Experimental Skills and Investigations 

Prediction: Prediction is what you predict or think will be the results of an investigation, it can also
be called a hypothesis. 
Independent Variable: The factor that you deliberately change. 
Dependent Variable: The factors that you measure. 
Control Variables: the factors you keep the same to keep it a fair test.  
Prediction: What you predict or think will be the results of an investigation. It can also be called a
hypothesis.  
Method: A description of how you carried out an experiment. It is written in full sentences and
paragraphs (not numbered points), in the past tense (because you are describing an experiment you
did in the past) and is impersonal (you don’t use the words ‘I’ or ‘we’).  
Risk assessment: an assessment of the risks involved in carrying out an experiment. It is written
before the experiment is done to help us stay safe when we do the experiment. We identify all the
potential hazards of the experiment and what harm they could cause. We decide how risky each
hazard is (what are the chances of this happening – is it high risk or low risk?) and plan some control
measures to help us avoid the hazard (e.g., wearing goggles).  
Results: What happened in an experiment. They are usually written in a results table.  
Conclusion: an explanation of what your results show – we usually state what the results show,
quote some data from our results to back up the statement and then explain the results using
scientific ideas.  
Evaluation: an assessment of how effective the experiment was in helping us to answer the scientific
question posed and how valid our results are. We evaluate the method and suggest improvements. 
Use bar charts for categoric data so data that has word labels and use line graphs for continuous
data which is data that can have any number value within a range.  
The independent variable should always be on the x-axis and the dependent variable should always
be on the y-axis. 
Each axis should be labelled with the quantity and the unit, and each square should be worth the
same amount so that your scale is even. 
Draw a line of best fits through the points of a line graph. Remember to use a sharp pencil and
ignore any outliers. If the points are in a straight line, use a ruler to draw a straight line of best fit, if
the points are in a curve, draw a freehand curved line of best fit, don’t join the points dot to dot. 
Make sure to: 
 Interpret data and observations to identify patterns and draw conclusions to explain
what the data shows. 
 Evaluate the method used in an experiment, identify sources of error and explain
how the method could be improved. 

Planning a Valid Fair Test 

Variable: Anything that changes or varies in an experiment. 
Fair Test: In a fair test only, the independent variable is allowed to affect the dependent variable.
Any other factors that could affect the dependent variable are kept the same so that when we write
a conclusion, we can be certain that the changes in the dependent variable are only due to the
changes that we made to the independent variable. 
Apparatus: The equipment that we use in an experiment. 
Measuring Instrument: The equipment that we use to make measurements in an experiment. 
Range: The smallest to the largest value that you measured or changed in an experiment. E.g., you
might measure a range of masses from 10g to 80g. 
Interval: The gaps between measurements, e.g., you might have measured a range of masses from
10g to 80g with intervals of 10g so you would have measured 10g, 20g, 30g, 40g, 50g, 60g, 70g, 80g. 
Repeat reading: Often we repeat an experiment three times so that we can compare results and
identify anomalies. We would find the average of the repeat readings for each value of our
independent variable. 

Making an experiment safe 

Hazard: A hazard is something that is potentially dangerous – it could cause us or the environment
harm. 
Risk: The risk is how likely the hazard is to cause us harm. For example, a hazard of using glassware is
that broken glass could cut us, but if we handle the glassware with care and clear-up any broken
glass properly, the risk of us getting cut is low.  
Control measure: What we do to reduce the risks of each hazard to keep us safe, e.g., wearing
goggles to prevent chemicals getting in our eyes or using a heatproof mat to stop the Bunsen burner
from burning the bench.  
Flammable: Can set on fire easily.  
Toxic: Can cause death if swallowed, breathed in or absorbed through the skin.  
 Corrosive: Can cause nasty chemical burns.  
 Harmful: Can cause us harm and make us feel unwell.  
 Irritant: Could irritate our skin, eyes or lungs e.g., causing itching, redness or blisters.  
Explosive: Can explode. 

Analysis 
Data: The numbers or observations recorded in an experiment.  
Analyse: Looking at the data from an experiment to identify trends (patterns) and draw
conclusions.  
Mean (average): The mean is the type of average we calculate when we have repeated readings in
an experiment. We add up the repeat readings and divide the total by the number of readings there
were. We DO NOT include anomalous results in the mean. Examples: If we had recorded results of
10cm, 11cm and 12cm we would add them all up and divide by three, so the mean would be 11cm.
mean = 10 + 11 + 12 = 11 3 If the results were 10cm, 11cm and 16cm, we would identify the ‘16cm’
result as an anomaly because it does not ‘fit’ in with the other two results. So, we add 10 and 11
together then divide by 2. So, the average is 10.5cm. mean = 10 + 11 = 10.5 2  
Anomaly: An ‘odd’ result – a result that does not fit the pattern. If there are repeat readings, it might
be very different from the other two results. On a line graph, anomalies are points that are not close
to the line of best fit.  
Anomalous: Does not fit the pattern – an anomalous result is the same as an anomaly.  
Categoric data: Data that is in categories, usually the categories have word labels e.g., eye colour –
blue, green, brown.  
Bar chart: Drawn if the data is categoric – see graph drawing help sheet.  
Continuous data: Numerical data that can have any value within a certain range, e.g., height or
weight.  
Line graph: Drawn if the data is continuous - see graph drawing help sheet. 
 Microscopes and Cells 
 

 
 
 
Microscope: An instrument used to view and magnify (make bigger) very small objects.
Cell wall: Made of a tough substance called cellulose which supports the cell – helps to keep it rigid.
Found in plant cells only. 
Cell membrane: The membrane (like a thin skin) around the cell that holds it all together and
controls what goes in and out, Found in plant and animal cells. 
Cytoplasm: A jelly like substance that fills plant and animal cells. It is where the chemical reactions
happen. 
Chloroplast: Contains chlorophyll. Where photosynthesis happens, it is found in plant cells only. 
Chlorophyll: The green pigment (‘chloro’ means green) found in the chloroplasts, it absorbs sunlight,
which is what the plant needs to make sugars (food). 
Vacuole: Contains a liquid called cell sap – helps to keep the cell firm. 
Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA) - controls the activity of the cell. 
Mitochondria: This is where energy is released from sugars by respiration. 
Sperm cell: The male sex cell, its function is to fertilize the egg cell. It has a tail so that it can swim
and a pointed head to help it get into the egg cell. The mitochondria provide all the energy it needs
to swim. 

 
Ovum (egg) cell: The female sex cell, its function is to be fertilized. It contains nutrients for the early
developing embryo and the large surface area to be fertilized easier. 

 
Nerve cell: The nerve cells are very long with a connection at each end – their function is to carry
nerve signals around the body so for example from the brain to the muscle. 
 

 
Red blood cells: The red blood cells carry oxygen around the body. They have a very large surface
area so that they can absorb as much oxygen as possible and contain a red substance called
hemoglobin which carries oxygen. They have no nucleus. 

 
 
 
Palisade cells: The palisade cells are found in the leaves. They contain lots of chloroplasts so that
they can absorb as much sunlight as possible to maximize the amount of photosynthesis that takes
place. 
  
Root hair cells: Root hair cells are found in the roots of plants – they make the root look ‘hairy’. Each
root has a long extension that sticks out into the soil, it has a large surface area and thin cell wall to
maximize the absorption of water and minerals from the soil. 

 
Cilia cells: Cilia cells are found in the lining of our airways. They have tiny hairs hat can beat
backwards and forwards to sweep mucus and dirt away from our lungs. 
 Photosynthesis 
 
Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is a process that happens in the chloroplasts in the leaves of plants
to make glucose (sugar). The chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and the energy causes carbon dioxide and
water to react together, producing glucose and oxygen. “Photo” means light and “synthesis” means
to make, so photosynthesis is when light is used to make sugar. 

 
 
The carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air by the leaf and the water is absorbed from the soil by
the roots and transported to the leaves in the xylem vessels. 
 
Leaf Structure: 

 
Leaf: The leaf is one of the most important organs of a plant, they produce food for the plant
through a process called photosynthesis. The leaf is adapted to its function because it has a large
surface area s that it can absorb a lot of light. 
Waxy cuticle: The waxy cuticle is a waterproof layer that coats the outside of the leaf – it prevents
the leaf from losing water, but does not block sunlight from getting in.  
Epidermis: The epidermis is the thin membrane (skin) that holds the leaf together. It is transparent
so that sunlight can pass through.  
Palisade mesophyll or Palisade layer: The palisade layer is in the upper part of the leaf and is where
most of the photosynthesis takes place, because this is the part of the plant/leaf that gets the most
sunlight. It is made of palisade cells that contain lots of chloroplasts so that they can absorb as much
sunlight as possible to maximise photosynthesis.  
Spongy mesophyll: The spongy mesophyll is in the lower part of the leaf and contains lots of air
spaces. This is to allow air to diffuse inside the leaf so that all the cells can get the carbon dioxide
that they need for photosynthesis.   
Stoma (singular) or Stomata (plural): The stomata are tiny pores (holes) in the epidermis of the leaf,
they are opened and closed by a pair of guard cells. The stomata open to allow carbon dioxide to
diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse out, but close when necessary to prevent too much water
from being lost. There are more stomata in the lower epidermis than the upper epidermis because
less water will be lost from the bottom of the leaf than the top.  
Leaf vein: The leaf veins or vascular bundles are the plants transport network – they carry water,
food and minerals to the parts of the plant where they are needed. The vascular bundles are made
up of two types of vessels (xylem and phloem) that run from the roots, through the stem and then
branch out through the leaves and the rest of the plant. The xylem vessels carry water and minerals
from the roots (where they were absorbed from the soil) to the parts of the plant that need them
(the leaves need water for photosynthesis and to help keep their shape). The phloem vessels carry
the glucose (food) that is made in the leaves to the parts of the plant that need it.  
Transpiration: Transpiration is the process by which water moves through the plant. Water
evaporates from the leaves (how much evaporates is controlled by the opening and closing of the
stomata and the waxy cuticle prevents too much from being lost), as water is lost from the leaves
more is drawn up through the xylem vessels from the roots. 

Food Chains and Webs 

Food chain: A food chain shows what eats what in a habitat. Food chains start with a green plant
that is eaten by a primary consumer, which may be eaten by a secondary consumer and so on. (The
only exception are food chains that start with chemosynthetic bacteria instead of plants, e.g., at
hydrothermal vents). 
Producer: All plants are producers. They use the sun’s energy ti ‘produce’ food energy.
Herbivore: An animal that only eats plants.
Consumer: All animals are consumers.
Primary consumers: An animal that eats producers.
Secondary Consumer: An animal that eats primary consumers.
Tertiary consumer: An animal that eats secondary consumers.
Carnivore: Eats only animals, never plants.
Top carnivore: Is not eaten by anything else.
Omnivore: Eats both plants and animals.

 
Food webs: A food web is made up of all the individual food chains in a habitat linked together.  

 
Animals that are hunted and eaten are prey, and these are consumed by predators. The final
consumer at the top of the food chain is called a top (or apex) predator and is not eaten by anything
else.  
Over time the numbers of predators and prey in an ecosystem rises and falls in a predator-prey
cycle. As the number of prey increases, so does the number of predators shortly afterwards. This is
because there is more food. This reduces the number of prey because they are hunted. Which
reduces the number of predators because there is less food. This increases the number of prey and
the cycle repeats. 
  
Bioaccumulation: Bioaccumulation is when a toxin builds up in a food chain. A small amount of toxin
may be present in the producer (e.g., from an insecticide being sprayed on it). When the producer is
eaten by a consumer the toxins accumulate (builds up) in its tissue. The toxins are not broken down
or excreted by the organism so the more the consumer eats, the more the toxin builds up. The
animals at the top of the food chain will have the largest amount of toxin bioaccumulated in their
tissues – this can be very harmful. 
Habitat: The place where organisms live. Woodland, grass, river. 
Interdependence: Interdependence is when different organisms in a particular habitat or food web
depend on one another for survival. 
Toxin: A poisonous substance that can cause an organism harm e.g., an insecticide. 
Insecticide: A chemical that is used by farmers or gardeners to kill insects that might eat the plants
they are growing. 
Ecosystem: A community of living organisms and the environment they live in. 
Community: All the living organisms that interact (live together) in an environment. 
Coexist: Coexist means live together. 
Niche: A niche is the part of a habitat that an organism has adapted to live in and/or the way it has
adapted to live in this habitat – it could be specially adapted to live in that niche. 
 For example, a beadle anemone lives high up the rocky shore (at a beach) – no other anemones live
there so they don’t have any competition for food, however twice a day the tide goes out and the
anemones end up out of the water! To cope with living in this niche they have adapted to pull their
tentacles inside their bodies and coat themselves with special mucus so that they don’t dry out. 
 

Human Body 
 
Diet: The food we eat. A diet can be healthy or unhealthy. 
Hunger: is a desire for food. 
Starvation: is a condition of suffering due to a lack of nutrition. 
Fatigue: The body is easily tired due to the large masses being carried around. 
Joint pain: Carrying the large mass puts pressure on the hips and knees. 
Enzymes: An enzyme is a molecule which acts as a biological catalyst, it speeds up chemical
reactions in the body, but it doesn’t get used up in the process so that it can be used again and
again. At high temperatures, enzymes are not killed but they are denatured and can no longer
function.  

 
Digestive system: 
  
 
Pulse rate: How fast the heart is beating. 
Respiratory System: The respiratory system is responsible for getting oxygen into the body and
carbon dioxide out of the body. When we breathe in, air enters the lungs, oxygen from the air is
absorbed into the blood and transported to all the cells of the body. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
the blood and into the lungs, when we breathe it leaves our body. 
Respiration: Respiration is the chemical reaction that releases energy from glucose (from our food)
so that cells can use it. Respiration takes place in the mitochondria of the cells and is happening in
every cell of our body all the time. 
Aerobic Respiration: Aerobic respiration happens when the cell has plenty of oxygen. The glucose
and oxygen react together. Energy is released and carbon dioxide and water are produced as waste
products. The equation for aerobic respiration is: 
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)  
Anaerobic Respiration: When someone is exercising, the muscle cells may not get enough oxygen to
do anerobic respiration, but they still need energy, so they do anaerobic respiration instead.
Anaerobic means without oxygen. The glucose is only partially broken down so less energy is
released. The waste product is only lactic acid. The equation for anaerobic respiration is: 
Glucose → lactic acid (+ little energy) 
The lactic acid is removed by the blood. If we exercise a lot, the lactic acid can build up in the muscle
cells making them feel tired and sore. 
Liver: Monitors everything entering body. Converts harmful substances into something that doesn’t
harm the body or excretes it out into urine.
 
 
Respiratory System: 
  
Respiration is different to breathing because breathing is ventilation. Respiration is a chemical
reaction which occurs in every one of the cells in the human body, it releases energy stored in
glucose and without it, these cells would die. 
Trachea (windpipe): The tube that air travels through to get to and from the lungs, the trachea is
held open by rings of cartilage. 
Bronchus (plural = bronchi): The trachea branches into 2 bronchi – one is connected to each lung,
just like the trachea they are help open by rings of cartilage. 
Bronchioles: Smaller branches that lead from the bronchi into different parts of the lungs. 
Circulatory system: The circulatory system (or cardiovascular) system is made up of the heart, blood
vessels (arteries, capillaries and veins) and blood. The role of the circulatory system is to carry
oxygen and nutrients from the lungs or digestive system to the cells of the body where they are
needed to carry waste products (such as carbon dioxide and urea) away from the cells to be
excreted. 

 
Puberty: The period when children start to change physically as they become adults. This is when
girls and boys stary to develop secondary sexual characteristics and become capable of reproducing. 
Girls usually start puberty when they are 10-14 years old and boys when they are 12-16 years old.
The process usually lasts for about 4 years. 
What happens to girls during puberty? 
 Start to develop breasts 
 Start to grow pubic hair and underarm hair 
 Start to menstruate and have periods. 
 Start to sweat more 
 Growth spurt, gaining weight and change of body shape – rounder hips, narrower
waist and more body fat along the upper arms, thighs and upper back 
 May get spots or acne 
 May have ‘mood swings’ as thy try to cope with all the changes that are happening
to their bodies and all the different levels or hormones in the body that are causing
them.  
What happens to boys during puberty? 
  The testicles get bigger, and the scrotum begins to get thinner and change to a
redder darker color. The penis will also grow. 
 Start to grow pubic hair, underarm hair and facial hair (moustache and beard). 
 Start to sweat more 
 May have ‘wet dreams” (ejaculations of semen while you are sleeping). 
 Voice ‘breaks’ – it becomes deeper, but while this is happening there may be times
when it is very deep one minute then high pitched the next. 
 Growth spurt and become more muscular.  
 May get spots or acne. 
 Breast tissue can swell temporarily – this is normal and will not stay like this. ·  
 May have ‘mood swings’ as they try to cope with all the changes that are happening
to their bodies and the different levels of hormones in the body that are causing them. 
Male Reproductive System: 

 
Bladder: Hollow organ, like a balloon, that stores urine. 
Gland: The glands add fluid to the sperm. The fluid provides that sperm cells with nutrients. 
Sperm duct: The tube that carries the sperm to the urethra. 
Penis: The penis is the male reproductive system that is used for 2 functions, to carry urine out of
the body, to pass semen through the vagina or a woman during sexual intercourse. 
Urethra: The tube inside the penis that carries urine or semen. A ring of muscles ensure that urine
and semen never mix. 
Testis (plural = testes: There are 2 testes. Their function is to produce sperm and make the sex
hormones. Once a male reaches sexual maturity, the sperm can produce sperm continually. 
Foreskin: The fold of skin that covers the end of the penis. Sometimes the foreskin is removed for
religious or medial reasons in a process called circumcision. We say that the man has been
circumcised. 
Scrotum or scrotal sac: A bag of skin that contains the testes, the testes are kept in the scrotum
which is outside the body and is thin so that they stay cool – if the sperm get too hot, they die. 
Semen: Mixture of sperm and fluids. 
Female Reproductive System: 
  
Oviduct (fallopian tube): The tubes which carry egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus. They
contain tiny hairs called cilia, which move the egg down the oviduct. 
Ovary (plural = ovaries): There are 2 ovaries. They produce the ova or egg cells and some female sex
hormones. 
Uterus (womb): A muscular bag with a soft lining. This is where the baby develops. 
Cervix: A ring of muscles between the uterus and the vagina. The cervix keeps the baby inside the
uterus while a woman is pregnant. 
Vagina: The passage that leads from the cervix to the outside of the woman’s body. The opening of
the vagina (between the woman’s legs) is called the vulva and is protected by folds of skin called the
labia. 
The woman’s urethra (which carries urine from the bladder out of the body) also opens into the
vulva but is separate from the vagina (unlike in men where the urethra is used to carry sperm and
urine). 
Menstrual Cycle: A cycle of events that continually happen in the female reproductive system once a
woman has reached sexual maturity (gone through puberty). Each menstrual cycle usually lasts
about 28 days (around a month). The menstrual cycle:  
· Day 1 – the lining of the uterus breaks down and is lost through the vagina. This is called
menstruation or ‘having a period’ – the girl will start bleeding from the vagina.  
· Day 4 or 5 – bleeding usually stops (but this varies for different women) and the lining of the uterus
starts to build up (grow) again. An egg cell will start to mature in one of the ovaries.  
· Day 14 – at about day 14 an egg cell is released from one of the ovaries, this is called ovulation. The
egg cell starts to travel down the oviduct towards the uterus. The lining of the uterus stays thick
ready to receive a fertilized egg. · If the egg cell is not fertilized by a sperm cell while it is in the
oviduct, the lining of the uterus breaks down again and the cycle is repeated – day 1 starts again. 
  
 
 
Ovulation: Ovulation is when an egg cell is released from an ovary. When a girl is born, her ovaries
already contain all the eggs they will ever have. Once a girl reaches sexual maturity, one of these
eggs matures and is released from an ovary each month, usually on about day 14 of her menstrual
cycle. 
Menstruation: When the lining of the uterus breaks down and is lost through the vagina. The girl will
bleed from her vagina and may call it a ‘period’ Menstruation usually lasts for 3-5 days but varies
widely and can be longer or shorter. 
Fertilization: When a sperm cell enters an egg cell, the nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the
nucleus of the egg cell to form a zygote. Fertilization is when the 2 nuclei fuse together, not just
when the sperm enters the egg. Fertilization happens in the oviduct. 
Copulation: When a man and woman have sexual intercourse – the man’s penis becomes erect and
is put into the woman’s vagina. When the man ejaculates, semen, containing millions of sperm are
released into the woman’s vagina. The sperm start to swim through the cervix, into the uterus and
onto the oviducts. 
Erection: The penis contains erectile tissue, which fills with blood during copulation. This causes the
penis to become hard so that it can be put into the woman’s vagina. 
Ejaculation: When semen (sperm and fluid) is released from a man’s penis. 
Fuse: Another word for join together. 
Zygote: The name fir a fertilized egg (when the egg and sperm nuclei have fused. 

 
Cell division process: 

 
Embryo:  After about 4 days, the cells in the ball of cells start to specialize into different types of
cells, it is now called an embryo until 9 weeks. 
Implantation: When the embryo implants or embeds itself in the lining of the uterus. This happens
about 1 week after fertilization. 
Development: The zygote develops into an embryo (4 days to 9 weeks), then a fetus (9 weeks to
birth). After about 40 weeks the fetus is ready to be born as a baby. Follow the link below to see how
development happens – view the slides to see what the developing embryo/fetus looks like and how
big it is. Click on ‘learn more’ to find out what has developed at each stage. 
Fetus: What we call a developing baby in the uterus between 9 weeks after fertilization and when it
is born. 
Placenta: An organ that develops in the uterus when a woman is pregnant (the placenta is only
there when the woman is pregnant). Its function is to provide the growing fetus with oxygen and
nutrients and to remove waste products (such as carbon dioxide and urea). Inside the placenta the
mother’s blood and the fetus’ blood are very close together (but they DO NOT MIX). Oxygen and
nutrients diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetus’ blood. Waste products (carbon dioxide and
urea) diffuse from the fetus’ blood to the mother’s blood to be excreted. 

 
Umbilical cord: Connects fetus to placenta. 
Amnion or amniotic sac: A bag that the fetus develops inside, containing amniotic fluid. 
Amniotic fluid: A liquid found in the amniotic sac that protects the developing fetus. 
Labor: When the fetus is ready to be born, the mother goes into labor. During labor the muscular
walls of the uterus start to contract to push the baby down into the right position to be born and to
dilate (open up) the cervix. When the cervix has fully dilated (opened up to about 10cm) the baby
can be delivered. 
Birth: When the mother’s cervix is fully dilated, she can start to push the baby out through the
vagina. She does this when she is having a contraction. After the baby has been born, the umbilical
cord is clamped (to prevent blood loss) and cut. The mother will then have to deliver (give birth to)
the placenta (often called the ‘afterbirth’. 
Contractions: During labor the woman’s uterus will contract (tighten) and relax over and over again
– this is called having contractions and is very painful. 
Identical Twins: 
  
Non-Identical Twins: 

 
Conjoined Twins: Conjoined twins are very rare. They are formed in the same way as identical twins,
but when the zygote splits apart, a little bit remains attached. So, when the twins develop, they are
joined together.  
Sometimes they are only attached a bit and can be easily separated by surgery. Sometimes it is a lot
more complicated as they could be attached in a lot of places or even share internal organs – this
might make it very difficult and risky to separate them. 

The Lungs: 
  
Gas exchange: Happens in the alveoli (in the lungs). Oxygen diffuses from the air in the alveolus to
the blood in the capillary. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveolus to be exhaled. 
Blood Capillary (plural = capillaries): Tiny blood vessels that are found in every part of the body.
They have very thin walls so that substances can diffuse in and out of the blood easily. 
Intercostal Muscles: Muscles found between the ribs. 
Diaphragm: A large sheet of muscle found under the lungs. 
 
Microbes + Diseases 
Bacteria: Single cell microorganism, some bacteria cause disease, some are good. 
Virus: Smaller than bacteria. They reproduce by infecting a host cell, this can cause disease. 
White blood cell: A type of cell found in the blood that defends the body against disease and
infection. White blood cells move through blood and tissue throughout your body, looking for
foreign invaders (microbes) such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. When they find them, they
launch an immune attack. They are attracted towards the infective agents, then surround and engulf
them. Once inside the cell, these white cells then release chemicals that break the organism down
and destroy it. Other white cells, called lymphocytes, target attacks in another way, by making
antibodies. 
Vaccination: A vaccine may contain a dead or inactive form of a bacteria or virus that causes disease,
or a small amount of the toxin produced by the bacteria. This stimulates white blood cells to
produce antibodies and/or antitoxins that can fight the infection. It does not contain enough toxin
give the person the disease. If the person is later infected by the bacteria/virus, their white blood
cells will recognize it and produce antibodies/antitoxins more rapidly to help fight the infection and
stop them from becoming ill. 
Pathogen: Microorganism that causes disease. 
Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts, molds and mushrooms. 

 
 Variation and Inheritance: 
Variation: Differences in characteristics between members of a population. For example, hair color,
eye color, height and blood group. 
Inherited: Characteristics that are passed on from parent to offspring. These characteristics are
determined by DNA/genes that were present in the sperm and egg cells from the parents. 
Environmental Factor: Something in the environment that an organisms lives in that can affect their
characteristics. For example, the amount of sunlight a person is exposed to is an environmental
factor that can affect their skin color. 
DNA: DNA is found in the nucleus of every cell. It is the genetic information that is inherited from
parents and determines inherited characteristics. 
Gene: A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a particular characteristic such as an eye color. 

 
Extras