LEARNING POINT

FERTILIZATION
 The fusion of haploid male gamete with haploid female gamete to form a diploid zygote
is called fertilization.
 In humans fertilization is internal. The site of fertilization is ampullary-isthamic
junction.
Insemination:
 The release of semen by the penis into the vagina of female during copulation (coitus)
called insemination.
 2 — 3 ml of semen is released into the female genital tract.
 It has 200 — 300 millions of sperms.
 Atleast 60% sperms must has normal shape, 40% normal fertility.
Capacitation:
 The secretions of female genital tract remove coating substance deposited on the
surface of sperms particularly those on acrosome. Thus receptor sites on the
acrosome are exposed and sperms become active to penetrate the egg. This is
known as capacitation. It takes about 5 to 6 hours for capacitation.

Movement of sperms :
 After ovulation, the secondary oocyte is picked up and transported into the ampulla
of oviduct through the opening called ostium.
 The sperm deposited in the vagina move towards the ovum in the fallopian tube.
 The prostaglandins present in the semen induce peristaltic contractions of the
uterus which initiates the upward movement of sperm towards fallopian tube.
 Further the sperm itself is motile and the lashing movements of tail help in sperm
movements.
 Fructose is a fuel for the movement of sperm.
 Neberkern (mitochondria) present in middle piece provide energy for the
movement of sperm.
 The secretions of female genital tract and semen provide medium for the
movement of sperm.
 Many of the sperm are phagocytized in the female genital tract and only few
hundreds of sperm reach the fallopian tube.
Acrosomal reactions :
 The acrosome of sperm secrete sperm lysins, which help the sperm in penetrating the
ovum.
 The sperm lysins include hyaluronidase, corona penetrating enzyme (CPE) and
zonalysin/ acrosin)
 Hyaluronidase is the enzyme which dissolves the hyalurinic acid (matrix) of corona
radiata membrane.
 Corona penetrating enzyme dissolves the corona radiata membrane and the sperm
reaches the zona pellucida.
 Fertilizin is the glycoprotein present on the surface of zona pellucida and antifertilizin
is the acidic amino acid present on the surface of sperm. Fertilizin and antifertilizin are
species specific. Because of fertilizing and antifertilizin reactions the sperm of same
species is attracted towards the ovum and is attached to it. This is called agglutination
 The sperm head binds to specific glycoprotein of ZP2 of zona pellucida and zona lysine/
acrosin is released to dissolve zona pellucida and the sperm enters the perivetelline
space.
 Contact of acrosome stimulate development of an outgrowth on the oocyte called
fertilization cone or cone of reception.
 Cortical and zonal reactions: As the sperm head comes in contact with the
fertilization cone it causes opening of Na+ channels to cause depolarization of the ovum,
membrane, and Ca2+ move into the egg.
 Ca2+ influx causes extrusion of cortical granules. The cortical granules burst and
secrete a membrane around the egg, called Fertilization membrane,
 The perivitelline space becomes more and perivitelline fluid increases.
 Fertilization membrane and perivitelline fluid prevent the entry of another sperm into
egg.
 Zonal reactions make zona pellucida impervious to second sperm by destroying sperm
receptors.
 Hence cortical reactions and zonal reactions are the check for polyspermy.
Entry of sperm into egg:
 After the entry into ovum the nucleus of sperm absorbs water from cytoplasm of ovum
and becomes enlarged and is called male pronucleus.y
 Entry of sperm into the ovum causes breakdown of metaphase promoting factor (MPF)
and turns on anaphase promoting complex (APC). This results in completion of
meiosis — II.
  The second meiotic division is also unequal and results in the formation of a haploid
ovum and a second polar body.
 Male pronuleus migrates through definite route called fertilization path and comes
close to female pronucleus and fuses to form a diploid zygote (synkaryon).
 Fusion of maternal and paternal chromosomes is called Amphimixis.

 The union of male and female gamete is called syngamy

 Intermixing of their cytoplasm is called Plasmogamy
 The fusion of pronuclei of sperm and ovum is called Karyogamy.

Fate of sperm in egg:

 In majority of animals, only head and middle piece enter inside the egg and tail is left
outside.
 In mammals, whole sperm enters in the egg.
 All the structures of sperm dissolve in egg cytoplasm except sperm nucleus proximal
centriole.
 The centriole of egg itself degenerates at the time of second maturation division. So
proximal centriole of sperm starts division. It divides into 2 daughter centrioles, which
migrate towards opposite pole and start forming spindles.
Significance of Fertilization:
1. Oocyte completes its second maturation division on coming in contact with the
sperm.
2. Amphimixis process leads to the formation of a diploid zygote to restore the
normal diploid number of the chromosomes.
3. The centriole of sperm after entering into egg induces the egg to undergo
cleavage.
4. The paternal and maternal characters are transmitted to the offsprings through
the process of fertilization.
5. The peripheral changes occurring in the egg prevent the further entry of sperm
into the ovum, thus checking Polyspermy
Sex determination in Humans :
 Sex of the baby is decided during fertilisation.
 The sex chromosome pattern in human female is XX and that in the male is XY
 Therefore, all the haploid gametes produced by female (ova) have the sex chromosome
X, whereas the male gamete (sperms) may have either X or Y
 Hence 50 percent of sperms carry X chromosomes (gynosperms) while the other 50
percent of sperms carry 'Y' chromosomes (androsperms)
  After fusion of the male and female gametes the zygote would carry either `XX' or `XY'
depending on whether the sperms carrying X or Y has fertilized the ovum.
 The zygote carrying XX would develop into a female baby and XY would form a male
baby.
 Therefore scientifically it is correct that sex of foetus is determined by father and not
by the mother.
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT:
 It includes cleavage, blastulation, implantation, gastrulation and organogenesis.
Cleavage:
 The repeated, rapid, mitotic cell divisions taking place in zygote to produce a
multicellular structure without changing its size are collectively called cleavage.
 Cells produced as a result of cleavage are termed as blastomeres.
 Cleavage results in
a) Increase in the number of blastomeres.
b) Decrease in the size of blastomeres (decrease in mass of cytoplasm)
c) Hence the total size of embryo remains the same as zygote (unchanged)
d) There is no increase in mass of cytoplasm of embryo but there is marked increase
in DNA containing chromosomal material.
 The consumption of 02 increases during cleavage.
 After gastrulation, cleavage is completely stopped.
 Zona pellucida remains undamaged throughout cleavage divisions.

Cleavage in Humans :
 Human eggs are alecithal.
 In humans cleavage is holoblastic, radial, unequal and indeterminate. First cleavage is
completed after 30 hours of fertilization.
 The cleavage furrow passes from animal to vegetal axis as well as centre of zygote.
(Meridonal plane) It divides the zygote completely into two blastomeres (Holoblastic).
 The second cleavage is completed after 60 hours of fertilization.
 The second cleavage is also meridonal but at right angles to the first one. It is completed
earlier in one of the two blastomeres resulting in a transient 3-celled stage.
 Third cleavage is horizontal forming 8 blastomeres.
 There after the rate and pattern of cleavage is non-specific.
Morula :
 Cleavage results is solid ball of cells called morula (little mulberry)
  It is 8 — 16 celled stage.
 Zona pellucida remains intact with morula.
 Compaction occurs in morula separating inner cell mass from outer cell layer.
 The outer cells are flat with tight junctions while inner cell mass consists of rounded
cells with gap junctions.
Blastulation or Blastocyst formation:
 Outer peripheral cells of morula enlarge and flatten further and form trophoblast or
 trophoectoderm.
 Trophoblast cells secrete a fluid into the interior

creating a cavity called blastocoel.

 The inner cell mass now is pushed to one
side as embryonic knob.
 Such a hollow ball of cells is called blastocyst.
 Due to pressure of growing blastocyst, a slit
is produced in zona pellucida through which
growing blastocyst is hatched out.
 At times, it gets broken into two parts which
then gives rise to identical twins or monozygotic twins.
 Trophoblast cells in contact with embyonal knob are called cells of Rauber.
 Area of embryonal knob represents animal pole and the opposite side is abembryonal
pole.
 Later cells of trophoblast divide and give rise to two layers, outer syncytiotrophoblast
and inner cytotrophoblast.
 Trophoblast cells have no role in formation of embryo. They help only in implantation
and supplying nutrients.
 The inner cell mass has plueripotent stem cells and has a role in formation of
embryonic germ layers from which different organs are formed.
 The inner cells mass is reffered as precursor of embryo or embryoblast.
Implantation
 It is fixing of the blastocyst into endometrium of uterus. It occurs 6 to 8 days after
fertilization.
 Hormone progesterone helps in implantation.
 By 12th day it is completely buried in the wall of the uterus.
 Blastocyst comes in contact with the endometrium in the region of embryonic knob or
disc and adheres to it.
 The place of entry through which the embryo enters into the wall, is completely closed
by a fibrous and cellular plug, known as closing coagulum.
 The cells of trophoblast secrete lytic enzymes which cause corrosion of endometrial
lining. They also give rise to finger-like outgrowths called villi.
 Villi not only help in fixation but also help in absorption of nutrients.
 Implantation causes nutrient enrichment, enlargement of cells and formation of uterine
part of placenta called deciduas. (modified mucosal lining of the endometrium of
uterus)

 Decidua has three regions

a) Decidua basalis: Part from where placenta develops.
b) Decidua capsularis: Lying between embryo and lumen of uterus.
c) Decidua parietalis: Part that lines the uterus at places other than the site of
attachment of embryo.
 Interstitial implantation:
The blastocyst is buried deeply inside the wall of uterus and covered by the endometrial
tissues underlying under epithelium this type of implantation occurs in human being

Gastrulation:
 It is characterized by movements of cells in small
masses or sheets to form primary germinal layers.
 There are three primary germ layers ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm.
 In gastrula stage the rate of cleavage is slow and
ultimately stops at the end of gastrulation.
 The cell movements that occur during gastrulation
are called morphogenetic movements since they
lead to initiation of morphogenesis.
 The product of gastrulation is gastrula.
 The embryonic disc differentiate into two layers, an outer epiblast of larger columnar
cells and inner hypoblast of smaller cuboidal cells. This is referred as bilamilar
structure.
 A cavity appears between trophoblast and epiblast and is called amniotic cavity.
 The cells derived from trophoblast called amniogenic cells form the roof of amniotic
cavity and cells of epiblast form the floor of amniotic cavity.
 From epiblast a sheet of cells move inward and displace hypoblast.
  This sheet of cell form embryonic endoderm. Hence among the three germ layers
endoderm is first formed.
 The hypoblast proliferate and surrounds yolk sac cavity. This is extra embryonic
endoderm.
 A primitive streak appears on the surface of the epiblast.
 Some more cells from epiblast move towards primitive groove and arrange themselves
between epiblast and endoderm. These cells form embryonic mesoderm.
 The remaining cells of epiblast are referred as ectoderm.
 Thus the three germ layers called ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are formed and
such a structure is referred as Gastrula.
Method of Gastrulation:
a) Epiboly: Movement of ectoderm of blastomeres
b) Emboly: Movement of mesoderm and endoderm of blastomeres. In some
animals new cavity is formed in gastrula, called archenteron cavity
Fate of germ layers:
Zygote Blastula Gastrula

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Epidermis, sweat and Dermis Gut Oesophagus
sebaceous glands Choroid, sclera Visceral organs Tongue, palate, tonsils,
Enamel of teeth Duramater, microglia Glands of stomach pharynx
Salivary glands and Lungs, trachea and
All neurons, neuroglia Muscular tissue intestine bronchi
expect microglia Connective tissue Urinary bladder
Mammary glands Endoskeleton Gills
Labia majora & minora Vascular system Liver and pancreas
Blood (heart, blood Thyroid gland
Cutaneous glands cells and blood Parathyroids
Nervous system vessels) Thymus
(Brain and spinal cord) Kidneys, ureters Eustachian tube
Nasal epithelium Gonads Bulbourethral glands
Internal ear and external Urinary and genital
ear ducts
Lateral line sense organ Coelom and coelomic
Stomodaeum epithelium
Proctodaeum Choroid and sclerotic
Pituitary coats of
Pineal gland eye
Adrenal medulla Adrenal cortex
Mammary glands Spleen

EXTRA EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES AND PLACENTA

Extra embryonic membranes
The cellular layer formed of blastomeres remains as blastoderm. The central part of
bla5toclerm gives rise to embryo, proper, while the peripheral portion does not take part in
the formation of embryo. This peripheral part is known as extra embryonic region. This
region takes part in the formation of certain membranes called extra embryonic
membranes. These extra embryonic membranes provide facilities or nutrition, respiration and
excretion to the embryo. Extra embryonic membranes are of four types-
1. Amnion 2. Chorion 3. Yolk sac 4. Allantois
On the basis of presence or absence of amnion two groups of vertebrates arc categorised-
1. Amniota- This group is characterized with the presence of amnion in the embi-yos
of its members For example members of class Reptilia, Ayes and Mammalia.
2. Anamniota- Animals of this group are devoid of amnion in their embryos. For
example class cyclostomata, pisces and amphibia.
Foetal Membranes:
i) Amnion is formed of mesoderm on outside and ectoderm inside. Space between
amnion are foetus is called amniotic cavity and it contains amniotic fluid,
ii) Chorion is formed of ectoderm externally and mesoderm inside. Along with the
allantois, it participates in the formation of placenta. Space between amnion and
chorion is extra embryonic coelom.
iii) Allantois consists of mesoderm on outside and endoderm internally. It extends
to fuse with chorion and forms allanto-chorion which gives rise to foetal part of placenta.
iv) Yolk sac: It is formed of mesoderm on the outerside and endoderm on the innerside
FORMATION OF PLACENTA :
 Placenta is formed after 12th week of pregnancy.
 The chorionic and uterine tissue become interdiaitated with each other and jointly form a
structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body
called placenta.
 Placenta in humans is chorioallontoic placenta as it is formed from chorion and allontois.
 Human placenta is also referred as Haemochorial placenta as chorionic villi are dipped in
the maternal blood filled in the sinuses of endometrium.
 Human placenta is discoidal as villi appear form embryonic disc. Human placenta is referred
as decidual placenta.
 Umbilical cord develops from placenta which connects foetus to placenta.
 Both the placenta and umbilical cord are rich sources of stem cells.

Functions of placenta :
 Placenta supplies O2, and nutrients to foetus from mother.
 It removes CO2 and metabolic waste from foetus.
 Placenta acts as endocrine gland, and secretes different hormones like.
a) Human chorionic gonadotropin :
* Like LH, HCG stimulates progesterone release from corpus luteum and maintains it.
* Presence of HCG in urine indicates pregnancy.
b) Human chorionic Somatomammotropin: (HCS or Placental lactogen)
* It stimulates the growth of mammary glands.
* It has anti insulin effect and increases glucose level of blood.
c) Placenta also secretes oestrogen, progesterone, relaxin.
d) Relaxin facilitates parturition by softening the connective tissues of pubic
symphysis.

* The antibodies for measles, chickenpox, polio etc. present in the blood of mother reach the
embryo through placenta.
* If a female takes some harmful chemicals, liquor, drugs etc during pregnancy, these may cross the
placenta and on reaching into foetus may cause deformity during organogenesis (eg. Thallidomide)

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HUMAN PREGNANCY:

 The total time required for foetal development is referred as gestation period.
 Gestation period in
a) Humans 280 days ( 40 weeks) (9 months 7 days)
 b) Dog — 60 — 65 days
c) Elephant — 607 — 641 days
d) Cat — 62 — 72 days
e) Rabbit — 28 — 32 days
 In Human foetus
a) Embryo's heart is formed — After one month of pregnancy
b) Foetus develops limbs and digids — By the end of second month of pregnancy
c) Most of major organs are formed Ex. Limbs, external genilalia — By the end of 12
weeks (first trimester)
d) First movements of foetus and appearance of hair on head — Fifth month of
pregnancy.
e) Body covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, eye-lashes formed, bones begins to
ossify — by end of 24 weeks (second trimester)
f) Foetus is fully developed and ready for delivery — By the end of 9 months.

Time from fertilization Event

30 hours Embryo reaches two-celled stage
3 days Morula stage
7 days Blastocyst begins to implant in the uterus
2 5 weeks Notochord and neural plate are formed; tissue that will give rise to heart is
differentiating; blood cells are formed in yolk sac and chorion
3.5 weeks Neural tube formation; primordial eye and ear visible;
pharyngeal pouches formed; liver differentiates; respiratory system and
thyroid gland just begin to develop; heart tubes fuse, bend and begin to
beat; blood vessels are laid down
4 weeks Limb buds appear; three primary vesicles of brain formed.
2 months Muscles differentiate; embryo capable of movement; gonads
distinguishable as testis or ovary; bones begin to ossify; principal blood
vessels assume final positions; embryo becomes foetus; nervous system
develops; bones enlarge
3 months Sex can be determined by external inspection; notochord degenerates;
lymph glands develop
4 months Face begins to look human; lobes of cerebrum differentiate; eye, ear, and
nose look more 'normal'; rapid growth
Third trimester Lanugo* appears, later it is shed; neurons become myelinated;
tremendous growth of body
266 days(from conception) Birth

PARTURITION :
 It is a neurohormonal reflex. (neuro endocrine mechanism)
 The signals for parturition originate from the fully grown foetus and placenta which induces
mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
 It stimulates hypothalamus and then neurohypophysis to secrete oxytocin.
 Oxytocin acts on myometrium and cause strong uterine contractions.
 Oxytocin sends positive feed back to hypothalamus to secrete more and more oxytocin,
leading to more strong uterine contractions.
 .
Ectopic pregnancy (extra uterine pregnancy)
 The development site of foetus is other than the uterus.
 This may happen if the fertilized egg cell remains in the Fallopian tube.
 The most common type of ectopic pregnancy is a tubal (or oviducal) pregnancy.
 It occurs in Fallopian tubes that become blocked or inflamed.
 The growth of the foetus may cause the tube to rupture and bleed.
 In many cases the foetus dies within three months of conception.
 Rarely, the pregnancy may continue until a live baby can be delivered by caesarean
section.
ADDITIONAL POINTS:

Puberty changes in Boys and Girls:

S.No Boys Girls
Gonads Enlargement of the Ovarian cycle and ovulation begins
testes,
Spermatogenesis
begins
Accessary sexual Penis, prostate, Uterus, vagina, fallopian tube, vulva
organ seminal vesicles and increase in size.
epididymis grow in Endometrium shows menstrual
mass changes and menstruation occurs

Hairs and voice Appearance of Typical feminine distribution of

beards, moustache, hairs (axial+ pubis but no hair on
axillary, public & chest or abdomen). Breasts grow.
chest hair, Low pitch Fat deposition leading to
sound feminine contours. High pith sound.

Somatic Skeletal system – Pelvic girdle becomes roomy and

 grows in length bigger than pectoral (opposite to
Muscular system – boys, where pectoral girdle is bigger
grown in bulk & and pelvic much less roomy)
strength
Psychic Attraction for boys Attraction for boys begins
begins.

Hormonal FSH, LH, estrogen, FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone

progesterone secretion – all rise
secretion — all rise

Homologus Organs
S.No Male Female
1 Scrotal Sac Labia majora
2 Penis Clitoris
3 Prostatic utricle Vagina
4 Prostate gland Paraurehral gland of skene
5 Cowper’s gland Bartholin’s glands

Types of Cleavage

On the basis of fate of Blastomeres On the basis of amount

of Yolk

Determinate Indeterminate Complete or Holoblastic

Incomplete or
Meroblastic

Equal Unequal
Discoidal Superficial
 Holoblastic Holoblastic
meroblastic meroblastic
cleavage cleavage
cleavage cleavage

On the basis of fate of Blastomeres :

Determinate cleavage
1 Fate of blastomere is fixed.
2 If any blastomere is damaged
then that part of embryo will be
absent.
3 Each blastomere is not capable
of forming complete embryo.
4 Example : Mostly protostomes
Indeterminate cleavage
1 Fate of blastomere is not fixed
2 If some blastomeres are lost or
damaged then no loss is observed in
this embryo
3 Each blastomere is capable of forming
complete embryo. This is a basis for
embryo cloning
4 Example : Mostly duterostomes

On the basis of yolk :

 The rate of cleavage is inversely proportional to the amount of yolk present in the egg
 The rate of cleavage is slow in that part of egg, in which more amount of yolk is present
and the rate of cleavage is high in which yolk is in lesser amount.
A complete or Holoblastic cleavage :
 In this pattern cleavage furrow passes through the egg completely
 The whole egg divides into blastomeres.
 Holoblastic cleavage is found in all eggs except megalecithal eggs.
It is of two types.
Equal holoblastic cleavage Unequal holoblastic cleavage
The cleavage furrow plisses through the egg It results in complete but unequal sized
completely resulting in two equal sized blastomeres.
blastomeres.
All parts of egg show same rate of cleavage The blastomeres are less and bigger where
yolk is high and the blastomeres are more and
small where yolk is less

Meroblastic cleavage:
 Found in megalecithal eggs.
 Cleavage does not occur in that part of egg where yolk is present cleavage occurs only in
cytoplasmic part, yolk remains undivided
 It is of two types.
 Discoidal meroblastic cleavage
In megalecithal telolecithal eggs cytoplasm is
found in the form of disc.
Cleavage occurs only in disc like
cytoplasm.
Ex : Reptilian and bird eggs
Superficial meroblastic cleavage
In centrolecithal eggs cleavage occurs only in
peripheral region.
As a result of this superficial layer of
blastomeres is formed around the yolk.
Ex : Insect eggs

Patterns of Cleavage
Cleavage is the successive mitotic cell divisions of the egg and can be
Radial Cleavage : Successive cleavage planes cut straight through the egg e.g., Synapta
paracentrotus.
other : Ctenophore.

Spiral Cleavage : There is a rotational movement of cell parts around the egg axis
leading
to displacement of mitotic spindle with respect to symmetrically disposed radii
e.g., turbellarians, nematoda, rotifera, annelida, all mollusc except
cephalopods.
reference to the plane of symmetry e.g., tunicates, cephalopods.
(e) Meridional Cleavage : When cleavage furrow bisects both the poles of egg
passing through animal - vegetal axis, the plane of cleavage is called meridional cleavage.