Life after

conception...
OBJECTIVES

Discuss the prenatal development from fertilization to delivery

pre-embryonic development:
Explain the specialized structure on sperm and egg
that facilitates fertilization
Define polyspermy and describe how it is prevented
Explain the various stages of implantation
embryonic development:
Explain the structure and function of the placenta
Explain structure and function of the mammary glands
DEFINE TERMS
Development involves:
The division and differentiation of cells
Reorganization of those cell types to produce or
modify anatomical structures
Development produces a mature individual capable of
reproduction.
The process is a continuum that begins at fertilization,
or conception, and can be separated into periods
characterized by specific anatomical changes.
DEFINE TERMS
Prenatal development occurs in the period from conception to
delivery.
The term embryology refers to the study of the developmental
events that occur during prenatal development.
The period of prenatal development can be further subdivided.
Pre-embryonic development begins at fertilization and continues
through cleavage and implantation.
Pre-embryonic development is followed by embryonic
development, which extends from implantation to the end of the
eighth developmental week.
Fetal development begins at the start of the ninth developmental
week and continues up to the time of birth.
FUN HISTORY
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch
microsbiologist who co-discovered sperm
along with Nicolas Hartsoeker around
1680s , first believed them to be parasitic
animals living within the semen.
Leeuwenhoek (1685) wrote that sperm were
seeds (sperma = seed”) and that the female
merely provided the nutrient substance in
which the seeds were planted.
Nicolas Hartsoeker, the other co-discoverer
of sperm, drew a picture of (what he hoped
to find) a preformed human (“homunculus”)
within the human sperm.
FUN HISTORY
In 1824, J. L. Prevost and J. B. Dumas claimed that sperms were the active
agents of fertilization (not parasites).
sperm was present in sexually mature males and their absence in
immature individuals and sterile mules
In the 1840s, von Kolliker denied that there was any physical contact
between sperm and egg. He believed that the sperm excited the egg to
develop

It was only in 1876 that Oscar Hertwig and Herman Fol independently
demonstrated sperm entry into the egg and the union of the two cells’
nuclei.
 FUN HISTORY

The front page and

the plate showing
the entry of sperm
into the egg in
Marthasterias
glacialis as
published by
Hermann Fol,
“Research on
Fertilization and the
Beginning of
Henogenesis in
Various Animals”, in
1879.
FERTILIZATION
Fusion of egg and sperm and the mixing of their DNA
Human sperm fertilizable 48-72 h after ejaculation
Human ova fertilizable 24-48 h after ovulation
Fertilization occurs in the Ampulla
Sperm penetration stimulates the secondary oocyte to
finish meiosis.
After ejection of the second polar body, the haploid nuclei
fuse.
Amphymixis
THE SPERM (MAMMAL) Revision:
THE SPERM (MAMMAL)
The sperm released during ejaculation are able to move, yet they do
not yet have the capacity to bind to and fertilize an egg. These final
stages of sperm maturation (called capacitation) do not occur until the
sperm has been inside the female reproductive tract for a certain
period of time.
The meiotic divisions that form the oocyte conserve its cytoplasm
(rather than giving half of it away), and the oocyte either synthesizes or
absorbs proteins, such as yolk, that act as food reservoirs for the
developing embryo. Thus, birds’ eggs are enormous single cells,
swollen with their accumulated yolk. The volume of a sea urchin egg is
about 10,000 times more than the volume of the sperm.
Within this enormous volume of cytoplasm resides a large nucleus. In
some species (e.g., sea urchins), the nucleus is already haploid at the
time of fertilization. In other species (including many worms and most
mammals), the egg nucleus is still diploid, and the sperm enters
before the meiotic divisions are completed.
THE OOCYTE (MAMMAL) Revision:
THE OOCYTE (MAMMAL) plasma membrane
regulate the flow of certain ions
during fertilization
fuse with the sperm plasma
membrane.
vitelline envelope
outside the plasma membrane
forms a fibrous mat around the egg
This envelope contains at least eight
different glycoproteins and is often
involved in sperm-egg recognition.
essential for the species-specific
binding of sperm.
In mammals, the vitelline envelope is a
separate and thick extracellular matrix
called the zona pellucida.
THE OOCYTE (MAMMAL)
Cortex
Lie immediately beneath the plasma
membrane of the egg
thin shell (about 5 μm) of gel-like
cytoplasm
The cytoplasm in this region is stiffer
than the internal cytoplasm and
contains high concentrations of
globular actin molecules
During fertilization, these actin
molecules polymerize to form long
cables of actin known as
microfilaments.
used to extend the egg surface into
small projections called microvilli,
which may aid sperm entry into the
cell.
THE OOCYTE (MAMMAL)
Cortex
Also within the cortex are the
cortical granules.
homologous to the
acrosomal vesicle of the
sperm
Golgi-derived organelles
containing proteolytic
enzymes.
in addition to digestive
enzymes, the cortical
granules contain
mucopolysaccharides,
adhesive glycoproteins, and
hyalin protein
PREPARATION FOR FERTILIZATION:
Capacitation
PREPARATION FOR FERTILIZATION:
PREPARATION FOR FERTILIZATION:

During the fertile phase,

millions of sperm travel from
the vagina to the uterus and
into the fallopian tubes
chemotaxis - chemical found
in cortex of eggs
Several thousand sperm
reach the egg but only one
will fertilize it
SPERM AND OOCYTE INTERACTION

Binding of sperm to the

zona pellucida is a
receptor-ligand
interaction with a high
degree of species
specificity. The
carbohydrate groups on
the zona pellucida
glycoproteins function as
sperm receptors.
SPERM AND OOCYTE INTERACTION
 SPERM AND OOCYTE INTERACTION
The sperm then faces the daunting
task of penetrating the zona pellucida
to get to the oocyte. The acrosome
reaction provides the sperm with an
enzymatic drill to get through the zona
pellucida.
FERTILIZATION
FERTILIZATION
FERTILIZATION

The same zona pellucida protein that

serves as a sperm receptor also
stimulates a series of events that lead
to many areas of fusion between the
plasma membrane and outer
acrosomal membrane.
Membrane fusion (actually an
exocytosis) and vesiculation expose
the acrosomal contents, leading to
leakage of acrosomal enzymes from
the sperm's head.
FERTILIZATION
Once a sperm penetrates the
zona pellucida, it binds to and
fuses with the plasma
membrane of the oocyte. This is
facilitated by proteins such as
fertilins and bindins. Binding
occurs at the posterior
(postacrosomal) region of the
sperm head. Prior to fertilization,
the egg is in a quiescent state,
arrested in metaphase of the
second meiotic division.
Upon binding of a sperm, the egg rapidly undergoes a number of metabolic
and physical changes that collectively are called egg activation. Prominent
effects include a rise in the intracellular concentration of calcium,
completion of the second meiotic division and the so-called cortical
reaction.
FERTILIZATION
 Successful fertilization
requires not only that a sperm
and egg fuse, but that not more
than one sperm fuses with the
egg.
PREVENTION OF
POLYSPERMY
Fertilization by more than one sperm - polyspermy - almost inevitably
leads to early embryonic death
fusibility of the egg membrane, which was so necessary to get the
sperm inside the egg, becomes a dangerous liability.

nucleus and a haploid egg

nucleus combine to form
the diploid nucleus (zygote),
thus restoring the
chromosome number
appropriate for the species
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY
The entrance of multiple sperm
—polyspermy—leads to
disastrous consequences in
most organisms.
In the sea urchin, fertilization
by two sperm results in a
triploid nucleus.
instead of a bipolar mitotic
spindle separating the
chromosomes into two cells,
the triploid chromosomes
may be divided into as
many as four cells.
Theodor Boveri demonstrated
in 1902 that such cells either die
or develop abnormally.
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY

The sea urchin egg has two mechanisms to avoid

polyspermy:

fast block: reaction accomplished by an electric

change in the egg plasma membrane

slow block: slower reaction, caused by the

exocytosis of the cortical granules.
QUICK BREAK: THE JOURNEY SO FAR

[Link]
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY: FAST BLOCK
Within 1–3 seconds after the binding of the first sperm, the
membrane potential shifts to a positive level, about +20 mV. This
change is caused by a small influx of positive (Na, Ca) ions into the egg.
 PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY: FAST BLOCK
Although sperm can fuse with membranes having a resting potential of –70 mV,
they cannot fuse with membranes having a positive resting potential, so no
more sperm can fuse to the egg. It is not known whether the increased sodium
permeability is due to the binding of the first sperm or to the fusion of the first
sperm with the egg .
The importance of sodium ions and the change in resting potential was
demonstrated by Laurinda Jaffe and colleagues. They found that polyspermy can
be induced if sea urchin eggs are artificially supplied with an electric current
that keeps their membrane potential negative. Conversely, fertilization can be
prevented entirely by artificially keeping the membrane potential of eggs positive.
The fast block to polyspermy can also be circumvented by lowering the
concentration of sodium ions in the water If the supply of sodium ions is not
sufficient to cause the positive shift in membrane potential, polyspermy occurs. It
is not known how the change in membrane potential acts on the sperm to block
secondary fertilization. Most likely, the sperm carry a voltage-sensitive
component, and the insertion of this component into the egg plasma membrane
could be regulated by the electric charge across the membrane.
 This brief potential shift is not
sufficient to prevent
polyspermy, which can still
occur if the sperm bound to the
vitelline envelope are not
somehow removed.
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY: SLOW BLOCK
This removal is accomplished by the cortical granule reaction,
a slower, mechanical block to polyspermy that becomes active
about a minute after the first successful sperm-egg attachment.
. After cortical granule reaction the hardened vitelline
envelope is called fertilization envelope.
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY: SLOW BLOCK
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY: SLOW BLOCK
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY: SLOW BLOCK
The zona reaction is the result of two measurable
changes induced in the zona pellucida:
The zona pellucida hardens. Crudely put, this is
analogous to the setting of concrete. Runner-up
sperm that have not finished traversing the zona
pellucida by the time the hardening occurs are
stopped in their tracks.
Sperm receptors in the zona pellucida are
destroyed. Therefore, any sperm that have not yet
bound to the zona pellucida will no longer be able
to bind, let alone fertilize the egg.
FERTILIZATION: PRONUCLEUS

Following fusion of the

fertilizing sperm with the
oocyte, the sperm head is
incorporated into the egg
cytoplasm
FERTILIZATION: PRONUCLEUS
The nuclear envelope of
the sperm disperses, and
the chromatin rapidly
loosens from its tightly
packed state in a process
called decondensation. In
vertebrates, other sperm
components, including
mitochondria are
degraded rather than
incorporated into the
embryo.
FERTILIZATION: AMPHIMIXIS & CYTOKINESIS
Chromatin from both the sperm and egg are soon encapsulated in a nuclear
membrane, forming pronuclei. Each pronucleus contains a haploid genome. They
migrate together, their membranes break down, and the two genomes
condense into chromosomes, thereby reconstituting a diploid organism
AFTER FERTILIZATION
The gestation period consists of three trimesters,
each 3 months in duration:
First trimester
Cleavage
Implantation
Placentation
Embryogenesis
Second trimester
Most organs finish development
Third trimester
Rapid growth
CLEAVAGE
Over the next few days, the mammalian embryo undergoes a series of cell
divisions, ultimately leading to formation of a hollow sphere of cells
known as a blastocyst.

unfertilized oocytes
typically fill the entire space
inside the zona pellucida,
but after fertilization, the
one-cell embryo usually is
somewhat retracted from
the zona pellucida
surrounding it. polar bodies
are often visible in the
perivitelline space, the
area between the embryo
and the zona pellucida.
CLEAVAGE
The one cell embryo undergoes a series of cleavage divisions, progressing
through 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell and 16 cell stages. A four cell embryo is shown
here. The cells in cleavage stage embryos are known as blastomeres.
CLEAVAGE
Mammalian eggs have rotational
cleavage that is holoblastic
The mammalian egg is a little
slow. It begins to cleave in the
oviduct and continues until it
implants in the wall of the uterus
(1 cleavage / 24 hr).
mammalian embryos are unusual
in that they have asynchronous
cleavage. Not all blastomeres
divide at the same time.
The first cleavage is meridional,
and the second cleavage is
rotational. The 2 blastomeres
divide in different planes (one is
equatorial and one is meridional.
CLEAVAGE
CLEAVAGE
Mammalian embryos undergo
compaction at the 8 cell stage
At first, the blastomeres of
mammalian embryos have a loose
arrangement, and touch only at the
basal surfaces. After compaction,
blastomeres adhere tightly,
maximizing the area of contact.
During compaction, each blastomere
undergoes polarization. Tight
junctions develop on the outer
surface, allowing proteins to
specialize. Cells take up fluids from
the uterine environment and secrete
into the blastocoel.
Gap junctions form on the outer
cells to aid in intercellular
communication.
CLEAVAGE
A blastocoel develops
as cleavage proceeds
to the 32-64 cell stage
CLEAVAGE
A blastocoel develops as cleavage proceeds to the 32-64 cell stage
Cavitation: the outside blastomeres start to take up fluid from the uterus and
pump it into the center, creating the blastocoel. The blastocyst is the
hallmark of early embryonic development in mammals.
Inner cell mass: this gives rise to the embryo, and develops from the inside
blastomeres
Trophoblast: a structure consisting of outside blastomeres, this contributes to
forming the placenta.
FYI
Embryonic stem cells can be
cultured from the inner cell
mass
Cells in the inner cell mass
are undifferentiated, they
multiply indefinitely, and are
known as embryonic stem
cells. Stem cells are
totipotent = they have the
potential to form any tissue.
These cells are of great
scientific and medical
importance.
IMPLANTATION

To enable implantation, the uterus

goes through changes in order to
receive the embryo. The
endometrium increases thickness,
becomes vascularized and its glands
grow and boosted in their secretions.
These changes reach their maximum
about 7 days after ovulation.
Furthermore, the surface of the
endometrium produces rounded
cells, which cover the whole area
toward the uterine cavity. This
happens about 9 to 10 days after
ovulation. These cells are called
decidual cells.
IMPLANTATION

To be able to perform
implantation, the blastocyst
first needs to get rid of its
zona pellucida. This process
can be called "hatching"
The very first connection
between the blastocyst and
the endometrium is called the
apposition.
IMPLANTATION

Upon contact with the

endometrial lining, the
trophoblast cells divide rapidly.
The trophoblast cells “fuse” with
the endometrial lining forming a
syncytial trophoblast. This layer
of cells releases hyaluronidase to
erode away more of the
endometrial lining so the mass
can implant
Upon implantation, the inner cell
mass separates from the
trophoblast area. When the inner
cell mass separates from the
trophoblast, two cavities form:
Amnionic cavity and
Blastocoele cavity
IMPLANTATION

Formation of Blastodisc
A layer of cells forms between the amnionic cavity and the
blastocoele cavity. The layers are called: Epiblast and Hypoblast
IMPLANTATION

Adhesion is a much stronger attachment to the endometrium

than the loose apposition. The trophoblasts adhere by
penetrating the endometrium, with protrusions of trophoblast
cells.
There is massive communication between the blastocyst and
the endometrium at this stage. The blastocyst signals to the
endometrium to adapt further to its presence
by changes in the cytoskeleton of decidual cells
This, in turn, dislodges the decidual cells from their
connection to the underlying basal lamina, which enables the
blastocyst to perform the succeeding invasion. Invasion is an
even further establishment of the blastocyst in the
endometrium.
 BLASTODISC ORGANIZATION AND GASTRULATION

Gastrulation and Germ Layer

Formation
Eventually some cells of the
epiblast move toward the
center of the blastodisc
creating a primitive streak. This
movement is called
gastrulation.
As the cells move toward the
primitive streak area, they
begin to migrate between the
epiblast and hypoblast layers
 BLASTODISC ORGANIZATION AND GASTRULATION

Gastrulation and Germ Layer

Formation
The three layers of cells are:
Ectoderm
Derived from the
epiblast layer
Mesoderm
New layer between
the epiblast and
hypoblast
Endoderm
Derived from the
hypoblast layer
BLASTODISC ORGANIZATION AND GASTRULATION
THE FATES OF THE PRIMARY GERM LAYERS
The Embryonic
Membranes and
Placenta
Formation
BLASTODISC ORGANIZATION AND GASTRULATION

The ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are collectively

known as the germ layers.
Each layer will form specific tissues and organs of the

body
Germ layers will also form structures involved in
embryonic survival called extraembryonic
membranes
BLASTODISC ORGANIZATION AND GASTRULATION

There are four major extraembryonic membranes:

Yolk sac
Amnion
Allantois
Chorion
FORMATION OF EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
FORMATION OF EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
Yolk Sac
This is a pouch that extends from the
hypoblast cells into the blastocoele.
It is the early site for blood cell
formation.
Amnion
Amniotic fluid fills the amniotic cavity,
which surrounds and cushions the
embryo and fetus
Allantois
Eventually gives rise to the urinary
bladder
Chorion
The mesoderm and trophoblast
layers together form the chorion
The chorion will eventually develop
extensions into the endometrium
FORMATION OF EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
Yolk Sac
The yolk sac is a membranous sac attached to an embryo, providing early
nourishment in the form of yolk
the main function is the hematopoiesis that begins in the mesenchyme at
3-d weeks of embryogenesis.
The yolk sac develops from extraembryonic endoderm and extra embryonic
mesoderm.
FORMATION OF EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES

Amnion
The amnion is a membrane
building the amniotic sac that
surrounds and protects an
embryo.
The primary function of this
organ is the protection of the
embryo for its development.
It stems from parts of the
extraembryonic mesoderm
on the outer side and the
extraembryonic ectoderm on
the inner side.
Amnion contains amniotic
fluid in which there is a fetus.
FORMATION OF EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
Allantois
The allantois is a small endodermal
diverticulum arises from the yolk sac near the
caudal end of the embryo.
This diverticulum of extraembryonic
entoderma grows into the extraembryonic
mesoderm.
Allantois helps the embryo exchange gases
and handles liquid waste in the early stages
of embryogenesis, for21 days through the
allantois located in the amniotic leg
germinate blood vessels from the embryo
body in the secondary villi of the chorion.
FORMATION OF EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
Chorion
Chorion is a villous envelope of the fetus.
it is divided into smooth chorion and villous.
The chorion is one of the membranes that exist during
pregnancy between the developing fetus and mother.
It is formed by extraembryonic mesoderm and two layers
of trophoblast (syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast)
and surrounds the embryo and other membranes.
The chorionic villi emerge from the chorion, invade the
endometrium, and allow transfer of nutrients from
maternal blood to fetal blood.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION
Placentation
The placenta begins to form when the chorion produces villi (chorionic villi)
that extend into the endometrial lining
The body stalk connects the embryo to the chorion
As the fetus develops and moves farther into the uterus, it obtains its nutrients
via the umbilical cord
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION

Early in the 3rd

week
mesenchyme growth
into the primary villi
forming a core of
mesenchymal tissue.
Thus the Secondary
Chorionic Villi are
formed over the
entire surface of the
chorionic sac.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION

Some mesenchymal
cells in the secondary
villi differentiate into
capillaries and blood
cells forming the
Tertiary Chorionic Villi.
The capillaries in the
villi fuse to form
arteriocapillary
networks.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION

The arteriocapillary networks become connected with the embryonic

heart through vessels which are formed in the mesenchyme of the
chorion and connecting stalk.
By the end of the 3rd week, embryonic blood begins to flow through
the capillaries in the chorionic villi.
Oxygen & nutrients in the maternal blood in the intervillous space
diffuse through the walls of the villi and enter the embryo’s blood.
Carbon dioxide & waste products diffuse from blood in the fetal
capillaries through the wall of the chorionic villi into the maternal
blood.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION
Placentation
Blood flows from the fetus to
the placenta in the paired
umbilical arteries
Blood returns via a single
umbilical vein
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION
 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PLACENTATION
For clarity, the uterus is shown
after the embryo has been
removed and the umbilical cord
cut. Blood flows into the placenta
through ruptured maternal
arteries. It then flows around
chorionic villi, which contain fetal
blood vessels. Fetal blood arrives
through paired umbilical arteries
and leaves through a single
umbilical vein. Maternal blood
reenters the venous system of
the mother through the broken
walls of small uterine veins.
Maternal blood flow is shown by
arrows; note that no actual
mixing of maternal and fetal
blood occurs.
Structure of
placenta
STRUCTURE
OF PLACENTA

Placenta is limited by
the amniotic
membrane on the fetal
side and by the basal
plate on the maternal
Between these two lies
the intervillous space
filled with maternal
blood and stem villi
with their branches
STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA
Amniotic membrane- single layer of cubical epithelium loosely
attached to adjacent chorionic plate and does not take part in
placental formation
Chorionic plate- forms the roof of the placenta
STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA

Chorionic plate- forms

the roof of the placenta
From outside inwards
consists of
➢Syncitotrophoblast
➢Cytotrophoblast
➢Extraembryonic
mesoderm with
branches of umbilical
vessels
 STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA

Basal Plate- forms the

floor From outside
inwards it consist of:
➢Compact and spongy
layer of decidua basalis
➢Layer of Nitabuch
➢Cytotrophoblastic shell
➢Syncytiotrophoblast

Basal plate is perforated

by the spiral arteries
allowing entry of
maternal blood into
intervillous space
STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA

Layer of Nitabuch - is a fibrinous layer formed at the

junction of cytotrohoblastic shell with decidua due to
fibrinoid degeneration of syncitotrohoblast
It prevents excessive penetration of the decidua by
the trophoblast
Nitabuch membrane is absent in placenta accreta
and other morbidly adherent placentas
 STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA

Intervillous space:
➢Numerous branch villi
arising from the stem villi
project into this space
➢It is lined internally on
all sides by the
syncytiotrophoblast and
is filled with maternal
blood
 STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA
Stem (Anchoring villi )
➢ Arise from the chorionic
plate and extend to the basal
plate
➢ Fetal cotyledon (60-100 ) –
derived from one major
primary stem villus and is the
structural unit of placenta
➢ Maternal cotyledon (15-20
) contains 3-5 fetal
cotyledons
➢ Villus is the functional unit
of placenta
➢ Total surface of the villi for
exchange varies between 4-
14 sq meters
 Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
not only acts as an
immunosuppressive, (by preventing the
new grafting of the embryo) but also
"notifies" the mother's body that she is
pregnant, preventing menstruation by
sustaining the function of the corpus
luteum.
 STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA
Stem (Anchoring villi )
➢ Arise from the chorionic
plate and extend to the basal
plate
➢ Fetal cotyledon (60-100 ) –
derived from one major
primary stem villus and is the
structural unit of placenta
➢ Maternal cotyledon (15-20
) contains 3-5 fetal
cotyledons
➢ Villus is the functional unit
of placenta
➢ Total surface of the villi for
exchange varies between 4-
14 sq meters
STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA Placental barrier or membrane
 STRUCTURE OF PLACENTA

Placental barrier or
membrane
Maternal and fetal blood are
separated by placental
membrane or barrier (0.025
mm thick )

Endothelial lining of fetal

vessels
Connective tissue of the
villi
Basement membrane
Cytotrophoblast
Syncytiotrophoblast
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION
Two umbilical arteries enter
the chorionic plate
underneath the amnion,
each supplying one half of
placenta.
The arteries breakup into
small branches which enter
the stems of chorionic villi.
Each in turn divides the
primary, secondary and
tertiary vessels of the
corresponding villi.
This system provides a very
large area for exchange of
metabolic and gaseous
products between maternal
and fetal blood streams.
PLACENTAL FUNCTION

Transfer of gases ,nutrients and waste

products , namely:
Respiratory function
Nutritive function
Excretory function
Endocrine and enzymatic function
Barrier function
Immunological function
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Factors affecting the transfer between mother and the fetus

Physical properties of the substance- molecular weight,
lipid solubility, ionised substances
Area and functional integrity of the placental membrane
Rate of blood flow
Concentration gradient of the substance on either side of
the exchange membrane
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Mechanism involved in the transfer of substances

Simple diffusion-O2 and CO2
Facilitated diffusion ( carrier mediated ) –glucose ,vitamins
Active transfer ( against concentration gradient )-ions
Endocytosis- invagination of cell membrane to form
intracellular vesicle
Endocytosis-Release of substances in the vesicles to
extracellular space eg IgG immunoglobulin
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Respiratory function
Although fetal respiratory movement occurs, no active
exchange of gases takes place
Intake of oxygen and output of carbon dioxide take place
by simple diffusion across the fetal membrane
O2 delivery to the fetus is at the rate of 8 ml/kg which is
achieved by cord blood flow of 160- 320ml/min
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Excretory function
Waste products from the fetus such as urea, uric acid,
cretinine are excreted to the maternal blood by simple
diffusion
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Nutritive function
Fetus obtains its nutrients from the maternal blood
Glucose- transferred to the fetus by facilitated diffusion
Lipids for fetal growth and development has dual origin. They
are transferred across the fetal membrane or synthesised in
the fetus
Amino acids are transferred by active transport
Water and electrolytes- Na, K ,Cl cross by simple diffusion, Ca
, P, and Fe cross by active transport
Water soluble vitamins are transferred by active transport
but the fat soluble vitamins are transferred slowly
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Barrier Function
Placental membrane is thought to be a protective barrier for
the fetus against harmful agents in the maternal blood
Substances with large molecular weight or size like insulin or
heparin are transferred minimally
Only IgG ( not IgA or Ig M )antibodies and antigens can cross
the placental barrier
Most drugs can cross the placental barrier and some can be
teratogenic
Various viruses, bacteria, protozoa can cross the placenta
and affect the fetus in utero
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Immunological function
Inspite of foreign paternally inherited antigens in the fetus
and placenta, there is no graft rejection due to
immunological protection provided by the placenta
FETOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION

Endocrine and Enzymatic function

Placenta secretes various hormones – Protein hormones like
HCG, human placental lactogen,pregnancy specific beta 1
glycoprotein,,pregnancy associated plasma protein, steroidal
hormones like estrogen and progestrone
Enzymes secreted are diamine oxidase-which activates the
circulatory pressor amines,oxytocinase which neutralizes
oxytocin, phospholipase A2 which synthesizes arachidonic
acid