L-3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION

1) Protozoa is a group of unicellular primitive animals known as protists whereas Metazoa is a group
of multicellular animals.Protozoa and Metazoa are two forms of eukaryotic animals classified based
on their organization of the body.

2) In man, the vas deferens is derived from the cauda epididymis and connects the epididymis to the
urethra near the point where the seminal vesicles empty and join with it to form the ejaculatory duct.
This ejaculatory duct then passes through the prostate gland into the urethra.

The cauda epididymis is the primary storage site for mature sperm and is continuous with a highly
muscular duct called the ductus deferens, also known as the vas deferens.

3) The caput, or head, is that part of epididymis where sperm enter the epididymis from the testes.
At this stage, sperm are not motile. They are also very dilute. Concentration of sperm starts in the
caput.

SPERM

Sperm is the male reproductive cell, or gamete. Sperm cells are formed during the process known
as spermatogenesis, which in amniotes (reptiles and mammals) takes place in the seminiferous
tubules of the testes. This whole process occurs constantly and takes around 3 months from start to
finish.

Sperm cells cannot divide and have a limited lifespan, but after fusion with egg cells during 
fertilisation, a new organism begins developing, starting as totipotent zygote. The human sperm cell
is haploid, so that its 23 chromosomes can join the 23 chromosomes of the female egg to form
a diploid cell. In mammals, sperm is stored in the epididymis and is released from
the penis during ejaculation in a fluid known as semen.

The word sperm is derived from the Greek word sperma, meaning "seed".

Parts of a sperm –

A) Head- A normal sperm head has a smooth and oval shape. The head is the most important part
of the cell given that it contains the nucleus (genetic material with 23 chromosomes) required to form
a new organism and takes up 65 % of the head. Apart from the nucleus, the head is also made up of
a several parts that include:

Acrosome and Acrosomal Cap-

Together, the two (acrosome and acrosomal cap) make up the acrosomal region. Formed during
spermiogenesis, the acrosome contains a number of contents such as acrosin, hyaluronidase ,lysine
enzyme in the acrosomal matrix. Apart from the enzymes, the acrosome also contains
polysaccharides such as mannose, hexosmine and galactose.

The acrosome occupies the space between the interior plasma membrane and nuclear membrane.
The acrosome itself has an inner and outer membrane (acrosomal membrane) where the outer
membrane borders the plasma membrane while the inner acrosomal membrane borders the nuclear
membrane.
The acrosome is involved in the recognition of the oocyte (egg) to be fertilized. This recognition of
the egg based on molecule composition is known as chemotaxis.

Chemotaxis allows the sperm to navigate towards the eggs through chemical signals. Therefore, this
is an important process that ensures that the sperm fertilizes a conspecific egg (within the same
species).

* Primary ligands (proteins) located near the acrosome recognize the target gamete.

* The sperm head makes up about 10 percent of the entire cell.

B) Midpiece- The midpiece is the central part of the sperm cell between the head and the tail. Like
the head, the midpiece makes up about 10 percent of the total sperm length. Unlike the sperm head
that carries genetic material, the midpiece contains tightly packed mitochondria that provide the
energy requires for swimming.

In addition to providing the energy required for swimming, mitochondria is also suggested to play a
role in controlled cell death known as apoptosis.

Centriole - The centriole is part of the sperm cell located between the head and the midpiece. The
centriole is involved in the formation of sperm aster and zygote aster.

A cross section at the mid-point of the middle piece of a sperm will show mitochondria and 9 + 2
arrangement of microtubules.

C) Tail- The sperm tail is a thin, elongated structure that makes up about 80 percent of the entire
length of the sperm. While the tail may appear to be one long continuous structure, it is divided into
several parts that include:

Connecting piece – This is the part that connects the flagellum to the sperm head

Principal piece (axial filament) and End piece-The principal piece and the end piece of the flagella
help generate the waveform that allows for movement.

Nebenkern is a two-stranded helical structure in the proximal end of the tail region of a sperm.

The nebenkern is a mitochondrial formation in the sperm of some insects such as Drosophila. After
the completion of meiosis, spermatid mitochondria wrap around each other to form a spherical
aggregate, adjacent to the nucleus. The nebenkern proceeds to elongate into a double-stranded
helical structure.

Sperm-egg association

Acrosome Reaction

Dissloution of the outer egg envelope (corona radiata) is caused by the action of an enzyme called
hyaluronidase present in the acrosome. Hyluronidase breaks down hyaluronic acid which binds the
corona radiata cells together. Then the sperm contacts the thick coat surrounding the egg itself
(zona pellucida).
Dissloution of the corona radiata 🡪by hyluronidase 🡪 Hyluronic acid which binds the cells of
corona radiata is dissolved .

When a sperm comes in contact with an egg, the acrosomal vesicle bursts, and the plasma
membrane of the sperm fuses with the membrane of the acrosomal vesicle to form an opening. As
the opening is formed, the acrosomal granule, which is enclosed within the acrosomal vesicle,
disappears and releases a substance called a lysin, which breaks down the egg’s vitelline coat,
allowing passage of the sperm to the egg.

An acrosomal tubule is formed which is attached to the sperm nucleus and extends to the egg
surface and fuses with the egg plasma membrane. The tubule thus formed establishes continuity 
between the egg and the sperm and provides a way for the sperm nucleus to reach the interior of the
egg.

Sperm+egg 🡪 bursting of acrosomal vescicles 🡪release of acrosomal granules 🡪 fusion of

membranes of acrosomal vesicles and sperm membrane 🡪opening is formed 🡪acrosomal
granules release lysine 🡪 breaking of vitelline coat 🡪 entry of sperm into egg
Acrosomal tubule 🡪 from sperm nucleus gets attached to egg plasma membrane 🡪 sperm
nucleus,middle piece and some part of tail gets transferred from sperm to egg 🡪 egg
membrane is again re-established

Other spermatozoal structures that may be carried within the egg include the midpiece and part of
the tail. As the spermatozoal nucleus is drawn within the egg, at the end of the process, the
continuity of the egg plasma membrane is re-established.

This description of the process of sperm-egg association, first documented for the acorn
worm Saccoglossus (phylum Enteropneusta), generally applies to most eggs studied thus far.

During their passage through the female genital tract of mammals, spermatozoa undergo
physiological change, called capacitation.

This allows acrosome enzymes (e.g. acrosin) to be released and support sperm entry into the egg.
This is a calcium-dependent event.

Essentially, the enzyme (acrosin) is stored in the acrosome in an inactive form known as
zymogen. The pH level inside the acrosome is lower which causes the enzyme to remain inactive.

When it comes in contact with the glycoproteins of the ovum membrane (zona pellucida), the
enzyme is converted into acrosin, an active form that is capable of acting on the membrane. This, in
turn, allows the sperm cell to penetrate and enter the egg for fertilization to take place.

Zymogen in acrosome (Inactive) 🡪 comes in contact of glycoproteins of zona pellucida 🡪

changes into acrosin 🡪 helps the sperm to penetrate the egg🡪 fertilization takes place

Acrosome enzymes are also known as lysosomal enzymes.

The non-cellular layer of egg is Zona pellucida. It is a transluscent covering of the glycoproteins.
As the sperm approaches the zona pellucida of the egg, the membrane surrounding the acrosome
fuses with the plasma membrane of the oocyte, exposing the contents of the acrosome.
The contents include surface antigens and numerous enzymes ( lysin , hyluronidase) which are
responsible for breaking through the egg's tough coating and allowing fertilization to occur. This
reaction is triggered by release of lysine.

Corona radiata- Hyaluronidase Zona pellucida - Acrosin

Vitelline memberane – Lysin

Fertilizin of the ovum interacts with the anti-fertilizin of the sperm cell to initiate the reaction.

Acrosome reaction is calcium-dependent involving massive uptake of calcium with an efflux of

hydrogen generating high pH and osmotic pressure, producing negative surface charge, and partial
or total release of the acrosomal enzymes.

Calcium influx may activate phospholipase resulting in accumulation of unsaturated fatty acids and
fusiogenic lysophospholipids contributing to acrosome reaction.

uptake of calcium -------------🡪 Efflux of hydrogen -----------🡪 pH and osmotic pressure

becomes high inside the acrosome -----------------🡪Efflux of H+ cause –ve surface charge

charge -----------------🡪 enzymes releases out

Prevention of polyspermy

When a sperm starts to move through the zona, it does not allow the penetration of additional
spermatozoa (zona reaction).

Formation of the zygote nucleus

After its entry into the egg cytoplasm, the spermatozoal nucleus, now called the male pronucleus,
begins to swell, and its chromosomal material disperses and becomes similar in appearance to that
of the female pronucleus.

Although the membranous envelope surrounding the male pronucleus rapidly disintegrates in the
egg, a new envelope promptly forms around it. The male pronucleus, which rotates 180° and moves
towards the egg nucleus, initially is accompanied by two structures (centrioles) that function in cell
division.

After the male and female pronuclei have come into contact, the spermatozoal centrioles give rise to
the first cleavage spindle, which precedes division of the fertilized egg. Zygote is formed after
fertilisation.

4) Sperm capacitation refers to the physiological changes spermatozoa must undergo in order to
have the ability to penetrate and fertilize an egg.Sperm undergo capacitation in the uterus and then
migrate to the oviduct to fertilize the ova.
It is a natural process that takes place in semen after it has been ejaculated and it is essential for
fertilizing the ovum. This process takes place when ejaculated semen comes into contact with the
female genital tract.

5) Cleavage is the series of cell division in zygote during the embryo development. In this process,
blastula formation takes place. During this rapid cell division, the number
of cells and nuclear mass increases without increasing the cytoplasmic mass.

Thus, in each successive division, there is half cytoplasmic content in the cell that decreases the
size of the daughter cell. Thus, the ratio of nuclear and cytoplasmic volume increases as the
cleavage progress.

Which type of cleavage is found in humans?

Ans. Holoblastic cleavage.

The cleavage in which the egg is divided unequally is called an unequal cleavage.
Humans and Marsupials are an example of unequal holoblastic cleavage.

Meroblastic cleavage wherein the cytoplasmic divisions are restricted to the animal pole, resulting in
the formation of a disc of cells confined at the animal pole or on top of the yolk.

6) Mitosis is the process of equational division which has the short period but interphase of mitosis
is the longest one. During interphase, cell prepares itself for division by producing protein,
cytoplasmic organelle, and DNA at a normal rate.

7) The female gonads are called the ovaries. In both, the males and females, the gonads develop
within the mesonephric ridge and descend through the abdomen. However, unlike the testes, the
ovaries stop in the pelvis.

The ovaries are paired, oval organs attached to the posterior surface of the broad ligament of the
uterus by the mesovarium (a fold of peritoneum, continuous with the outer surface of the ovaries).

Neurovascular structures enter the hilum of the ovary via the mesovarium.

The main functions of the ovaries are:

1) To produce oocytes (female gametes) in preparation for fertilisation.

2) To produce the sex steroid hormones oestrogen and progesterone, in response to

pituitary gonadotrophins (LH and FSH).

Components of the Ovary

The ovary has three main histological features:

Surface – formed by simple cuboidal epithelium (known as germinal epithelium). Underlying this
layer is a dense connective tissue capsule.

Cortex – comprised of a connective tissue stroma and numerous ovarian follicles. Each follicle
contains an oocyte, surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells.
Medulla – formed by loose connective tissue and a rich neurovascular network, which enters via the
hilum of the ovary

Ligaments

Two peritoneal ligaments are attached to the ovary.

Suspensory ligament of ovary – fold of peritoneum extending

from the mesovarium to the pelvic wall. Contains neurovascular
structures.

Ligament of ovary – extends from the ovary to the fundus of the uterus.

Neurovascular Supply
The main arterial supply to the ovary is via the paired ovarian arteries. These arise directly from
the abdominal aorta (inferior the renal arteries). There is also a contribution from the uterine arteries.

Venous drainage is achieved by paired ovarian veins. The left ovarian vein drains into the left renal
vein, and the right ovarian vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava.

The ovaries receive sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation from the ovarian and uterine
(pelvic) plexuses, respectively. The nerves reach the ovaries via the suspensory ligament of the
ovary, to enter the ovary at the hilum.

Lymphatic Supply

Lymph from the ovaries drains into the para-aortic nodes.

8) Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled masses that may develop in the ovary. They are most commonly
derived from ovarian follicles,reaching approximately 2-2.5 cm. Most ovarian cysts are benign and
develop during a woman’s child-bearing years, however, some larger cysts may cause problems
such as bleeding and pain and require surgical removal.
Polycystic ovaries are characterized by hormone dysfunction and multiple (over 10) ovarian cysts. It
is associated with infertility.

Ovarian tumors are another serious disorder. The most common cancers arise from epithelial
components or germ cells. 90% of ovarian cancers are derived from epithelium, these are
termed ovarian adenocarcinomas. Most germ cell tumours are teratomas, which comprise cells from
all 3 germ cell layers and are usually benign.

9) Follicular atresia is the degeneration of follicles till puberty.

10) Atretic follicles are found in

Ans. Ovary

11) Penis of the male is homologous maato the clitoris of human female. Both are highly sensitive
and supported by corpora cavernosa. The clitoris is believed to be innervated by the pudendal
nerves as well as ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerves.
The clitoris is located below the mons pubis. The clitoris is composed of two corpora cavernosa of
erectile vascular tissues which lie side by side surrounded by fibrocollagenous sheath; an incomplete
Central septum partially separate the two corpora . The clitoris is covered by thin epidermis which is
devoid of hair follicle, sebaceous glands and apocrine glands but is richly equipped with sensory
nerves and a variety of receptors. Over the superior surface of the clitoris the skin forms an
incomplete hood (the clitoral prepuse) and on the inferior surface, a thin midline frenulum . The
clitoris which is small before puberty enlarges to a greater or a lesser extent with the onset of sexual
maturity during sexual arousal .

12) The homologous structures of human male and female reproductive system are given in the
table below:

Male Female
Testis  Ovary 
Penis Clitoris 
Scrotum   Labia majora
Cowper’s gland  Bartholin’s gland 
Skin / shaft of penis Labia minora 
Foreskin of penis  Clitoral hood

The Bartholin's glands are located on each side of the vaginal opening. They secrete fluid that helps
lubricate the vagina. Sometimes the ducts of these glands become obstructed and fluid backs up,
forming a cyst. The Bartholin's (BAHR-toe-linz) glands are located on each side of the vaginal
opening.

13) On the basis of amount of yolk the eggs are classified into following types -

Alecithal - negligible Yolk ( Human egg)

Microlecithal - small amount of Yolk ( sea urchin, branchiostoma)

Mesolecithal- moderate amount of Yolk ( frog and other amphibian eggs)

macrolecithal or megalecithal or polylecithal- Eggs having large amount of yolk ( reptilian and avian
eggs)
On the basis of distribution of Yolk the eggs are classified into –

isolecithal (homolecithal) - having homogeneously distributed yolk all over the ooplasm.
(protochordates and echinoderms)

Heterolecithal - Eggs with unevenly distributed Yolk

Telolecithal - having yolk concentrated in one half ( amphibian eggs)

Centrolecithal egg - yolk is concentrated in the centre and the cytoplasm is peripheral (insect eggs)

Discoidal or meiolecithal- Almost the whole of the egg is occupied by the Yolk except a small disk of
active ooplasm (eggs of birds and reptiles)

On the basis of presence or absence of Shell, eggs are differentiated into -

Cleidoic - surrounded with waterproof shell ( birds, reptiles) and non – Cleidoic (shell absent)

Any change in amount and distribution of yolk directly affects the pattern of cleavage.

As holoblastic cleavage is found in microlecithal, mesolecithal or telolecithal types of eggs. The

holoblastic type of cleavage is commonly seen in eggs containing moderate to sparse amount of
yolk. Examples of animals with eggs that divide holoblastically include the amphibians, mammals,
echinoderms, annelids, flatworms, nematodes, etc.

In centrolecithal eggs (many insect eggs) cleavage is meroblastic and superficial, while in

telolecithal eggs (birds and fish) cleavage is discoidal.

Discoidal cleavage is commonly found in monotremes, birds, reptiles, and fish that have telolecithal
egg cells (egg cells with the yolk concentrated at one end).
14) Sum total of all the processes which convert a solid or hollow ball of cells or many layered disc of
blastula into two (coelenterates) or three (Platyhelminthes onwards) germinal layers of gastrula is
called gastrulation.

Gastrulation takes place by the migratory or formative or morphogenetic movements of blastomeres

from the surface of the blastula to the proper position in the gastrula.

These movements are classified into

A) Epiboly- Growth of one part over another like prospective ectoderm over the rest except
blastopore.

B) Emboli - Morphogenetic movements like Migration of ectoderm, mesoderm and notochord cells
from surface to interior .The emboly may occur by way of

i) involution ( rolling of cells into interior )

ii) invagination - (infolding)
iii) ingression- ( new cells migrating into blastocoel)
iv) delamination - ( formation of second layer by tangential division of surface
cells) .

The trophoectoderm cells, on the outer edge of the blastocyst, are the first to differentiate from a
fertilized egg and further help in embryo development.
Cells of Rauber' are trophoblast cells that are in contact with the inner mass of blastocyst. They are
in contact with embryos and when the developing embryo reaches the uterine cavity after five to six
days of fertilization, it is called blastocyst.

During gastrulation, blastocoel is obliterated and a new cavity archentron or gastrocoel (lined by
endoderm) is formed which is the future alimentary canal of the animal.

Blastopore is opening of archentron which is absent in amniotes.

15) Gestation period of-

Mouse - 19-20 days( minimum) Rat - 20-22 Rabbit -

28-32
Cat - 52-65 Dog - 60-65 Pig - 112-
120
Goat -145-155 Man - 270-290 Cow - 275-
290(36 weeks)
Horse - 330-345 Elephant - 607-641

16) Women who consumed the drug thalidomide for relief from vomiting during early months of
pregnancy gave birth to children with underdeveloped limbs.
Thalidomide was used against nausea and was used to alleviate morning sickness in pregnant
women.
The women who consumed this drug gave birth to children with phocomelia, the malformation of
limbs.

MCQs

1) 10 oogonia yield 10 primary oocytes. Then how many ova are produced on completion of
oogenesis .
Ans. 10

2) ‘A’ cells start division and enter in ‘B’ stage of meiotic division and get temporarily ................... at
‘C’ and at this stage called ‘D’ .Identify ABCD
Ans. A.. Primary oocyte
B.. Prophase I
C.. Arrested
D.. Primary oocyte.

3) The type of cleavage found in human beings is

Ans. Discoidal

4) Assume 2n= 12 in a hypothetical species. In gametogenesis, the number of chromosomes in a

sperm and in the first polar body would be------
Ans.6, 6

5) For approximately how long, during the human female menstrual cycle is progesterone
concentration high enough to maintain the uterus in proper condition for pregnancy.
Ans. During the second half of the cycle

6) Which gland releases a small amount of fluid just prior to ejaculation to decrease acidity in the
urethra caused by urine.
Ans. Bulbourethral gland

7) By the end of 12 weeks, major organ systems are formed during the embryonic development.

8) Keeping a normal sexually mature woman in her mid-twenties on continuous high doses of
progesterone will prevent her from producing mature follicles and ovulation

9) When a bird lays fertilized egg, the embryo is in its early gastrula stage

10) Couple has been trying to conceive a child for over a year without success. Recently the man's
doctor inform them that his seminal vesicles are defective .This means that the men's semen lacks
the fructose fuel needed for the sperm .

11) Brain is the organ which is differentiated first during development of a child.
12) Inhibin, the peptide hormone secreted by the granulosa cells in the ovaries of women acts
primarily to inhibit the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone by the anterior pituitary gland.

13) An average pregnancy  lasts 280 days from the first day of the last (LMP) or after conception

14) Ectopic pregnancies are commonly called "tubal pregnancies." Ectopic pregnancy is a

pregnancy in which the fetus develops outside the uterus, typically in a fallopian tube."one in every
100 women run the risk of an ectopic pregnancy".

The egg also can implant in the ovary, abdomen, or the cervix, so also known as cervical or
abdominal pregnancies.

15) Follicular atresia is the breakdown of the ovarian follicles, which consist of an oocyte surrounded
by granulosa cells and internal and external theca cells. Typically around 20 follicles mature each
month but only a single follicle is ovulated; the follicle from which the oocyte was released becomes
the corpus luteum.

16) The perianal glands  are small glands found near the anus in some mammals like dogs. They
are paired sacs on either side of the anus between the external and internal anal sphincter muscles.
They are however, not present in humans. They are modified sebaceous glands, secrete a liquid that
is used for identification of members within a species.

The specialized sebaceous glands (Zymbal’s gland, preputial gland, clitoral gland, and perianal

gland) are derived from the ectoderm.

Anal glands-Small paired sacs located on either side of anus between the external and internal
sphincter muscles. They secrete foul smelling liquid that is used for identification of members within
the species. These glands are found in all carnivore except bears.

17) Docile means which can be easily managed. Bullock is more docile than bull because bullock is
a castrated bull. Castration means the removal of one or both testicles,so that less testosterone and
less aggression.

18) Morphallaxis is the regeneration of specific tissue in a variety of organisms due to loss or death
of the existing tissue. The word comes from the Greek allazein, (αλλάζειν) which means to change.

19) Epimorphic regeneration involves formation of a blastema, a mass of undifferentiated cells

capable of giving rise to the regenerated tissues. The apical epithelial cap plays an important role in
blastemal formation

20) Assertion: Embryonic development proves interrelationship and common ancestry of metazoans.

Reason: It involves similar sequence of five dynamic processes during development.

Ans. Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion

Embryonic development includes a definite series of phases which are fundamentally similar in all
sexually reproducing organisms, and transform a one-celled zygote to a multicellular and fully
formed developmental stage till hatching or birth such a remarkable similarity of embryonic
development proves that all metazoans are interrelated and have common ancestry. Embryonic
development involves five dynamic changes and identifiable processes these are - Gametogenesis,
fertilization, cleavage, Gastrulation and organogenesis.

So the correct answer is 'Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the correct
explanation for Assertion'.