FERTILIZATION

IN
FLOWERING PLANTS

PRESENTED BY SAMDEVA/ CHSE/2021

 LIFE CYCLE
OF A
FLOWERING
PLANT
(Tube nuclei)
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF POLLEN A SAC
WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS PRODUCE SMALL,
SMOOTH, LIGHT, POWDERY POLLEN GRAINS IN
ENORMOUS NUMBERS

INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS PRODUCE

LARGE, PATTERNED, HEAVY, STICKY POLLEN
GRAINS IN SMALL NUMBERS
 FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
• When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, the
stigmatic exudates nourish the pollen grain
with water, sucrose and boron.
• The intine grows out in the form of a pollen
tube through the germ pore.
• The tube nucleus migrates to the tip and
controls the growth of the pollen tube
towards the embryo sac.
• The tip of the pollen tube secretes cellulase,
pectinase to digest away the stylar tissues.
 FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
• As the pollen tube grows down the style
chemotropically, the generative nucleus
divides mitotically into two male gametes.
• As the pollen tube enters the embryo sac
through the micropyle, the tube nucleus
degenerates.
• The bit of cytoplasm pushes the two male
gametes into the embryo sac.
• One haploid male gamete nucleus fertilises
the haploid egg nucleus which subsequently
develops into a diploid zygote.
 FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS

• The other haploid male gamete nucleus fuses

with the two haploid polar nuclei to form a
triploid Primary Endosperm Nucleus and is
called triple fusion.
• Since two male gametes take part in the
sexual union, it is called double fertilization.
FERTILIZATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
June 2010 Unit 2 qn 7
FERTILIZATION
IN
MAMMALS
 GAMETOGENESIS

MINI, FAT,
MANY, FEW,
MOTILE FIXED
 STRUCTURE AND ADAPTATIONS OF A
SPERMATOZOON
CONTAINS HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES
TO GAIN ENTRY INTO THE EGG
CONTAINS HAPLOID NUMBER
OF CHROMOSOMES SO THAT
ON FERTILIZATION ORIGINAL
DIPLOID NUMBER IS RESTORED

STREAMLINED HEAD
AFFORDS
LESS RESISTANCE
PROVIDE ATP FOR SWIMMING
ACTION OF SPERM TO SWIM
TOWARDS THE THROUGH
EGG FLUIDS.

TAIL ENABLES SPERM TO SWIM TOWARDS THE EGG

 STRUCTURE AND ADAPTATIONS OF AN
HAPLOID NUCLEUS ON ZONA PELLUCIDA
FERTILIZATION WITH
OVUM HARDENS AFTER
A HAPLOID SPERM FERTILIZATION
NUCLEUS RESTORES THEREBY PREVENTING
THE DIPLOID POLYSPERMY
CONDITION.

CORTICAL GRANNULES
ARE SPECIAL
LIPID DROPLETS ACT SECRETORY VESICLES
AS A STORE OF OR LYSOSOME. THEY
ENERGY OR IT MAY MIGRATE TO EDGE OF
BE USED IN THE EGG CELL
SYNTHESIS OF MEMBRANE, FUSE
MEMBRANES IN THE WITH IT AND SECRETE
SUBSEQUENT ENZYMES BY
GROWTH AND EXOCYTOSIS. THIS IS
DEVELOPMENT OF CALLED CORTICAL
THE ZYGOTE. REACTION.
 FERTILIZATION IN MAMMALS
Major Events
1. Contact and recognition between sperm and eggs -
must be species specific.
2. Regulation of sperm entry into egg.
3. Fusion of genetic material of sperm and egg.
4. Activation of egg metabolism to start development.
Fertilization procedures: Capacitation of sperm
Acrosome reaction Cortical reaction
Formation of original nucleus Fusion
 CAPACITATION
• Capacitation is the final stages of sperm maturation
and physiological changes that the sperm undergo.
In most mammals this occurs outside of the testes
and is typically within the uterine environment of the
female. The uterus aids in the steps of capacitation
by secreting variety of chemicals that react with the
outer aspects of the sperm.

• When capacitation occurs the sperm must still

undergo the acrosome reaction.
 EFFECTS OF CAPACITATION ON SPERM

• Increased rate of metabolism

• flagellum beats more rapidly; result: sperm are
more motile
• Changes in sperm plasmalemma proteins allow
sperm-egg binding and occurrence of the
acrosome reaction
• Pro-acrosin (inactive) is converted to acrosin
(active)
• Sperm become capable of chemotaxis
HOW DOES THE SPERM GET THROUGH THE
BARRIERS SURROUNDING THE EGG?
THE ACROSOME REACTION
When the acrosome
reaction occurs, a number of
proteolytic enzymes are
released by exocytosis as
the acrosome swells up and
bursts.
One or more of these
enzymes is responsible for
digesting the zona pellucida
through which the sperm
enters the perivitelline
space.
ACROSOMAL REACTION AND SPERM
PENETRATION
 ENTRY OF SPERM NUCLEUS AND
FERTILIZATION
1.The male nucleus enters the egg
cytoplasm and becomes the male
pronucleus.
2.As a result of the sperm fusing with the
egg plasmalemma, the oocyte nucleus,
which is halted at metaphase II of the
meiotic division, completes that division
giving rise to another polar body.
3.Following the second meiotic division,
what is now the nucleus of the ovum
becomes the female pronucleus.
4.The haploid male and female pronuclei
move toward one and other, meet, and
fuse to form the diploid nucleus of the
zygote. The zygote will now proceed to
undergo cleavage.
 BLOCKS TO POLYSPERMY
• Upon entry of a sperm, Ca2+ surge from the ER causes the
cortical reaction
• Depolarization of the oolemma - membrane potential
changes from negative to positive, sperm cannot fuse with
positively charged oolemma - fast block to polyspermy,
takes 1 - 2 seconds. Caused by influx of sodium ions.

Cortical granules migrate to the edge of the membrane, fuse,

and release enzymes (Zonal Inhibiting Proteins, or ZIPS)
ZIPS destroy sperm receptors spilled fluid binds water and
swells, detaching other sperm - slow block to polyspermy.
FERTILIZATION IN MAMMALS

Unit 2. January 2010 Question 5.

SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE
ZYGOTE
 THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
ABILITY OF CELLS
Totipotence, pluripotence, and unipotence:
A fertilized ovum can differentiate into any cell, tissue, organ, and individual,
so, it is a totipotent cell. With the development, cells will lose their potential
differentiation ability from totipotent cells to pluripotent cells, finally to
unipotent cells (adult cells or somatic cells).
For example, pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells can be developed as any
blood cells (unipotent cells).

Totipotence of fertilized ovum

26
 Tutorial 2 – Semester 2
GAMETES, FERTILIZATION & STEM CELLS
- MS
 1. Meiosis leads to the production of gametes and is important in
allowing genetic variation to occur.
(a) The diagram below shows one homologous pair of
chromosomes during early meiosis. Four genes (A, B, D and E)
and the crossing over point have been labelled.
• At the end of meiosis, four gametes are produced, each
with a different combination of alleles.
• Complete the diagram below to show the combination of alleles
for the two recombinant chromosomes. (1)
 1(b) Sperm cells are gametes. They contain mitochondria in
their mid region.
(i) The photograph below shows a mitochondrion as seen
using an electron microscope. (3)
• Name the labelled structures shown in the photograph above

• P crista ;
• Q matrix ;
• R outer (mitochondrial) membrane / envelope / double membrane ;
1. (b) (ii) Explain the function of mitochondria in sperm cells (3)
• 1. (they carry out) (aerobic) respiration ;
• 2. provide {ATP / energy / eq} ;
• 3. to {move / drive the / eq} {flagellum / tail} ;
• 4. allows sperm to swim / eq ;
• 5. towards the {egg / eq} / {towards /along} the oviduct / eq ;

Carry out respiration to provide the ATP for the movement of

the sperm, so that the sperm is able to swim along to the egg cell.
 1(c) In some species of mammal, at fertilisation most of the
sperm cell enters the egg cell. The fertilised cell then divides
by mitosis.
• (i) A sperm cell containing 65 mitochondria fertilises an egg cell
containing 100 000 mitochondria. Calculate the percentage of the
total mitochondria in this fertilised cell that come from the sperm
cell. Show your working. (2)
𝟔𝟓
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟓+𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎

0.065 %

• (ii) State how many cells there would be after the fertilised egg has
divided, by mitosis, four times. (1)
• 16 ;
2 Meiosis is involved in producing gametes such as sperm cells
and egg cells.
(a) Describe three structural differences between a human sperm
cell and a human egg cell. (3)
• The sperm has a
Correct ref to: flagellum that is absent
1. flagellum / eq ; in the human egg cell
2. overall shape e.g. streamlined / eq ;
• The sperm cell has a
3. fewer mitochondria / other organelles/eq
streamlined shape
4. acrosome / eq ;
whereas the egg cell is
5. zona (pellucida) / jelly layer eq ;
spherical in shape.
6. cortical granules / eq ;
7. differences in food store types / eq ; • The egg cell has a zona
8. sperm cell has less cytoplasm / eq ; pellucida that is absent
in the sperm cell.
2 Several processes lead up to fertilisation in animals and plants.
(b) Describe and explain how, in mammals, events following the acrosome
reaction prevent more than one sperm fertilising an egg. (4)
1. sperm cell {fuses / eq} with egg cell (membrane) ; NOT the fusion of the nuclei
2. reference to {cortical granules / vesicles / lysosomes} ;
3. idea of (cortical granules) {moving towards / fusing with } egg cell (surface)membrane ;
4. reference to exocytosis (of cortical granules / vesicles / lysosomes) ; NOT for description
of acrosome reaction
5. idea of contents (of cortical granules) {secreted /released into jelly layer / eq} OR
reference to cortical reaction ; ACCEPT enzymes / chemicals NOT released into ovum
6. idea of { hardening / thickening / eq } of { zona pellucida / jelly layer } OR formation of
fertilisation membrane ; ACCEPT fertilization
7. reference to change in charge across egg cell membrane ;
The sperm cell membrane and egg cell membrane fuses and the sperm
nucleus is taken into the egg cell. This brings about a change in the charge
across the egg cell membrane. Moreover, cortical granules fuse with the egg
cell membrane and release their contents into the zona pellucida by
exocytosis. Binding of the cortical granules harden the zona pellucida,
preventing polyspermy
 2 (c) In plants, a double fertilisation occurs.
(i) One fertilisation involves a male gamete nucleus fusing with
the egg cell nucleus. Give two functions of this fertilisation. (2)
1. to produce a {zygote / eq} ;
2. to produce {original / full} complement of {DNA / chromosomes / genetic material } /
diploid / 2n number / eq ;
3. to allow mixing of {genes / genetic material } / ref to { genetic variation / eq } ;

This fertilisation produces the diploid zygote, ensuring that the full
DNA complement is restored from the fusion of the two haploid
nuclei. Moreover, this fusion also allows genetic variation as well, as
any random combination of chromosomes can be present in the
gametes that were formed after meiosis
(ii) In the second fertilisation, the other male gamete nucleus fuses with two
polar nuclei forming a triploid structure. Name the triploid structure formed. (1)
• (triploid) endosperm nucleus ;
 2. (d) Explain the role of meiosis in the production of
genetically variable sperm cells. (5)
• 1. to produce haploid { cells /nuclei/gametes } ; ACCEPT halving the
chromosome number in gametes IGNORE ref to 23 chromosomes unless
with ref to humans
• 2. reference to crossing over ;
• 3. credit detail of crossing over ; e.g. formation of chiasma / chiasmata OR
exchanging sections of chromatids OR description of breaking and rejoining
• 4. idea of (resulting in) exchange of alleles between chromatids ; NOT genes
or chromosomes
• 5. (crossing over leads to) formation of recombinants ; ACCEPT new
combinations of alleles (on chromatids)
• 6. reference to { random / independent } assortment ;
• 7. credit detail of independent assortment ; e.g. { homologous chromosomes /
maternal and paternal chromosomes } line up in different combinations
Crossing over occurs during prophase I where sections of DNA
get swapped between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes allowing DNA recombination. Moreover,
independent assortment also occurs, which allows different
combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes to be
present in the daughter cells. Both crossing over and
independent assortment gives rise to new combinations of
alleles in the haploid gametes that are formed.
 3 Pollen germination and pollen tube growth are important
stages in plant sexual reproduction.
(a) The diagram below shows a pollen grain on the stigma of a
flower.
(i) On the diagram above, draw
a line to show the route taken by
the pollen tube, from the pollen
grain to the micropyle. (2)
1. line drawn correctly e.g. from
pollen grain, down style to start
of ovary ;
2. to micropyle (around the
edge) ;
3. (a) (ii) The table below shows the structures labelled on the
diagram. Place a tick (✓) in the box next to each one in which
the chromosome number increases at fertilisation. (2)

Tick (✓) if chromosome number

Labelled structure
increases at fertilisation
A
B
C
D ✓
E ✓
 six hours, for 30 hours, 500 pollen
grains were removed and the length of
the pollen tube of each was measured.
The mean length of the pollen tubes
•
was then calculated.
(i) Using the information in the graph, compare the mean pollen
tube length in these two sugar solutions, over this 30-hour period.

•
This was repeated with boron added
(3)
1. both {increase / positive correlation / eq} ;
• 2. (pollen tube) length (always) {greater/ eq} when boron

•
to the dilute sugar solution.
present / eq ;
3. idea of rate of growth greater with boron ;
• 4. linear without boron (for 25 / 30 hours) and not linear with

•
The results are shown in the graph
boron / eq ;
5. correct comparative manipulation of the data ;
•
below.
With both sugar solutions, there is an increase in the mean pollen tube length over time. However,
the solution without boron always had a smaller length than with boron. For example, by 30 hours
the sugar solution with boron was at 300μm while the solution without boron was only at 120
μm , which is 180 μm shorter than with boron.
• It can also be seen that there is a steady increase in mean pollen tube length without boron, while
with boron, it was only linear till approximately 24 hours
• 3. (b) (ii) Using the result of this investigation, a student concluded that boron was necessary for pollen tube
growth.
• Suggest why another student disagreed with this conclusion. (1)
• idea that pollen tube does grow even in the absence of boron ;
•
• (iii) Using the information in the graph, suggest an appropriate conclusion for the effect of boron on the rate of
growth of pollen tubes. (1)
• boron {increases / speeds up / eq} rate ;
•
• (iv) Suggest the advantages to flowering plants of increased pollen tube growth. (2)

• 1. more likely to reach the ovule /eq ;

• 2. fertilisation more likely to occur /eq ;
• 3. idea of fertilisation in shorter time period ;

• Fertilisation can occur much faster as the male

gametes will be able to reach the ovule quicker
and thus make fertilisation more likely.
 4 Infertility reduces the chance of successful fertilisation of the egg by a sperm cell.
There are many causes of infertility in humans.

• One cause of infertility is cigarette smoking. Men who smoke cigarettes have a 30% higher
risk of infertility. Cigarette smoke contains nicotine. The effects of nicotine on the quality of
sperm cells have been studied in rats. Male rats were given nicotine at levels of either 0.5
mg per kg of body mass or 1.0 mg per kg of body mass.
• The sperm cells produced by these rats were compared with sperm cells produced by a
control group of rats. The rats in the control group were not exposed to nicotine.
• The defects in the sperm cells produced were recorded and the results are shown in the
table below. Percentage of each type of sperm cell (%)
Type of sperm cell
(a) (i) Complete Control 0.5 mg of nicotine per kg 1.0 mg of nicotine per kg
the table to give normal sperm
93.6 83.2 75.2
the percentage of cells
sperm cells with sperm cells with
flagella defects 3.9 13.1; 19.9
flagella defects
when the rats
were given 0.5 sperm cells with
2.0 2.7 3.7
mg of nicotine mid-piece defects
per kg of body other defects,
mass. including missing 0.5 1.0 1.2
(1) heads
• 4. (a) (ii) Using the information in the table, calculate the difference in the percentage of
sperm cells with defective flagella in rats given 1.0 mg of nicotine per kg of body mass
compared with the control group. (1)
• 16.0 / 16 (%) ;
• (iii) Name the organelle that may be missing from the sperm cells with mid-piece defects.
(1)
• mitochondria / mitochondrion ;
• (iv) Using the information in the table, suggest why nicotine reduces the movement of the
sperm cells. (4)
• 1. idea of more sperm (cells) with defective flagella ; needs to be comparative
ACCEPT only 4% in control
• 2. idea that flagella needed to move sperm (cells) ; ACCEPT swim
• 3. idea of more sperm (cells) with defective mid-piece ;
• 4. idea that if mitochondria are affected there is no { respiration / energy / ATP } ( for
movement of flagella ) ; ACCEPT damaged or fewer mitochondria ACCEPT less energy, less
• respiration or less ATP increases to 1mg, there is greater sperm with defects. The percentage
As nicotine concentration
of sperm with defective flagella increases by 16%. This means that the sperm with defective
flagella, they can’t move towards the egg cell. Moreover, the % of sperm with mid-piece defects
increases by 1.7% compared to the control as well. This means, there won’t be mitochondria in
these sperm. Without mitochondria, there is no aerobic respiration to get enough ATP for flagella
movement and as a consequence movement is reduced.
 sperm cells do not possess an
acrosome.
Photograph A shows normal sperm
•
cells and photograph B shows sperm
Suggest why the sperm cells in photograph B
•
•
cells from a man with
would not be able to fertilise an egg. (3)
1. ( acrosome contains) { acrosin / enzyme / eq } ;
•
•
globozoospermia.
2. Reference to acrosome reaction ;
3. idea that { zona pellucida / jelly layer } needs to be digested ; ACCEPT
broken down
• 4. sperm (cell) needs to { reach / fuse with } cell (surface) membrane of egg /
eq ;

• Without the acrosome, as in the sperm in photograph B, the zona

pellucida cannot be digested. This is because it is in the acrosome the
digestive enzymes for zona pellucida breakdown are present. Therefore,
these sperm will not be able to reach the egg cell for fertilisation to
occur.
 4. (c) Suggest why a valid study on the
effects of globozoospermia on fertility
would have to be carried out on non-
• 1. idea that smoking causes {damage to sperm / infertility} ;
• smokers.
2. idea of smoking as a variable to be controlled ; (3)
• 3. idea of making sure that any effects were due to globozoospermia OR idea of difficulty
in distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors ; e.g. difficult to tell if it
was due to smoking or disease

• Since smoking also causes damage to the sperm, to ensure

the effect on fertility is due to smoking or globozoospermia,
smoking has to be controlled. Otherwise it’s difficult to
decide whether globozoospermia is due to genetic or any
other environmental factors.
• 5. Stem cells are considered to be a potential treatment for many conditions. However, research
on stem cells needs to be regulated.
• (a) Explain the meaning of the term stem cell. (2)
• (QWC – Spelling of technical terms (shown in italics) must be correct
• and the answer must be organised in a logical sequence)
• 1. undifferentiated cell / eq ;
• 2. that can give rise to other {types of cell / eq };
• 3. idea that no limit to division ;
• 4. correct reference to {totipotent / pluripotent /eq} ;

• An undifferentiated cell which has the potency to give rise

to different types of differentiated cells of the body, and the
ability of self renewal to divide continuously.
• 5. (b) State three potential sources of human stem cells.
(3)
• 1. cord blood /umbilical cord / placenta ;
• 2. {fertilised egg / zygote / eq} / blastocyst / (early) embryo ;
• 3. detail of site within blastocyst
• 4. bone marrow / eq ;
• 5. {brain / connective / skin / liver} cells / eq ;
• 6. addition of adult nucleus to enucleated egg cell ;

1. Umbilical cord blood

2. Inner cell mass of the blastocyst
3. Adult stem cell such as bone marrow
4. Addition of a diploid body cell nucleus into an enucleated egg
cell.
• 5. (c) (i) Suggest two reasons why there are regulating
authorities for human embryo research. (2)
• 1. To decide on max age of embryo allowed for research.
• 2. To draw guidelines on ethical / legal aspects to judge
• what is acceptable and to follow a code of practice.
• 4. To check that the source of stem cells is acceptable.
• 5. To prevent cloning of human beings.
• 6. To prevent repetition of the same research.
• 5. (c) (ii) Suggest why these regulating authorities should include
people involved in human embryo research and people not
involved in embryo research. (2)
• People involved in embryo research are able to understand the
science and recognise what is possible, the benefits and risks or
judge in an informed manner
•
• People not involved in embryo research could give ideas or a
balanced /alternative / wider view.
• 5. (b) There are several types of stem cell found in
humans.
• The table below shows some features of two
types ofFeatures stem cell. If the feature
Totipotent applies
stem cell to the
Pluripotent stem cell

stem
Can give risecell placestema cells
to totipotent tick (✓) in✓✓ the box and if it  does

not
Can apply,
give rise placecells
to differentiated a cross () in ✓ the box. ✓

(2)
Any two correct for 1 mark
• (c) Human bone marrow contains stem cells that can give rise to various types of blood cell
including white blood cells.
• Suggest how a stem cell in the bone marrow can become a differentiated blood cell.
(4)
• QWC – Spelling of technical terms (shown in italics) must be correct and the answer must
be organised in a logical sequence)
• 1. idea of correct stimulus e.g. chemical ;
• 2. (causes) {some genes active / some inactive} (in bone marrow stem cell) / eq ;
• 3. only the active genes are transcribed / eq ;
• 4. (because) mRNA made (only at active genes) / eq ;
• 5. protein made / eq ;
• 6. which (determine / eq) cell {structure / function} / permanently modifies cell / eq ;
•
• When a chemical stimulus is received by the bone marrow stem cells,
some genes are switched on while others are switched off. A mRNA is
transcribed from the activated genes. The mRNA is then translated to
form specific proteins. These proteins made will permanently change
the structure and the function of the cell and the cell becomes
specialised to produce that particular protein.
 collected from a patient’s own heart
tissue to heal tissue damaged by heart
attacks.
• The
After photograph
collection, below
the stem cells were grown shows
in a laboratory to a stem
increase their numbers.
• These stemcell extracted
cells were fromarteries
then put into the coronary heart tissue.
surrounding the heart of the patient.
• The stem cells developed into heart muscle cells, which repaired
the damaged heart tissue.
• (a) (i) Place a cross () in the box that best identifies the name of the property that would
enable these stem cells to give rise to heart muscle cells. (1)
 A cardiopotency
 B omnipotency
 C pluripotency

 D totipotency
 6. (a) (ii) Explain how these stem cells
become specialised and develop into
• heartstimulus
1. idea of appropriate muscle cells.
e.g. chemical, hormone ; (4)
• 2. idea of activation of some genes ;
• 3. only the activated genes are transcribed / mRNA made only at active genes / eq ;
• 4. mRNA translated (on ribosomes) ;
• 5. protein made / eq ;
• 6. which {determines / eq} cell {structure / function} / permanently modifies cell / eq ;
• 7. reference to cell differentiation ;

• When a chemical stimulus is received by the bone marrow stem cells,

some genes are switched on while others are switched off. A mRNA is
transcribed from the activated genes. The mRNA is then translated to
form specific proteins. These proteins made will permanently change
the structure and the function of the cell and the cell becomes
specialised to produce that particular protein.
• 6. (b) Explain the advantages of using stem cells from the patient instead of using stem cells
from a donor.
(2)
• 1. idea of genetically identical cells (to patient) ;
• 2. no risk of rejection / eq ; NOT less likely
• 3. no need to take immunosuppressant drugs / eq ;
•• 4. less
Since therisk ofare
cells infection / eq
genetically ;
identical to the patient, there is no risk of tissue rejection. So there is no need to
• take immunosuppressive drugs, which can make the individual more susceptible to infections by opportunistic
microbes.

• (c) Suggest why this form of stem cell therapy is less controversial than embryonic stem cell
therapy. (2)
• 1. no destruction of embryos / eq ;
• 2. embryo has potential to become a human life / eq ;
• 3. {religious / ethical } objections / eq ;

• Since there is no damage to embryos which has the potential to become a human, there are less ethical
objections.
 (a) There are about 23 000 genes in a
human body cell. The table below
shows the number of genes that have
not
• Suggest been
which switched
of these cells lisoff,
Cel
in three
Number of genes that have
a totipotent stemoff
not been switched
cell. different cells, A, B and C.11
A 00
• Give reasons for your answer. 0
(3)
• Cell 1. C ; 18
B 00
• Reasons 0
•• Any twoallof
C. Because (23 the following
000) genes are not switched off. Which means, 23any of those
genes can be expressed to give rise to any cell
C in the body. Whereas
00 cells A and B
• both
2. all genes
have (potentially)
some genes that are switched
are somewhat differentiated.
active / as
off, that cannot no genes
be expressed,
0
so they

{switched off / deactivated} / {cell A / cell B} has

genes switched off / eq ;
 7. (b) A fertilised egg can be used as a
source of human pluripotent stem
•
cells.
(i) Explain what is meant by the term pluripotent stem cell.
(2)
1. {undifferentiated / unspecialised} cell ;
2. some genes {deactivated / switched off} ;
3. idea that it can give rise to most specialised cells / eq ;
4. but not totipotent stem cells / extra embryonic cells / eq ;
• An undifferentiated cell that can divide continuously and can give rise to most of
the cells of the body, but not extra embryonic cells.
• 7. (b) (ii) Describe how a fertilised egg can be used as a source of human pluripotent stem
cells. (3)

• 1. fertilised egg allowed to {grow for a few days/ divide several times / eq} ;
• 2. reference to a {blastocyst/ blastula / hollow ball of cells / eq} ;
• 3. cells in inner cell mass are {pluripotent / harvested} ;
• 4. procedure for extraction of cells / eq ;
• 5. ref to source of fertilised egg e.g. spare embryo after IVF ;

• A fertilised egg / ‘spare embryo’ can be obtained from a fertility clinic,

which may have spare embryos after IVF. This fertilised egg will be
allowed to divide for a few days, upon which it will form a blastocyst.
The inner cell mass of the blastocyst is pluripotent. These cells can
be extracted after removing the trophoblast (outer cells of blastocyst).