pouch covering the testes______________________
4. Why is it important that the temperature of the scrotum remains at 35 degrees
Celsius
_________________________________________________________________
5. Label the diagram of the male reproductive system shown.

6. In males where is testosterone Produced

________________________________________________________________
7. State the function of the epididymis
______________________________________________________________
8. What is a fertilization process
_______________________________________________________________
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 9. Name the tube through which sperm are released through the penis
_________________
10.Explain the difference between seminal fluid and semen
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
11.The release of sperm from the penis is called
____________________________________
12.Why do sperm producing cells divide by meiosis
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
13.What is puberty
__________________________________________________________
14.In males state the function of FSH
___________________________________________
15.In males state the function of LH
____________________________________________
16.Testosterone causes secondary male characteristics. List 3 such
characteristics____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
17.In relation to male infertility state a cause
______________________________________
A prevention
_____________________________________________________________
A treatment
______________________________________________________________
Questions

Choose the best answer

1- Which sex cell is produced in males?

a. egg
b. ovary
c. testis
d. sperm

2- The Fallopian tube refers to the passageway an egg travels through

when moving between the ovary and the uterus.
a. True
b. False

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3- What process involves an egg being discharged from an ovary?
a. fertilization
b. ovulation
c. negative feedback
d. freedom

4- The female sex cell is the

a. sperm.
b. egg.
c. ovary.

5- What provides protection for the embryo during development?

a. umbilical cord
b. scrotum
c. amniotic sac
d. placenta

6- Where does gestation occur?

a. uterus
b. placenta
c. umbilical cord

7- The release of an egg from an ovary is

a. ovulation.
b. fertilization.
c. menstruation.
d. afterbirth.

8- The female sex cell is the

a. egg.
b. ovary.
c. testis.
d. sperm.

9- The male sex cell is the

a. sperm.
b. egg.
c. testes.

10- The joining of a sperm and an egg is differentiation.

a. True
b. False

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11- What process in the female reproductive system allows blood and
tissue from the uterus to break down and pass through the vagina
monthly?
a. reproduction
b. meiosis
c. menstruation
d. ovulation

12- The ovary contains capillaries that connect the fetus and the
mother.
a. True
b. False

13- The muscular passageway leading to the outside of the body in

the female reproductive system is the
a. uterus.
b. vagina.
c. cervix.
d. fallopian tube.

14- occurs when a sperm cell joins an egg cell.

a. Fertilization
b. Embryo
c. Zygote
d. Twins

15- Sex organs develop rapidly during

a. infancy.
b. childhood.
c. puberty.
d. adulthood.

16- The female reproductive organ that produces a thick, nutrient-rich

lining for a fertilized egg is the
a. ovary.
b. uterus.
c. Fallopian tube.
d. prostate.

17- The fluid that contains sperm is testosterone.

a. True
b. False

18- What system plays a vital role in the existence of the human
species?
a. cardiovascular system
b. respiratory system

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c. digestive system
d. reproductive system

19- If fertilization occurs, it usually occurs in the uterus.

a. True
b. False

20- Which structure in the male reproductive system provides fluid for
semen?
a. epididymis gland
b. bladder
c. urethra
d. prostate gland

1. Label the diagram of the female reproductive system

Structure of the Female reproductive system

Fallopian tube
(Oviduct)

Funnel

Ovary

Ovarian Ligament
Uterus
Lining of uterus
Cervix (endometrium)
Wall of uterus
Vagina

Vulva

2. In females where does meiosis occur

___________________________________________
3. What is a graafian follicle
___________________________________________________
4. What hormone does the graafian follicle produce
________________________________
5. After ovulation what is the follicle known as
___________________________________

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6. What hormone is secreted by the corpus luteum
________________________________
7. State the function of the fallopian tube
________________________________________
8. The lining of the womb is called the
__________________________________________
9. List two functions of the vagina
______________________________________________
10.What is the menstrual cycle
________________________________________________________________
11.Explain the term menopause
_________________________________________________
12.On which days of a typical cycle does menstruation (having a period) occur
________________________________________________________________
13.Label the stages of the menstrual cycle shown in
If fertilisation has not occurred the
The Menstrual Cycle cycle begins again with the breakdown
of the endometrium.
28 1 2
27
26 3
4 DAY 1-5 : Blood from the
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5 womb lining is shed from
24 the body
23 6
22 7 After day 5 the lining of
the uterus repairs and
21
8 builds up again
20
9
19
18 10
Fertile period
17 11
16 12
15 14 13

Implantation may happen Ovulation occurs on Day 14

14.Name a hormone which prevents eggs from developing in females

________________________________________________________________
15.Which hormones in female are associated which secondary sexual
characteristics____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________
16.State two secondary sexual characteristics in males
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

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17.State two secondary sexual characteristics in Females
________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

18.State a cause prevention and treatment of infertility in females

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
19.Explain the term ovulation
_______________________________________________________________
20.What is insemination
_____________________________________________________________
21.What is fertilisation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
22.Where does fertilisation normally occur
________________________________________________________________
23.List two methods of birth control
______________________________________________
24.What is implantation
_______________________________________________________

25.When a sperm and egg join a____________________ is formed which is called

a ______________________________ after approximately one week.
26.An amnion and amniotic fluid surround the foetus. State the function of these
structures________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
27.What is IVF?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
28.What is the chorion
________________________________________________________________
29.Which organ is made both from tissue of the embryo and the mother?
________________________________________________________________
30.List two functions of the placenta
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
31.Why is it important that the mothers and babies blood supply do not mix?
________________________________________________________________
32.What connects the embryo to the placenta?
______________________________________

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33.Which hormones are secreted during pregnancy
_______________________________________________________________
34.What happens to the walls of the uterus when the levels of progesterone are
low?____________________________________________________________
35.Where is oxytocin made ____________________________and what is its
function?________________________________________________________
36.What happens during stage 1 of birth
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
37.At which stage of birth is the placenta expelled from the mother?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
38.What is lactation
_________________________________________________________
39.State two advantages of breastfeeding
____________________________________________________________
40.Name the hormone which stimulated milk production in the mammary
glands________________________________________________________

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Name: _______________________________________________Date: ___________________________Period: ______

Human Reproductive System Unit Review Worksheet

Directions: Treat this like a test and answer as much as you can without ANY help. See how much you actually know by
highlighting/starring what you don’t (yes, you have to do this and I will be looking for it).
Find the answers to what you don’t know. Spend most your time reviewing what is highlighted/starred.

1. Label the diagram below.

A. _____________________________ F. _____________________________
B. _____________________________ G. _____________________________
C. _____________________________ H. _____________________________
D. _____________________________ I. _____________________________
E. _____________________________ J. _____________________________
2. List the male parts, in order, for which sperm and semen are produced and released.

______________ Æ ________________ Æ ________________ Æ _______________ Æ ___________________

3. List the female parts, in order, for which an egg/ovum is created and released.

______________ Æ ________________ Æ ________________ Æ _______________ Æ ___________________

4. A. What two hormones trigger sexual maturity? ____________ &_____________

B. What is another term for sexual maturity? ____________________________

C. When would a boy reach sexual maturity? _____________________________________________________

D. When would a girl reach sexual maturity? ______________________________________________________

5. When sperm fertilizes an egg, what is the result? ___________________________________________________

6. In males, what 2 things does the hormone testosterone influence (or do)?

___________________________ ___________________________
7. In females, what 3 things does the hormone estrogen do?

___________________________ ___________________________ __________________________

8. True / False (circle one and explain your answer): Brother and sister can be identical twins.

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

9. Compare and contrast: Identical vs. Fraternal twins

10. Explain what is happening in the diagram below. Also, label each with the correct process.

Explanation:

_____________________ _________________________

11. Label the parts of the sperm cell below

A. Which part contains digestive enzymes which allow it
to get through the egg’s membrane?

___________________________________________
B. Which part allows the sperm to be mobile, helping it
to reach the egg?

____________________________________________
 12. Label AND describe the 3 phases of the menstrual cycle on the diagram below.

13. Describe the role of the corpus luteum: ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

14. Put the following terms in order, according to fetal development: fetus, blastocyst, embryo, gastrula, zygote

______________ Æ ________________ Æ _________________ Æ ________________ Æ _________________

For the next 9 questions, use the numbers 1, 2, or 3 to label the description as taking place in either the first, second, or
third trimester of fetal development (respectively).

15. ________ Heart begins to beat. 20. ________ Fetus turns upside down (head

16. ________ Embryo is considered a fetus. down).

17. ________ Lungs are fully developed. 21. ________ Fetus has more regular sleep cycles.

18. ________ Fetus breathes amniotic fluid to help 22. ________ Sex organs can show gender of fetus.

develop lungs. 23. ________ Fine body hair a waxy substance help

19. ________ Bones harden. protect the fetus’s skin.

24. How are the following terms related: placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic sac

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

25. Which structure in development is composed of embryonic stem cells? _________________________________

26. At which stage in development would determination occur? (between which 2 structures)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
 27. Fill in the chart for the STDs below:

Preventw/
STD Virus or Bacteria Transmission Symptoms? Treatment or cure? vaccine?
Y or N

Chlamydia

Gonorrhea

Herpes

HIV

HPV

Syphilis

28. What is the only form of 100% safe sex? __________________________________________________________

29. Which form of contraception helps to reduce the risk of contracting an STD AND helps to protect against

pregnancy?__________________________________________________________________________________

30. List the following methods of birth control (or contraception) in order, from least effective to most effective:

Withdrawal, Male Condom, Shot/Depo‐Provera, Pill, Female Condom, IUD, Spermicide

___________________________________________________________________________________________

31. Many times people say that you must protect yourself both physically and emotionally when it comes to sex.

Why might this be said?

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________