Nssco Biology Grade 10 - 094440

NSSCO BIOLOGY GRADE 10-11
Topic 1: Scientific processes

1.1 Mathematical requirements
Perform simple arithmetical calculations (add, subtract, multiply and divide)
(a) The plant lost 8.2 g of mass on day 6, 6.4 g on day 7 and on day 4.3 g on day 8.
What was the total mass lost from day 6 to 8?
Answer: 8.2 g + 6.4 g + 4.3 g = 18.9g
(b) A plant’s mass was 675 g on the first day of an experiment, and 649 g on the fifth
day.
How much mass did the plant lose?
Answer: 675 g – 649 g = 26 g
(c) Approximately 2000 dm3 of blood is pumped through your heart every day.
How much blood does your heart pump in a week?
Answer: 200 dm3 x 7 days = 14 000 dm3 per week
(d) Your heart beats about 4200 times an hour. What is the heart rate per minute?
Answer: 4200 beats /hour ÷ 60 minutes = 70 beats / min
Use averages, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios and reciprocals
Averages
 An average is a measure of central tendency in a set of data.
 It is a representative value for the whole set of data.
 The median, mean and mode are three measures of central tendency.
Finding the median
 Organise (arrange) the data in order, from the smallest to largest.

 The value in the middle is the median. In cases of bimodal (two values) in the
middle, add the two values and divide by 2.
ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo
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Finding the mean (average)
 Add up all the values involved and then divide by the total number of
values in the set.
Finding the mode
 Mode is the common value (the one appearing the most) or the value with
the highest frequency.
Decimals
 A decimal refers to the notation of a number in the decimal system, which

contains a decimal marker (separator), for example 11. 00 or 4. 13249.
 Decimal markers in examination papers will be a single dot on the line (in
the value).
Fractions
 A fraction represents a part of a whole umber.
Improper fraction – when the top (numerator) is larger than the bottom
(denominator), e.g. 7
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Proper fraction – the top is less than the bottom, e.g. 5  1 = 0.5
10 2
Mixed number – a whole number and a fraction, e.g. 4 2

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Percentages
 A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100.

 It is often denoted using the percent sign (%).
 E.g. if a leopard kills 60 prey out of 80 attempts, his success percentage
is 75%
 60 x 100 = 75%
80
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Ratios
 A ratio is the relationship between two quantities, normally expressed as the
quotient of one divided by the other.
 For an example if a dog has three white puppies and two brown puppies, the
ratio of white puppies to brown puppies is 3 to 2, also written as 3:2.
 In monohybrid inheritance if two heterozygous tall plants are crossed, the
phenotypic ratio is 3 tall to 1 short (3 tall:1 short)
Reciprocals
 A reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by the number.
 e.g. the reciprocal of 4 is 1 and the reciprocal of 10 is 1
4 10
Use usual mathematical instruments (ruler, compasses, protractor, Set Square)
Ruler – is used to measure length

E.g. measure the length of an organism to calculate magnification
Compasses - are used to draw circles

- e.g. when drawing pie charts
Protractor - is used to measure angles (in degrees)

- e.g. measuring angles when drawing a pie chart
Set square – is used to draw a perpendicular line
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Specific objective: recognise and use direct and inverse proportion
 Proportion refers to the relationship between variables
Direct proportion
- Means that two variables increase at a constant rate
- E.g. temperature of a reptile such as a snake, increases as external
(environmental) temperature increases
Inverse (indirect) proportion

- Means that as one variable increases, a related variable decrease at a
constant rate
- E.g. rate of photosynthesis (number of bubbles produced per minute)
decreases as the distance of the lamp away from the plant increases
Specific objective: use positive, whole number indices in algebraic expressions
Using indices
- The index (plural indices) of a number (base) says how many times to use the
number in a multiplication.
- Indices are used to write large numbers in a simple manner.
- E.g. 26 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64 ( 2 is the base and 6 is the index/exponent)
The exponent of 2 is 6 in this example and is pronounced as two is raised to
the power of 6.
Specific objective: solve equations of the form x = y + z and x = yz for any one term
when the other two are known
Examples:
(a) The form x = y + z
The total number of learners (x) in grade 10 at a particular school is 135. If there
are 65 girls(y), how many boys (z) are there?
x=y+z
135 = 65 + z
135 – 65 = z
70 = z
Therefore, number of boys is 70
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(b) In the form x = yz
2480 stomata (x) were found in 80 leaves (y), with each leaf containing an equal
amount. How many stomata (z) were found in each leaf?
x = yz
2480 = 80z
2 480 = 80z
80 80
31 = z
Number of stomata in each leaf is 31
1.2 . Scientific skills
1.2.1 Planning and conducting investigations
Specific objective: make observations accurately; use appropriate techniques; handle

apparatus / material competently and have due regard to safety
Make observations accurately

 Make precise observations by recording everything which happens in great
detail, including the timing of these events using instruments which enhance the
human senses.
 Scientists must make accurate observations, because usually these results are
communicated to others that might want to do the same experiment.
Use appropriate techniques
 Techniques are ways of carrying out a scientific procedure.

 Scientific investigations can involve observation and experiment.
 Techniques vary with the type of investigation that is being carried out.
 Scientists record observations accurately in the form of drawings, photographs,
measurements or descriptions.
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Handle apparatus/material competently and have due regard to safety
 Biologists use many different types of apparatus for their observations and
experiments.
 Many materials in the laboratory can cause injury if not handled carefully.
 To protect yourself from possible injury, wear safety googles whenever working
with chemicals, burners or any substance that might get into eyes.
 Wear a laboratory coat and tie back long hair whenever working with chemicals
or heated substances.
 Follow instructions correctly.
 Do not eat or drink in the laboratory or from laboratory glassware.
 When you light a Bunsen burner, strike the match first, and then turn on the gas.
 Be careful when handling sharp instruments such as scalpels and scissors.
 Report any breakage or spills to your teacher immediately and ask about the
proper clean-up procedure.
Specific objective: distinguish between independent, dependent and constant

variables
Variables refers to all the conditions that might affect the outcome of an
experiment.
Independent variable
 Is the variable that can be changed on purpose (manipulated) in an experiment.
Dependent variable
 Is the variable that is being measured in an experiment

 They are the changes observed due to changes in the independent variable.
Constant variable
 Is the variable that remains unchanged (constant/same) throughout an

experiment, though other variables may change.
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Specific objective: state the hypothesis or the aim of the investigation in relation to
dependent and independent variables
Hypothesis
 An educated guess concerning the outcome of an investigation by stating the

relationship between the dependent and the independent variable.
- To test a hypothesis, you need to design a fair test where you isolate the
factor influencing the hypothesis while keeping other variables the same
(constant)
1.2.2 Recording data

Specific objective: locate, select and organize information from a variety of sources
 Data is any information gathered from experiments, observations, or from

reading about a topic.
 It can be measurements, descriptions, drawings or information.
 One can use a variety of sources such as the internet, books, scientific journals
and magazines to locate and select data.
 The information can then be organised in a table or chart.
Specific objective: record results of experimental investigations in a logical manner

(tables or graphs) and explain the importance of units and recording results of
experimental investigations
 After collecting information from your experiments or investigations, it needs to

be organised scientifically for you to analyse the results.
 Recording the results of an experimental investigation may be done in a table or
graphs with specified units.
 It is important to record results of experimental investigations as it helps to:
identify errors which may have occurred during the experiment, analyse and
draw conclusions from the results obtained or compare with previous findings
should the investigation be repeated.
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1.2.3 Drawing graphs and tables
- Data can be presented in the form of tables and graphs where:
Tables summarises the main findings and Graphs show results visually, often
making the trends easier to see
Specific objective: complete tables of data, and process data, using a calculator where
necessary
Constructing a table
 A table must have an appropriate heading/title

 A table consists of a number of different columns and rows
 The independent variable usually appears in the left-hand column
 The dependent variable usually appears in the right-hand column
 The name of each variable must appear at the top of the column with the unit
written next to or below the heading e.g. time/s (units should be in the heading
column and not with measurements column).
Example:
The table shows heart rate during running and cycling
Heart rate/min
Time/min Run cycle
0 70 70
10 72 71
20 74 96
30 120 125
40 140 127
50 143 103
60 122 89
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- Has a heading/title
- Time is the independent variable (appears in the left-hand column) because you
can change it on purpose
- Heart rate is the dependent variable (appears in the right-hand column) the
readings depend on time
- Variables have units next to them
Drawing graphs (bar graph, histogram and line graph)
The following should be considered when drawing any graph:
 select suitable scale and axes for graphs

 The scale is the number of units per major division on your graph.
 Space the units equally on both x-axis and the y-axis
 A suitable scale should cover 50% or more of the space provided on both axes.
 label each axes with the physical quantity and the appropriate unit, e.g. time/s
 plot the independent variable on the x-axis (horizontal axis) and plot the dependent
variable on the y-axis (vertical axis)
 label each graph with the appropriate heading (by convention always the
dependent versus independent variable)
Drawing bar graphs / charts
 The independent variable is usually non-numerical and the dependent variable is a

numerical (number) value
 Bars are drawn upward and must all have the same width
 Spaces in between bars must also be the same
 A bar graph is usually used to present discontinuous data e.g. blood groups
 Only a sharp pencil is allowed when drawing graphs
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Example of a bar graph/chart
Drawing histogram
 Similar to bar graph but with no spaces in between bars / bars should touch
 Bars should be drawn in order of increasing or decreasing magnitude
 A histogram is used to show the distribution of continuous data e.g. height
Example of a histogram
Drawing line graphs
 Present points (plots) on the curve clearly marked as crosses (x) or encircled dots
(⊙).
 If a further curve is included, vertical crosses (+) may be used to mark the points
 Join the plots using a ruler for precise reading. Always start from the first plotted
coordinate up to the last plot (no extrapolation).
 When two or more line graphs are drawn on the same grid, use a key to
distinguish them clearly.
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Drawing pie charts
 Should be drawn with the sectors in rank order, largest first, beginning at noon and
proceeding clockwise
 Pie charts should preferably contain no more than six sectors
Specific objective:
- draw charts and graphs from given data to include plotting of one or several curves
- label each axis with the physical quantity and the appropriate unit
- plot the independent variable on the x-axis and depended variable on the y-axis
- present points on the curve clearly marked as crosses or encircled dots
- label each graph with the appropriate heading
Example: use the data in the table to draw a line graph on the grid
provided
pH Time taken to break
down starch/minutes
3 20
4 13
5 3
6 7
7 12
8 22
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Specific objective: interpret charts and graphs
 Interpreting a chart or a graph means pointing out the trends that

the graph or chart shows.
 The interpretation must point out the main trends and any
unexpected features of the graph or chart.
Activity:
From the graph drawn above, interpret the relationship between pH and
time taken to break down starch in minutes.
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1.2.4 Basic units and derived units
(Note: The solidus (/) will be used for a quotient and to indicate units in labels of
tables and graphs)
Specific objective: explain and use the relationship between length, surface area and
volume and their units on metric scales
Length
 Is a measure of the distance between two points.

 Metre (m) is the basic unit of length.
 Metric unit of length symbols:
- 1 micrometre (µm) = 0.001 or 1/1000 millimetre
- 1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 or 1/1000 metre
- 1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 or 1/100 metre
- 1 metre = 1m
- 1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 or 1/10 metre
- 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres
Surface area
 Is the size of the surface of an object.
 The units for measuring surface area are mm2, cm2 and m2.
Volume
 Is a measure of the amount of space an object occupies.
 The units for measuring volume are mm3, cm3 and m3.
 Surface area: volume ratio is inversely proportional to the volume of an object.
Class Activity
Complete the table that shows surface area, volume and surface area : volume ratios of
different sized cubes. One column has been completed for you. Use the following to
help you:
- The formula for calculating the surface area of a cube is 6s2 (6 x s x s), where s
is the length of one side.
- The formula for calculating the volume of a cube is s3 (s x s x s), where s is the
length of one side.
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Calculation of surface area: volume ratios of cubes
Length of one side Surface area/ Volume/cm3 Surface area : volume ratio
of cube/ cm cm2
2
4 96 64 1.5:1
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Specific objective: identify the correct SI unit and derived units
Quantity being measured Name of unit Symbol of unit
length kilometre km
metre m
centimetre cm
millimetre mm
micrometre µm
mass tone (1000 kg) (no symbol)
kilogram kg
gram g
milligram mg
microgram µg
time year y
day d
hour h
minute min
second s (not sec)
temperature degree Celsius oC
amount of substance mole mol
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Derived SI units are listed below
energy kilojoule kJ
joule J
Recommended units for area, volume and density area listed below
area hectare = 104 m2 ha
square metre m2
square decimetre dm2
square centimetre cm2
square millimetre mm2
volume cubic kilometre km3
cubic metre m3
cubic decimetre (preferred to dm3 litre)
litre dm3 (not l)
cubic centimetre cm3
cubic millimetre mm3
density kilogram per cubic kg m-3

metre
gram per cubic g cm-3
centimetre
Specific objective: explain and use sub-multiple prefixes for units (kilo, deci, centi,
milli, micro)
- The value of a unit measurement can be changed by a prefix to the unit name.
- The prefix shows the multiple of 10 of the unit or the sub-multiple of 10 of a unit.
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The table summarises the use of units and prefixes
Prefix Meaning Length Mass
Mega- millions of a unit tone (Mg)
Kilo- thousands of a unit kilometre (km) kilogram (kg)
Deci- one-tenth of a unit decimetre (dm)

Cent- one-hundredth of a centimetre (cm)
unit
Milli- one-thousandth of a millimetre (mm) milligram (mg)
unit
Micro- one-millionth of a unit micrometer (µm) microgram
(µg)
Specific objective: use standard notation

 Standard notation is the normal way of writing large and small numbers.
 Scientific notation is a special way of writing numbers.
 Scientific notation is sometimes called standard notation.
 Scientific notation is represented in the form:
A x 10n, where A is a number between 1 and 10 inclusively and n is an integer
(positive or negative whole number).
e.g.(a) 900 000 = 9 x 105

(b) 35 000 = 3.5 x 104
(c) 0.00000054 = 5.4 x 10-7
Specific objective: use acceptable methods of stating units, e.g. metres per second or
m per s, or m/s or ms-1
Example:
- A young bull at full speed can run 6.7 metres per second, while a gazelle can run
20 metres per second.
- Metres per second or m per second can be written as m/s or m/s-1.
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1.2.5 Error, accuracy and uncertainty
Specific objective: identify sources of error and suggest possible improvements in

procedures
- A source of error is any factor that may affect the outcomes of an experiment.
Human error
 Human error can occur when tools or instruments are used or read incorrectly.
 For example, a temperature reading from a thermometer in a liquid should be
taken after stirring the liquid and whilst the bulb of thermometer is still in the liquid.
 Never report the following as human error. They are mistakes that should not have
happened.
- Spilling or sloppiness, dropping the equipment, etc.
- Bad calculations, doing math incorrectly or using the wrong formula
- Reading a measuring device incorrectly (thermometer, balance, etc.)
- Not cleaning the equipment
- Using the wrong chemical
- Not following the planned procedure
Instrumental errors
 Can occur when the tools are not functioning exactly as they should be.
 An example is when a thermometer is not calibrated correctly, can cause an error in
the reading shown.
Observational error
 Can occur if the experimenter did not read the instrument e.g. thermometer or
measuring cylinder correctly when recording results.
Systematic errors
 These are errors caused by the way in which the experiment was conducted.
 They are caused by an inaccuracy in the design of the system or faulty equipment.
 Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by taking more measurements and using
averages.
Random errors
 These are unknown and unpredictable errors.

 They are chance variations in the measurements over which you as the
experimenter have little or no control.
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 Random errors can be reduced by averaging a sufficiently large number of
measurement results.
Specific objective: handle and process experimental observations and data, including
dealing with anomalous or inconsistent results
- Anomalous results are those which deviate from what is usual, normal or expected.
- These are results which are not in line with the rest of the results or which do not
follow any of the connections between results.
- If you repeat the experiment several times, you will usually find fewer anomalous
results than if you carry it out only once.
- Anomalous results can be excluded when drawing up a conclusion, as they may
make your conclusion unreliable, especially when you are using numbers.
Specific objective: evaluate presented results or experimental data by applying

scientific knowledge and interpret and draw appropriate conclusions from practical
observations and data in relation to hypotheses
- When you interpret results, you look for trends and patterns in the data, drawing
comparisons between two or more sets of data, and writing about these trends.
- Look for relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.
- A conclusion is a statement, supported by data and based on sound reasoning
about the results of an appropriate investigation.
- The conclusion must refer to the hypothesis you set out to test.
Specific objective: suggest possible measures to prevent errors

Following these guidelines may prevent errors:
- Make sure you know how to operate the measuring instruments correctly before
you begin taking measurements.
- Repeat the data collection or observations many times and always state the
number of observations or repeats of your experiment.
- Make sure that the measuring equipment are working correctly before using them
in an experiment.
- Use instruments that allow you to measure accuracy rather than estimating.
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1.2.6 Experimental techniques
Specific objective: plan an experiment or investigation, including making reasoned

predictions of expected results ad suggesting suitable apparatus and techniques
Plan an experiment or investigation
Always keep the following in mind when planning any investigation:
- Aim (to determine)

- Hypothesis (what you think the outcome of your experiment will be)
- Apparatus (list of apparatus used)
- Method (the different types)
- Observation (if possible - what you see, feel, smell, hear and taste)
- Recording of results (table of your findings)
- Presentation of results (e.g. graphs)
- Conclusion (answer to aim in full sentence or paragraphs)
Steps used in a scientific investigation
1. Ask a question (formulate a testable question)

2. Make a hypothesis (make a prediction)
3. Plan the investigation (creating a plan)
4. Test the hypothesis (conducting a fair test)
5. Conclusion or explanation of result (analyzing and interpret results)
Specific objective: name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time,

temperature, mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders
Apparatus for measuring time
 Stop watches measure intervals of time in units called seconds and minutes.
 The two main stop watches are analogue and digital.
Apparatus for measuring temperature
 We use thermometers to measure how hot or cold things are in units called degrees
Celsius.
 The symbol used is oC.
Apparatus for measuring mass
 Balances are used to measure mass in units called grams.

 The main two types are digital balances and triple beam balances.
 All balances work best on firm, level surfaces.
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Apparatus used for measuring volume
 A measuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of liquids.

 A pipette, sometimes called a dropper, is used to measure the volume of a
liquid, or transfer a particular quantity of liquid from one container to another.
 A burette is a graduated glass tube, used for accurately measuring or measuring
out small quantities of liquid.
Laboratory apparatus
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Specific objective: recall familiar techniques to record observations and make
deductions from them
In biology, we use various techniques to record observations. Here are some

examples.
 Counting to find out how many times a particular event occurs.

 Measuring is very important when you observe a specimen and when you record
dependent or independent variables in an experiment.
 You can measure length, time, temperature, pH, mass, height, breadth, volume and
area.
 Drawing or photographing an object records data about that object.
 Sampling is a method of collecting data from a small part intended to show what
the whole area under investigation is like.
Specific objective: recall of simple chemical tests, e.g. for food substances and the
use of hydrogen carbonate indicator, litmus and universal indicator paper
Food tests
Test and reagent What it tests Initial What happens to show
used for colour of positive result
reagent
Benedict’s test Reducing blue - Solution changes from blue
(uses Benedict’s sugars, e.g. to green, yellow and
solution) glucose, orange-red (brick –red)
maltose - Remains blue when
reducing sugars are absent
Biuret test Protein blue - Solution changes from blue

(uses biuret solutions: to purple
copper sulfate - Stays blue when protein are
(biuret A –blue), absent
sodium /potassium
hydroxide
(Biuret B - clear)
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Iodine test Starch Brown / - Solution changes from
(uses iodine solution) yellow- brown to blue-black
brown - Stays brown when starch is
absent
Ethanol test (uses Lipids (fats Clear Solution becomes cloudy

ethanol and water) and oils)
DCPIP test (uses Vitamin C Blue - Solution changes from blue

DCPIP) (ascorbic to clear
acid) - Stays blue when vitamin C
is absent
Test for carbon dioxide
 The most effective way to test for carbon dioxide (CO2) is to bubble the gas
through clear limewater.
 The clear limewater turns milky or cloudy white in presence of CO2.
 Hydrogen carbonate indicator is a pH indicator solution used to show carbon
dioxide concentration in a solution.
 It becomes orange / yellow with increased carbon dioxide levels (acidic
conditions), it changes from red to purple if carbon dioxide is removed
(alkaline conditions) and stays red at atmospheric carbon dioxide (neutral
conditions).
Test for acids and bases

The main use of litmus paper is to test whether a solution is acidic or alkaline (basic).
 Blue litmus paper is used to test an acid, the litmus paper turns from blue to red
in acids.
 Red litmus paper is used to test an alkali (base), red litmus paper turns from red
to blue in alkaline.
 Universal indicator paper or solution is used to ascertain the pH of a solution
by comparing the colour of the solution to it.
Test for oxygen
 A glowing splint is used to test for oxygen.

 The splint will glow brighter or relights (reignites) if the gas is oxygen.
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Test for water
 Cobalt chloride paper (blue), tests for the presence of water.

 If water is present, cobalt chloride will change colour from blue to pink.
Specific objective: draw an appropriate conclusion, and justify it in line with the data
using an appropriate explanation
During practical and investigations, observations are recorded as data.
 Data can be qualitative (descriptive) observations or quantitative (numerical)

observations.
 Qualitative observations, e.g. the feeding mechanism of bees when visiting
flowers, may be recorded in written observation notes, photographs or drawings.
 Quantitative observations, e.g. the size (length or height of organism such as
leaves of a plant in sunny or shaded positions, must be recorded in specific units
like cm2 (surface area of leaf), and mm (length of leaves)
Specific objective: recognise, observe, record and measure images of familiar, and
unfamiliar, biological specimens
Record temperature from a thermometer
 To increase the accuracy of a measurement of temperature, you may need to

take several measurements and calculate the mean (average).
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Recording the volume of a measuring cylinder
 The volume of liquid in the measuring cylinder above is 67 cm 3.
Measuring the length of a biological object
 If the grasshopper is drawn to scale of x1, the real measuremet would be 5 cm.
Specific objective: make a clear line drawing from an image of a specimen,

calculating the magnification and adding labels as required
Rules for making scientific drawings
 Draw exactly what you see.

 Use a sharp pencil.
 Make your drawing as large as possible.
 The outline of the object must be clear and sharp, no gaps or fluffy lines.
 Keep the proportions correct. Each part of the drawing must be the correct size
in relation to the other parts.
 Do not shade your drawing or try to make it look artistic.
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Rules for labeling drawings
 Write a title below the drawing.

 Only label the parts that you have been asked to label.
 Draw the label lines with a ruler, using a pencil.
 Label lines should never cross over each other.
 Label line should touch the structure you are labelling.
 Print the label in pen at the end of the label line.
 Write the labels horizontally underneath each other.
Calculating magnification
Magnification is how much larger or smaller a drawing is than the real thing.
To calculate magnification:
 Measure and record the size of the specimen and that of your drawing including
units of measurement.
 Use the formula:
Magnification = size (length) of drawing (image) ÷ actual size of object
Always put X before you write down your answer or after your answer, without
any unit
Specific objective: record readings from diagrams of apparatus, including reading a

scale with accuracy and precision and taking repeated measurements, where
appropriate, to obtain an average value
Accuracy is how close measurements are to the true value.
 Accuracy depends on the quality of the measuring instrument and the skills of the
individual taking the readings.
Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements, under the same
experimental conditions, give the same result.
 Increase precision by repeating observations or measurements several times and

obtain average value.
 Increase precision by making sure that the measuring equipment is suitable for the
task, working properly and that you can use it correctly.
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Topic 2: Classification and diversity of organisms
2.1 Classification of living organisms
Specific objective: state that organisms can be classified into groups by features that
they share
Organisms can be classified into groups by features that they share for an example:
 Features that are similar in fundamental structure

 Features that are similar in position and development
 Features that share a common ancestor
The importance of classification of living organisms
 To help when trying to identify unknown organisms

 To make it easier to study organisms
 Classification enables us to keep track of all organisms
 To sort organisms in order
 It enables global / international communication about organisms
 Classification shows evolutionary relationship of organisms
Specific objective: describe the binomial system of naming species as a system in which
the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and species
 Binomial nomenclature is a system of naming species of living things by giving

each a name in Latin known as the scientific name.
 The name consist of two parts / two word name.
 The first part of the name is the genus (generic) name.
 The second part of the name is the species (specific) name.
 The genus comes first and always begins with a capital letter.
 Followed by the species name which is written with lowercase letters.
 When printed, the name should be typed in italics.
 When handwritten, the two words of the name should be underlined separately.
 An example is Homo sapiens, the binomial name of humans.
 Homo is the genus name and sapiens is the species name of the human.
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Specific objective: outline the use of hierarchical classification system for living
organisms
Hierarchical system of classification

 Is when larger groups are progressively divided into smaller groups starting from the
most inclusive group to the smallest least inclusive / more specific group and each
group has a set of distinguished features.
 The groups in classification are known as taxa (singular taxon).
 The science of classification is called taxonomy. It is a branch of biology that deals
with identification and classification of living organisms.
The taxon at the very top is the kingdom which is the broadest category, followed by
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Way to remember: King Peter Came Over For Ginger Snacks
Classification of the human
Taxa of human Explanation of taxon

classification
Kingdom Animalia – includes all animals which are multicellular, eukaryotic
organisms, which are heterotrophic, meaning they obtain nutrition
from organic sources.
Phylum Chordata – includes all the vertebrata, which are all animals
having a back bone or spinal column and internal skeleton
Class Mammalia – includes all mammals, which are animals
characterised by a hairy body covering, external earflaps (pinnae)
and mammary glands
Order Primates – animals having flexible hands with grasping fingers and
feet, good eye sight and in the higher apes, a highly developed
brain: includes monkeys, apes and man
Family Hominidae –modern great apes and humans and a number of their
extinct ancestors and relatives with flat faces and three -
dimensional vision
Genus Homo – includes modern humans and species closely related to
them, with upright posture
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Species sapiens – having higher and vertical forehead, large brain volume,
thin skull bones, smaller teeth and jaw and prominent chin
Scientific name Homo sapiens
(binomial name)
Common name human
Specific objective: construct and use simple dichotomous keys based on easily
identifiable features
 A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in
the natural world.
 It consists of a series of two choices that leads the user to the correct name of a
given item.
 The identification of organisms based on a series of choices between alternative
characters is described as dichotomous keys.
How to use dichotomous keys
 Dichotomous keys are based on pairs of descriptions.

 It is a series of questions asking about features you can see on an organism.
 In each case two opposite descriptions are given and you have to choose the one
that applies.
 The key will tell you which pair to go to next.
 The process repeats itself until eventually you arrive at the identity of the unknown
organism.
 Start any key by finding the organism you want to identify, and read the first pair of
descriptions.
Construction of dichotomous keys

What to consider when constructing dichotomous keys:
 Start the key by writing 1(a) and 1(b).

 Make sure you use features that can clearly divide your specimens into two groups.
 Use visible and opposing differences.
 Avoid colour when constructing keys.
 Characteristics/features must be suitable and unambiguous.
 Try not to use words indicating size (small, big, short, etc.)
- Size can only be used when it is qualified (e.g. legs longer than abdomen).
- Size can only be used when the correct scale is given for each organism.
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 A key should always have one set of questions less than it has organisms e.g. if
there are six organisms to classify, there will be five sets of questions or statements.
 Be precise and avoid statements such as ‘many’ or ‘few,’ but rather use ‘more than
ten’ or ‘less than five’.
 Use distinct, clearly visible and recognizable features, e.g. number of legs rather
than shape of legs.
 Avoid grouping more than one feature at a time.
 Avoid repeating the same feature.
 At the end of your key, there must be one organism in each group.
Activity 2.1
Fig. 2.1 shows different variations of the termites, found in the Kalahari Desert.
Fig. 2.1
Use Fig. 2.1 to construct a dichotomous key to identify the different variations.
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Activity2.2
Use the dichotomous key which would distinguish between the seven organisms in Fig.
2.2. Only use features that are visible in the drawings
Fig. 2.2
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2.2 Diversity of living organisms
Specific objective: outline the structure of a virus, limited to protein coat and genetic
material, and consider the arguments for and against the classification of viruses as living
organisms.
Structure of a virus
 Viruses are non-cellular and have no cell contents (no cytoplasm and no
organelles like nucleus, mitochondria, cell membrane and ribosomes)
 The core of a virus is a strand of genetic material which can either be DNA or RNA.
 The core of genetic material is enclosed in a protein coat or shell known as the
capsid.
 HIV has RNA as genetic material.
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Arguments For the classification of viruses as living organisms
 Viruses are capable of reproduction (though only within the cells of host
organisms).
 Viruses also have genetic material (DNA or RNA) which means that they can
evolve.
Arguments Against the classification of viruses as living organisms
 Viruses do not have cell structure – no cytoplasm and no organelles.

 There are seven characteristics of living organisms. Of these, six do not apply to
viruses – respiration, excretion, movement, nutrition, growth and sensitivity.
 Although they can reproduce, it happens only within the cells of host organisms
(they remain dormant outside a host).
Conclusion: Most Biologists therefore consider viruses to be non-living. Thus, viruses

cannot be classified into any of the five kingdoms of living things, so they are classified
separately.
Specific objective: list the main features used in the classification of the following
groups, using visible, external characteristics only: flowering plants (monocotyledons and
dicotyledons using seeds, flowers, leaves and roots).
Flowering plants
Flowering plants produce flowers and fruits that contain and protect the seeds.
The phylum of flowering plants is divided into two classes: Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons
feature Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Seeds one cotyledon two cotyledons
Leaves long and narrow short and broad
Veins parallel branching / network of veins
Roots fibrous / adventitious Taproot
Floral parts multiples of 3 multiples of 2 or 5
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groups, using visible, external characteristics only and their adaptation to the
environment: Molluscs; Annelids; Arthropods (insects, arachnids, crustacean and
myriapods).
External diagnostic features of Annelids
 Have long segmented bodies

 Have a fixed number of similar segments known as metameric segmentation
 Move with bristles called chaetae
 Their bodies are covered by flexible non-chitinous cuticle
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Adaptations of annelids to the environment
 Fluid-like skeleton (hydrostatic skeleton) to keep their shape.

 Mucus on their skin protects them from damage and helps them to move through
the soil.
 Muscular structure of annelids gives them the needed strength to push through the
soil.
 Chaetae which provide grip and traction allowing them to move through the soil more
easily. examples include, rag worms, earthworms, leeches, etc.
External diagnostic features of Molluscs
 Have soft, unsegmented bodies

 Have a hump which is covered by a thin mantle which secretes a calcareous shell.
 Some have one coiled shell (snail), some have two uncoiled shells (mussel), some
have no shell (slugs) and some have an internal shell (octopuses).
 Molluscs have a large muscular foot that contains muscles used for locomotion,
suction, clinging to surfaces, burrowing and grasping.
 Have a mouth with a rasping tongue-like radula used for feeding.
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Adaptations of Molluscs to the environment
 A long, rough tongue (radula) helps with the scraping off pieces of food.
 The head has two pairs of tentacles which are used for smell, taste and sight.
 The slimy muscular foot that projects from the shell enables them to move easily.
 Glands in the foot secrete sticky mucus for easy movement.
 The skin is permanently moist and retraction into the shell protects it from drying
out in dry weather.
Arthropods
Classes of phylum Arthropoda
 Insecta
 Crustacea
 Arachnida
 Myriapoda
Visible external diagnostic features of all Arthropods
 Have jointed limbs (appendages)

 Have segmented bodies
 Are covered with an exoskeleton (made up chitin)
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Class Insecta (the insects)
External Diagnostic features of Insecta
 Body divided into three sections namely the head, thorax and abdomen.
 Three pairs of jointed legs
 Most have one or two pairs of wings and others have no wings.
 One pair of compound eyes.
 One pair of antennae on the head.
Adaptations of Insecta to their environment
 Compound eyes that can see nearly in every direction when objects are close
 Wings to allow flight to avoid predators and to find food and detection of vibrations
 Antennae to detect odours, tastes, wind speed, wind direction, heat, moisture and
touch
 Hairs on feet or abdomen or antennae for taste
 A hard, rigid exoskeleton protects insects against harsh environmental conditions
 Exoskeleton covered with waterproof cuticle that prevents water loss from insect’s
body
 Different colours camouflage them against their predators
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Class Crustacea (the Crustaceans)
External diagnostic features of Crustacea
 Body divided into two sections – the cephalothorax (head and thorax fused) and
abdomen
 Five pairs of legs (or more)
 Two pairs of antennae
 A hard exoskeleton hardened by calcium salts
 Compound eyes on stalks
Cray fish
Adaptations of Crustacea to their environment
 Thick hard exoskeleton protects their bodies

 Some, like lobsters have strong pincers or claws to fight off enemies and capture
prey.
 Antennae are sense receptors that respond to touch and chemical stimuli. They
are used as sense organs to find food.
 Some have modified gills, which allows them to live on land, e.g. the woodlouse,
Class Arachnida (the arachnids)

External diagnostic features of Arachnida
 Body is divided into two sections, namely the cephalothorax (head and thorax
fused) and abdomen.
 Have four pairs of legs attached to cephalothorax
 No antennae are present
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 Some have chelicerae to seize and poison their prey
 Arachnids have eight simple eyes
 They have a leathery exoskeleton
A spider
Adaptations of Arachnida to the environment
 Chelicerae carry poison fangs to seize and inject venom into prey which paralyses
it, especially in spiders.
 Some (like scorpions) have strong pincers to catch and hold prey firmly
 The eight legs are made up of seven segments each, therefore spiders can move
quickly.
 Most spiders spin sticky webs which they use to trap and capture insects.
Class Myriapoda (the myriapods)

This is a class of arthropods containing the Millipedes and Centipedes
External diagnostic features of myriapoda
 Have bodies divided into two parts – the head and trunk
 Have many jointed legs
 Have one pair of antennae
 Have a long segmented trunk which can be flattened (in centipedes) or cylindrical
(in millipedes)
 Their body is divided into segments, most of which are completely identical
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External diagnostic features of centipedes
 Have flattened bodies made up of about 18 or more segments

 Each segment bears one pair of legs (two legs per segment)
 Have one pair of long antennae
External diagnostic features of millipedes
 Have cylindrical rounded bodies divided into many segments

 Each segment has two pairs of legs (four legs per segment)
 Have one pair of short antennae
Adaptations of myriapods to their environment
 Centipedes are carnivores with poison claws to paralyse their prey

 Centipedes have strong mouthparts to eat their prey
 Millipedes are herbivores with strong mouthparts to feed on decaying plant matter
 Strong mouthparts help to grind plant matter into fine pieces before swallowing
 A hard exoskeleton reduces water loss from the bodies of myriapods
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groups, using visible, external characteristics only and their adaptation to the
environment: vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).
Vertebrates
Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of phylum chordata.
 All vertebrates have a backbone (vertebral column)

 Have an internal skeleton made up of bones
 Have post-anal tail
The vertebrates includes the following classes:
 Fish / Osteichthyes
 Amphibia
 Reptilia
 Birds /Aves
 Mammalia
Class osteichthyes (the bony fish)

External diagnostic features of fish (the bony fish) / osteichthyes
 Have gills for gaseous exchange in water

 Gills are covered on each side by the gill cover called the operculum
 Have fins for swimming and balancing
 Have a lateral line for detecting vibrations
 Body covered by overlapping scales which protect their smooth skin
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Adaptations of Fish /osteichthyes to their environment
 Have streamlined bodies which makes it easier to move and cut through water
 Scales overlap and face backwards to reduce friction in water
 Have fins for moving forward and backward and to help them turn in water
 Have a swim bladder which helps keep fish buoyant and to be weightless in water
 Have a flexible vertebral column which allows fish to manoeuvre from side to side
 The lateral line helps fish to sense vibrations and water pressure
 The operculum covers and protects the gills
Class Amphibia (the amphibians)
External diagnostic features of amphibians
 Have smooth, moist skin

 Adults breathe with lungs and use their skin for gaseous exchange
 Tadpoles have a tail, but adults have no tail
 Tadpoles have gills only for gaseous exchange (do not have lungs)
 The hind limbs have webbed feet
A frog
Adaptations of amphibians to their environment
 Smooth bodies with mucus to prevent drying out in hot conditions

 Nostrils mounted high on top of head to breathe while the rest of the body is under
water
 Amphibians use their skin for gaseous exchange to get dissolved oxygen when
under water
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 Tadpoles breathe with gills and undergo metamorphosis to develop lungs in order
to breathe on land
 Eyes have transparent membranes to cover them and enable them to see when in
water
 The hind limbs have webbed skin to help them when swimming
Class Reptilia (the reptiles)
The class Reptilia comprises of turtles, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, tortoises, etc.
External diagnostic features of reptiles
 Have tough, dry, scaly skins

 Lay eggs with tough leathery shell on land
 Have four limbs, but snakes have no limbs
Adaptations of reptiles to their environment
 Dry, scaly skin minimizes water loss from their bodies

 Dry scaly skin also protects them from their predators
 Eggs are tough and leathery and resistant to water loss
 Leathery shells prevent damage, because reptiles do not look after their eggs after
laying them
Class Aves (the birds)

External diagnostic features of Aves /birds
 Skin is covered by feathers

 Have scales covering the legs
 Have toothless beaks
 Lay hard-shelled eggs with food store (yolk) and calcareous shell
 The fore limbs are modified as wings
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A bird
Adaptations of Aves / birds to their environment
 Forelimbs modified into wings which enables flight (for most species)
 Toothless beak is used to peck and tear food
 Feathers trap air for insulation to keep them warm during winter
 Have light weight, hollow bones that make them lighter for flying
 Streamlined bodies to cut through air with minimum resistance when flying
Class Mammalia (the mammals)
External diagnostic features of mammals
 Have skin (body) covered with hair or fur

 Have mammary glands
 Have external earflaps called pinnae (absent in whales, dolphins and seals)
 Have whiskers
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Adaptations of mammals to their environment
 Bodies covered with hair or fur which traps air for insulation
 Mammary gland with milk to feed young before they are able to eat an adult diet
 Sweat glands in skin produce sweat to lower body temperature
 Some have big ears for losing heat from body, e.g. elephants
Specific objective: observe and draw organisms found locally, concentrating on
diagnostic features and/ or features that adapt them to their environment.
Activity
- Look for any organism of any class covered in this unit. It can be a plant or an
animal.
- You do not need to catch the organism, it is better to observe it in its natural
environment.
- Give your diagram a title.
- Draw the organism, following instructions for drawing.
- Label the diagnostic features of the organism.
- Decide which phylum and/ or class your organism belongs to
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Topic 3: Organisation and maintenance of the organism
3.1. The microscope
Specific objective: use and manipulate a simple light microscope
A microscope is
An apparatus used to enlarge very small objects that cannot be seen with a naked eye.
There are two types of microscopes:
- A light microscope
- An electron microscope
Light microscope
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Functions of the parts of a light microscope
 Body tube/body
It connects the ocular (eyepiece) to the objective lenses.
The part through which an image is viewed with the aid of an eyepiece
 Eyepiece (ocular lens)

The image projected by the objective lenses is further magnified when viewed through
the eyepiece lens. Allows us to observe the specimen in a microscope more clearly
 Arm
The central part of the microscope that supports the body tube and it is the part to hold
when carrying the microscope
 Base / foot/ stand

Act as a stand for a microscope and gives it a steady support
 Objective lens
Forms a magnified image of the object in the intermediate image plane.
There are three objective lenses to choose from (low power objective, medium power
and high power objective)
 Revolving nose piece

It contains the objective lenses. It rotates to allow the user to examine the specimen on
the slide at different magnifications
 Stage /stage large

Supports the slide. Stage has a hole that allows light to pass through
 Stage clips
Holds the slide in position
 Coarse adjustment knob

Moves the tube and lenses up and down faster so that the specimen is in focus.
This knob is used only with the low power objective lens
 Fine adjustment knob

Moves the tube and lenses up and down slower to put the specimen at the right position
until image is perfectly focused. It gives fine focus with the high power and medium
power objectives
 Light source
Bulb supplies light on to the stage
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 Iris diaphragm (condenser)
A hole under the stage that regulates the amount of light that goes through the
specimen on the stage
 Mirror
It is flat on one side and concave on the other side in order to reflect light up through the
specimen on the stage
Specific objective: Calculating the magnification and size of biological specimens (in
millimetres and micrometres)
What is a biological specimen?
A small sample or part taken to show the nature of the whole for microscopic studies
Magnification
The number of times an object or image is increased in size by a lens system
Calculating the magnification of the microscope
Formula used = Magnification of the objective lens X the magnification of the eyepiece
lens
(The magnifications are indicated on the lenses)
Calculating magnification and size of biological specimens
Magnification of the drawing formula = size of the drawing ÷ actual size
NB: answer shows how many times the drawing is magnified hence, an X is put in front
of the answer.
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Example:
actual leaf size: 5mm
Length of drawing: 20mm

Magnification of drawing = length of drawing ÷ actual length
= 20mm ÷ 5mm
= X4
Calculating the actual size of a specimen
- When a drawing or specimen has already been magnified, we can work out the
actual size of the specimen.
Formula used:
Actual size = size of image (drawing or photograph) ÷ magnification
Biological drawings
When making biological drawings:
 Drawings should be made using a sharp pencil

 Make your drawing as large as possible to fill half the available space given
 Make accurate observations, correct proportions, clear and sharp outlines
 Lines should be clear, lines joined up smoothly
 Do not shade or colour the drawing
 Label features on the drawing and give the drawing a title
 Label lines:
- Must be in pencil
- Must touch the part you want to identify
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- May not cross
- Should be on one side of the drawing only, if possible
- Must be straight lines with no arrows
 Labels must be printed in ink
3.2. Cell structure, organisation and levels of organisation
Specific objective: describe and compare the structure of a plant cell (palisade cell)
and animal cell (liver cell) as seen under a light microscope, limited to the location of the
cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles and chloroplasts
 A cell is the smallest biological unit that possess all the characteristics of a living
organism
 The size and shape of a cell ranges from millimetres to microns depending on its
function
 An individual cell have one or more cells performing several functions
 Cells can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic
Prokaryotic cell is a cell that lack a nucleus
Eukaryotic cell is a cell that possess a clearly defined nucleus
 Living organisms can be made up of a single cell (unicellular) or many cells
(multicellular)
 Cells contains structures called organelles
 An organelle is a tiny cellular structure that performs specific functions within a
cell
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Structure of a plant cell (e.g. palisade cells in the leaf)
As seen under a light microscope Drawing of a plant palisade cell
Structure of an animal cell (e.g. liver cell)

As seen under a light microscope Drawing of a liver cell
Functions of the parts of a plant and animal cell
Plant / animal Description Function (s)

part
Cell wall - Structures located around - Provides mechanical support
the cell surface membrane of around the plant cell
plant cells - It gives plant cells a specific
- Cell walls are fully shape
permeable - It prevents bursting of plant
cells during endosmosis
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Cell surface - Structure that surrounds the - It controls the entry and exit of
membrane cytoplasm of all cells substances into the cell
- It is selectively permeable, - It maintains a constant internal
with receptors for cell environment in cells
recognition
Cytoplasm - Jelly-like fluid within a cell’s - The site for chemical reactions
membrane but not inside a in the cell
cell’s nucleus - Provides a physical structure
- It contains all the contents for the cell
of the cell
Nucleus Its location in a cell varies - It controls the functions and

(usually at the centre in activities of the cell
animal cells but can be at the - It carries genetic information of
edge of plant cells) a cell
Vacuole Animal cells have small - It stores salts, ions, sugars,
temporary vacuoles while wastes and pigments in cell sap
plant cells have one large - It supports the plant cells and
vacuole keeps the cell firm
- It controls the water content of
the plant cell
Chloroplasts Organelles found in the - The site of photosynthesis
cytoplasm of green plants - Contains chlorophyll the green
pigment that traps light needed
during photosynthesis
Comparing the structures of a plant (palisade) cell and animal (liver) cell
Plant cell Animal cell
has cell wall of cellulose no cell wall present
Has chloroplasts with chlorophyll Has no chloroplasts with chlorophyll
Has large permanent vacuole Small temporary vacuoles present
Mostly larger in size Smaller in size
Has a regular shape Irregular with many shapes
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Has a cytoplasm, cell surface Has a cytoplasm, cell surface
membrane and mitochondria present membrane and mitochondria present
Specific objective: Making temporary slides of plant cells (e.g. epidermal cells from a
leaf or onion), make observations and draw cells as seen under a light microscope
Apparatus set up:
 A thin layer taken from the inside of an onion bulb

 A glass microscope slide and cover slip
 Tissue or blotting paper
 Methylene blue solution (1 part added to 4 parts of water) or Iodine solution
 Plastic dropper or pipette, scalpel and forceps
 A light microscope to view the prepared slide
Steps to follow:
 With clean hands and a clean working surface, cut a small piece from the onion
bulb with a scalpel
 Use forceps to peel off a small piece of thin skin from the inside (do not let it get
dry)
 Put a drop of distilled water on the centre of a slide and place the peeled piece of
epidermis onto it and spread it flat
 Gently lower a cover slip on top of the piece using a sharp pencil. Clean the slide
using the tissue or blotting paper
 Use a pipette to take up a small amount of the Methylene blue or Iodine solution
and drop it carefully next to the edge of the cover slip
 Soak up excess solution using a filter paper
 Place the prepared slide on the stage of the microscope and secure the slide
using the stage clips
 Start viewing the specimen starting with the low objective lens before moving
onto a higher magnification
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Image of the onion cells seen under the microscope
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Specific objective: draw prepared slides of animal tissues (for example: epithelium of
mammalian trachea, human cheek cells and muscle tissue)
Epithelium of mammalian trachea

As seen under the microscope: Drawing the epithelium:
Human cheek cells

As seen under the microscope: Drawing the human cheek cells:
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Muscle tissue
As seen under the microscope: Drawing the muscle tissue
Specific objective: state the functions and structures in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic
cell limited to rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vesicles and mitochondria (from
diagrams and images)
Eukaryotic cell:
- A cell with a clearly defined nucleus.

- It has a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus containing chromosomes.
- These are large cells containing numerous specialised organelles enclosed within
membranes e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, vesicles and mitochondria
- Examples of eukaryotic cells include plant, animal cells and fungi
Animal eukaryotic cell
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Plant eukaryotic cell
Cell organelles found in eukaryotic cells
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
- Has ribosomes attached to its surface, giving it a rough appearance

Functions:
- It transports mRNA from the nucleus to the ribosomes
- It synthesise ribosomes and proteins and transport the proteins to the rest of the
cell
Ribosomes
- the site of protein synthesis
Vesicles
- are secretory vesicles produced by the Golgi bodies
Functions:
- stores, transport or digest cellular products and waste
- contains digestive enzymes to break down and destroy bacteria
Mitochondria
- the site of cellular respiration to release energy from food

- ATP is produced during cell respiration
Specific objective: relate the number of mitochondria to the release of sufficient

energy
The human body has many cellular types performing a variety of functions and thus
require an abundant supply of energy
 some cells have many mitochondria compared to other cells, depending on the
energy required
 skeletal and heart muscle cells, liver cells and brain cells are examples of cells
containing more mitochondria
 cells requiring less energy like nerve cells or skin cells have less mitochondria
 more mitochondria is produced if a cell is not getting enough energy
Specific objective: identify different levels of organisation in drawings and diagrams of

familiar and unfamiliar material
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 Atoms and molecules form the most basic level of organisation
 This includes the chemicals essential for manufacturing life e.g. glucose, amino
acids etc.
 Most cells have variation of a basic structure to help it carry out their functions
 Structure of different cells relate to its functions
 A group of cells can group together to form another level of organisation
 This structures can be grouped to form larger systems
 Different systems performing different functions combine together to form an
organism
 These levels of increasing complexity are called levels of organisations
A cell
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The smallest basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. Each cell
type has different structure and function
Tissues
A group of similar cells working together to perform a particular function.
Plant tissue examples: Phloem tubes, Xylem vessels, Epidermis etc.
Root hair cells Xylem vessels
Animal tissue examples: Liver tissue, Bone tissue, Nerve tissue, Red blood cells
Nerve tissue Muscle tissue
Red blood cells Ciliated cells
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Organs
Are groups of different tissues working together to perform a particular function.
- Organs are comprised of two or more tissues
Examples of animal organs
Examples of plant organs: Leaf, Flower, Root, Ovary etc.
Organ systems
A group or organs performing several closely related functions
Animal organ systems examples:
Support/muscle system, excretory system, reproductive systems, lymphatic

system etc.
Plant organ systems examples:
Reproductive systems, transport system, root system etc.
The organism
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A complex, functioning whole that is the sum of all its component parts.
- Some organisms have only one cell (unicellular) e.g. a Bacterium cell, Amoeba
species
- Other organisms consist only of tissues e.g. Jelly fish
- Other organisms have many cells (multi cellular)
3.3. Movement of substances in and out of cells

3.3.1 Diffusion
Specific objective: describe Process of diffusion
Definition: the movement of molecules, atoms or ions from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration, down a concentration gradient.
Example of diffusion:
- Adding potassium permanganate crystals to pure water
- The crystals start to dissolve in water and start to spread out until evenly distributed
and water becomes blue
Specific objective: state that the energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
random movements of molecules and ions
- Diffusion does not require energy therefore there is a small amount of kinetic
energy involved
- Particles always move randomly because they have kinetic energy
- Particles in the air collide (bump) against each other and are pushed around by
other particles
Structure of a cell surface membrane
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Specific objective: describe the factors that influence diffusion, limited to surface area,
temperature, concentration gradient and distance
 Surface area
- Refers to the total area of the surface of an object
- The greater the surface area of the cell, the faster the rate of diffusion. As the
surface area increases, more particles can spread out faster on the large surface
area
 Temperature
- High temperature means molecules have more kinetic energy, and thus increases
rate of diffusion.
- Temperature is directly proportional to rate of diffusion
 Concentration gradient
- The greater the difference in the concentration of molecules, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
- Concentration gradient is directly proportional to rate of diffusion.
 Distance
- The shorter the travel distance for molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.
- Gas diffuses faster through a thin wall than a thick wall.
- This is an inversely proportional relationship
Specific objective: describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes
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 Allows gaseous exchange in plants:
- Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis inside the leaf is in higher concentration
outside the leaf (air in the atmosphere)
- Hence, carbon dioxide diffuses from the air into the leaf through the stomatal
openings on leaves where there is a lower carbon dioxide concentration
- Oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis becomes highly concentrated in the leaf
then the surrounding air
- Hence, oxygen diffuses from where it is in higher concentration in the leaf, to the
outside of the leaf where the concentration is low through the stomata
 Importance in gaseous exchange in animals:

- Oxygen is needed for respiration inside all living cells
- The air inhaled into the lungs (alveoli) contains a higher concentration of oxygen
than the blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli
- Hence, oxygen diffuses across the alveoli walls into the blood capillaries down the
concentration gradient
- Blood capillaries transport the oxygen with other nutrients to cells and tissues
where it diffuses across to cells and tissues
- Cells and tissues releases waste products like carbon dioxide and it diffuses into
the capillaries down the concentration gradient
- Carbon dioxide highly concentrated in the blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli
diffuses across into the alveoli down the concentration gradient
 Importance of diffusion of solutes

- Some products of digestion are absorbed from the ileum into the blood capillaries
by diffusion
- Such solutes include glucose and amino acids that are highly concentrated in the
ileum and diffuse into the capillaries where there is a lower concentration
Specific objective: investigating diffusion, for example, the rate at which ammonia
diffuses along a glass tube containing pieces of red litmus paper
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Rate at which ammonia diffuses along a glass tube containing pieces of red
litmus paper
Apparatus set up:

- Use forceps to place red litmus paper strips at equal intervals in the tube
- Place a piece of cotton wool soaked in ammonia solution at one end of a tube
- Seal the tube at both ends
- Observe the changes on the red litmus papers, as it starts turning blue as the
ammonia gas reaches it
- Observe that the litmus paper nearest to the cotton turns blue first
- Ammonia gas makes red litmus paper turn blue
- Record the time taken for each piece of red litmus to turn blue and plot the results
on a graph
Specific objective: investigate the factors that influence diffusion, limited to surface
area, temperature, concentration gradients and distance
Diffusion and temperature
Apparatus and methodology:
- Using two large beakers of equal size, fill one beaker with the same amount of cold
tap water while pouring hot water in the second beaker
- Use a dropper to add one drop of food colouring into each beaker at the same time
- Do not stir the mixtures to allow the food colourant to spread on its own throughout
the water
- Observe the time taken for the food colourant to be distributed in the water
- Notice that the food colouring diffuses faster in hot water as the molecules have
more kinetic energy at high temperature
3.3.2. Osmosis
Specific objective: describe the effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues (include
reference to hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions)
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Definition of osmosis
The movement of water molecules from a high water potential to a low water
potential through a partially permeable membrane down a water potential
gradient
- Partially permeable membrane refers to a membrane that allows small molecules to

pass through but not larger molecules
- Water potential is the force responsible for movement of water from one area to
another and is symbolised as ᴪ
- A solution is made up of a solute (e.g. sugar or salt) mixed in a solvent (like water)
- A dilute solution has more water molecules and few solutes, therefore a high water
potential
- A concentrated solution has few water molecules and more solutes, therefore a low
water potential
- A visking tubing is a manufactured membrane that act like a cell membrane
- Small atoms and molecules like water and gases can pass through the membrane
but large molecules like proteins and sugar cannot pass through
High water potential low water potential
Effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues

Types of environments (solutions) where osmosis occurs:
- Hypotonic solution / dilute solution (high water potential)

A solution that has more free water molecules and less solutes than the cell, so
water molecules moves into the cell. E.g. distilled water
- Isotonic solution
A solution where the water potential is the same inside and outside the cell,
water will than move across the membrane in both directions maintaining cell
size.
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- Hypertonic solution / concentrated solution (lower water potential)
A solution that has a higher solute concentration and less free water molecules
than the cell, hence water molecules will move out of the cell into the solution
Placing a plant and animal cells in a hypotonic solution
- the solution has a high water pontential than the plant and animal cell, water
molecules move from the solution into the cells
- the cells swells and become turgid
- the animal cell will become turgid and eventually burst because it does not have a
protective cell wall like the plant cell
a plant cell: an animal cell:
Placing plant and animal cells in an isotonic solution
- the water potential is the same outside the cells as well as inside the cells, hence
water molecules moves in both directions and both cells maintain their shapes.
plant cell: animal cell:
Placing plant and animal cells in a hypertonic solution
- the solution have a higher water potential then the cells, hence water leaves the
plant and animal cells
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- this causes the cell membrane to shrink and the cell become flaccid and
plasmoysed
plant cell: animal cell:
Specific objective: investigate and explain the effects of immersing plant tissues in
solutions of diferent concentrations by using the terms turgor pressure, turgid, flaccid
and plasmolysis
 Practical experiments that can be carried out in class to demonstrate effects of

osmosis on plant tissues including using raw potato strips or dried raisins in
various salt solutions (see activity at back of booklet)
Placing plant and animal cells in hypotonic solutions (e.g. pure water/dilute solution)
 the water will move into the cells by endosmosis

 the pure water has a high water potential while the cell sap (cytoplasm) of the cell
has a low water potential
 the plant cell expands and vacuole swell and cell becomes turgid
 the cell wall of plant cell expands slightly but prevents the cell from bursting
 the animal cell expands and bursts as there is no protective cell wall
Placing cells in hypertonic solutions
 the water leaves the cell by exosmosis
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 the solution outside the cell has a low water potential while the cytoplasm has a
higher water potential
 the cells cytoplasm and vacuole shrinks and becomes flaccid
 a flaccid cell has its plasma membrane tear away from the cell wall and cell
becomes plasmolyzed
Specific objective: explain the importance of water potential and osmosis in the uptake
of water by plants
 osmosis facilitates the movement of water molecules into and out of the cells
 living cells need water all the time for many biological processes and osmosis
controls how much water to be kept in a cell
 root hair cells on plant roots absorb water from the soil through osmosis
 water potential between the soil particles and root hair cells makes plants to
absorb water
 absorbing water to replace water used and lost by plants prevents plants from
wilting
Specific objective: outline how plants are supported by turgor pressure in cells, in
terms of water pressure acting against a cell wall
- as water enters a cell, the vacuole swells and pushes the cytoplasm and cell
membrane up against the cell wall, the cell becomes turgid
- turgor in plants cells is maintained because of a protective cell wall, that prevents
plant cells from bursting
- turgor helps to support the stem (of unligified), leaves and flowers and keep them
firm
- the leaves are well exposed to trap maximum sunlight for photosynthesis
3.3.3 Active transport

Specific objective: define active transport as:
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The movement of particles (ions/ molecules) through a cell membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration against a concentration gradient,
using energy from respiration
Specific objective: discuss importance of active transport as a process of movement

across membranes with reference to the uptake of ions by root hairs and uptake
of glucose by epithelial cells of villi and kidney tubules
In the uptake of mineral ions by root hairs:
 mineral ions like phosphates and nitrates are absorbed by root hair cell from the
soil through active transport
 these ions are often in higher concentration in the root hair cell than in the soil,
hence cannot easily diffuse across
 the nutrients are absorbed from a low concentration in the soil against a
concentration gradient
 active transport requires energy in the form of ATP which is used by carrier
proteins in the cell membrane to take the ions from a low concentration
In the uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of villi and kidney tubules:
 glucose is absorbed from the epithelial cells of the villi in the small intestines and
transported to the body cells and tissues through the blood stream
 cells may need glucose which is already in higher concentration in the cell
compared to the outside surrounding
 hence, glucose moves against the concentration gradient by active transport
 energy released during respiration is used by carrier proteins in the membrane to
absorb the glucose against the concentration gradient
Uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of kidney tubules
 kidneys reabsorb useful substances such as glucose from the blood during
filtration
 glucose is transported from the kidney tubules into the epithelial walls of
capillaries against a concentration gradient
Specific objective: how protein molecules move particles across a membrane during
active transport
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 the carrier proteins bind to the solute molecule, change shape and carry the
molecule across the membrane
 it then reverts back to its original position
3.4. Biological molecules
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Specific objective: describe the synthesis of large molecules from smaller basic units,
i.e. simple sugars to starch and glycogen; amino acids to proteins; fatty acids and
glycerol to fats and oils
 a large molecule called a polymer is formed by bonding together many smaller

basic units called monomers
 there are four major types of polymers:
- polysaccharides that are made from many glucose molecules bonded together by
glycosidic bonds
- lipids (fats and oil) made from many three fatty acids and glycerol bonded together
by ester bonds
- polypeptide (protein) made from many amino acids bonded together by peptide
bonds
- deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) made from nucleotides bonded together by
hydrogen bonds
Synthesis of large carbohydrates
 larger molecules called polymers are made from smaller basic units called
monomers
Carbohydrates
 are a large group of organic molecules containing the elements of Carbon

(C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O)
 this chemical elements bind together to form different types of
carbohydrates
 glucose, sucrose, lactose, starch, glycogen, cellulose are all examples of
types of carbohydrates
 all carbohydrates are made up of units of a sugar molecule called
saccharides
Types of carbohydrates:
 monosaccharides
 disaccharides
 polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
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- simple sugars made up of one glucose molecule
- the general formula of a monosaccharide molecule is C6H12 O6
- examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, galactose
- this are simple sugars that form the basic structure of complex carbohydrates
- monosaccharides are small, simple, soluble and sweet tasting molecules
Disaccharides
- are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides

- when disaccharides are formed a glycosidic bond is formed between the two
monosaccharides
- examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, lactose
Polysaccharides
- these are large complex insoluble and non-sweet tasting carbohydrates made up of
many monosaccharides bonded together
- polysaccharides are a result of polymerisation
- examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose
Synthesis of proteins
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- protein molecules contain the chemical elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Nitrogen (CHON)
- sometimes Sulphur can be added to the CHO to make proteins
- amino acids are the building blocks of proteins
- proteins are assembled from only about 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
- one protein molecule can consist of many amino acids bonded together by peptide
bonds
Synthesis of lipids (fats and oils)

- fats or oils are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen elements
- a lipid molecule is made up of a glycerol and three fatty acids
- fats do not dissolve in water
- animal fats are made up of saturated fatty acids and are usually solids at room
temperature
- plant fats are composed of unsaturated fatty acids and are usually liquids at room
temperature
- the fatty acids and glycerol are bonded together by Ester bonds
Fatty acid and glycerol structure
Specific objective: outline role of carbohydrates, fats/oils and proteins in living

organisms
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Role of carbohydrates
 carbohydrates like glucose are broken down during respiration to release energy
 sucrose is a transport form of carbohydrates from the leaves to other plant parts
in the phloem tubes
 glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrates in animals
 starch is storage form in plants
 cellulose is a carbohydrate mainly used in the formation of cell walls
Role of proteins
 proteins are mainly responsible for growth

 proteins help to repair of damaged tissues
 proteins also provide energy in the absence of carbohydrates and fats
 enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts in chemical reactions
 collagen is another type of protein needed in cartilage, tendons and ligaments
 some hormones like insulin are proteins
 proteins are part of the immune system as they are part of antibodies to help fight
against infections
Role of lipids (fats and oils)
 fats are a major source of energy

 fats acts as insulating layer against heat loss
 fats help to form the water proof cuticle in leaves to reduce water loss
 lipids are part of the structure of a cell membrane
Specific objective: describe the role of water as a solvent, in living organisms with
respect to digestion, excretion and transport
 water is a solvent that dissolves solutes to make solutions

 water dissolves more substances than any other liquid
 water is a good solvent making it a transport medium for many blood molecules
 water is part of blood plasma, in which soluble nutrients dissolve after digestion
to be transported to other body parts
 water aids in removal of metabolic wastes, as the wastes dissolve in blood
plasma to be transported to excretory organs
 water dissolves plant nutrients in the soil, so that it is absorbed by root hair cells
Specific objective: explain that different sequences of amino acids give different
shapes to protein molecules
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 there are 20 different types of amino acids in protein structures
 long chains of amino acids linked together through peptide bonds make up
protein molecules
 each protein chain has its own particular amino acids sequence
 these sequences cause a folding of the chain to give proteins different shapes
and functions
 the sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the sequence of
nucleotide bases in the DNA
Specific objective: describe the structure of DNA as: two strands coiled together to
form a double helix; each strand contains chemicals called bases; bases always pair up
in the same way: A with T, and C with G (no references to full names is required)
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the heredity material in organisms as it carries

genetic instructions
 DNA is located in the chromosomes in the nucleus of cells
 DNA is a long molecule in the form of a double helix (two long thin strands
twisted around each other)
 The DNA molecule is made up of subunits called nucleotides

 Each nucleotide is made up of three chemical groups
o Group one: is a sugar molecule called deoxyribose sugar
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o Group two: is a nitrogenous base and
o Group three: is a phosphate part
 There are four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and
cytosine (C)
 The nitrogenous bases have complementary pairing (adenine combines with
thymine while guanine combines with cytosine)
 Between the complimentary base pairs are weak Hydrogen bonds
 There are two Hydrogen bonds between A and T while there are three Hydrogen
bonds between G and C
 Adenine and guanine are called purines (large bases) while cytosine and thymine
are called pyrimidines (small bases)
 DNA is made up of many nucleotides joined together, hence it is a polynucleotide
Specific objective: describe the use of:
- Benedict’s solution to test for reducing sugars

- Iodine solution to test for starch
- Biuret test for proteins
- Ethanol test for fats and oils
- DCPIP test for vitamin C
Benedict’s test
 Used to test for reducing sugars
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 Simple sugars like glucose and maltose are reducing sugars
 Benedict’s solution is a clear blue solution
 In the presence of simple sugars, the blue solution changes colour to green,
yellow or red depending on the amount of sugar
Procedure followed:
- Place 5 cm³ Benedict’s solution in a test tube

- Shake the tube gently to obtain a clear blue colour
- Crush the food sample to be tested and add it to the test solution
- Shake the mixture thoroughly and heat the tube in a water bath over a Bunsen
burner
Result interpretation:
- An orange-red precipitate indicates a large amount of sugar present
- A greenish-yellow colour indicates a small amount of glucose present
- It the solution remains blue, there is no reducing sugar present
Iodine test
 A solution used to test for the presence of starch in food samples

 Iodine solution is a brown solution that turns blue-black in the presence of starch
 Iodine penetrates the starch more easily when the cell walls have been
destroyed
Procedure followed:
- Crush the food to be tested into small pieces

- Spread the crushed food on a white tile
- Use a dropper or syringe to add a few drops of iodine solution to the food
- A change from brown to blue/black shows there is starch present

- If the solution remains brown, there is no starch present
Biuret test
 Test that is used to detect protein in food
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 The biuret reagent is blue in colour and it’s a solution that consists of potassium
hydroxide or sodium hydroxide and copper sulfate
 It detect peptide bonds in proteins
Procedure followed:
- Crush the food sample if necessary and place it in a test tube

- Add equal amounts (5cm³) of biuret reagent A (copper sulfate) and biuret B
potassium sulfate/ sodium hydroxide in the test tube containing the food sample
- Add a little distilled water to the mixture and shake gently
- Allow the mixture to settle for a few minutes and observe colour changes
- If the blue reagent colour remain blue, there is no protein present

- If it changes from blue to purple/violet protein is present
Ethanol test
 A test used to find out if the food sample contains fat

Procedure followed:
- Crush the food to be tested into small pieces and place it in a test tube
- Dissolve the crushed food sample in 10cm³ of ethanol (alcohol)
- Shake the mixture thoroughly and allow it to settle for 10 minutes for the food to
dissolve in the ethanol
- Pour the clear liquid into another test tube and add 2cm³ of distilled water to it
- If the sample contains fat, tiny globules will float in the water
- A milky/white suspension indicates the presence of a lipid
- If it stays clear, there is no fat present in the sample
DCPIP (dichlorophenolindolphenol)
 A test used to detect the presence of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in food

 DCPIP solution is blue in colour
Procedure followed:
- Place 5cm³ of blue DCPIP solution in a test tube
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- Use a dropper or graduated pipette to add the sample drop by drop to the DCPIP
test tube
- Shake the tube gently after adding each drop
- Record the number of food sample drops that are added to the DCPIP
- The lesser the drops taken to change the blue DCPIP to clear means the sample
contains a lot of vitamin C
- If the DCPIP remains blue, there is no vitamin C present
Specific objective: investigate the distribution of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in

different parts of a seed or fruit
Materials needed:
- Fruits e.g. camel thorn pods, bananas, apples

- Seeds e.g. sunflower seeds, water melon seeds
- Benedicts solution, biuret solution, iodine solution, ethanol test and distilled water
- Mortar and pestle
- Test tubes
Procedure:
- Follow the procedure for each test as described in the notes and test all various
food sources for starch, reducing sugar, fats and protein content separately
- Draw a well labeled table and record your observations for each test
- Make conclusion by comparing the various results for each test
3.5 Enzymes
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Specific objective: Define the term catalyst as:
A substance that increase (speeds up) the rate of a chemical reaction and is not
changed by the reaction.
Metabolic reactions
Metabolic reactions are all chemical reactions that occur in cells. They include reactions
that are catalysed by enzymes.
Types of chemical reactions:
Anabolic reaction-is a reaction that build up complex compounds from simple ones for,
example photosynthesis
Catabolic reaction- is a reaction that break down complex compounds into simple
ones, example digestion of food.
Specific objective: Define enzymes as:

Proteins that function as biological catalysts
Specific objective: explain enzyme action with reference to the active site, enzyme-
substrate complex, substrates and product.
Properties of enzyme.
- Enzymes are proteins

- Enzymes are biological catalyst
- Enzymes can be used over and over again
- Enzyme activity can be affected by temperature and pH.
- Enzymes are specific in the reaction they catalyse.
Enzyme action
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Only molecules with the correct shape can fit into the enzyme. Just like one key
can open a lock. Only one type of enzyme that can speed up a specific reaction.
This is called a lock and key model.
Substrate: is the molecule or substance the enzyme acts on
Active site: the ‘dent’ on the enzyme which is exactly the correct shape for the
substrate to fit into
Enzyme-substrate complex: the substrates bonds with the enzyme’s active site
and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed
Products: ‘new’ molecules that leave the active site after the enzyme acts on the
substrate
Some enzymes, their substrates and products

enzyme substrate product
Amylase starch maltose
Maltase maltose glucose
Lipase lipids (fats & oils) fatty acids & glycerol
Sucrase sucrose fructose & glucose
Pepsin proteins polypeptides
Trypsin polypeptides amino acids
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Specific objective: explain the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme
activity in terms of shape, fit, and denaturalization.
The effect of temperature on enzymes activities
 Each enzyme has a temperature at which the rate of reaction is greatest this is
called an optimum (best) temperature.
 The optimum temperature of an enzyme is the level where enzyme works most
effectively by forming
The effect of low temperature on enzyme activity.
 Rate of enzyme activity is very slow as enzymes become inactive

 Low temperature causes less kinetic energy, which causes the molecules to
move slowly and cause few collisions between enzymes and substrates.
 Few ESC’s are likely to be formed
The effect of high temperature on enzyme activity
 High temperature gives more kinetic energy, which cause the enzyme to vibrate
too much.
 This breaks the bonds of the enzyme and its structure changes
 The active site changes shape
 The substrate will not fit into the active site and no enzyme-substrate complex
(ESC) will form.
 The enzyme will be denatured and the reaction rate will decrease or stop.
 When enzyme denature it is a permanent change and the enzyme will not work
again.
The graph shows the effect of temperature on enzyme activity
83
The effect of change in pH on Enzyme activity
 Different enzymes work best at different pH levels.

 The pH where the rate of enzyme activity is the fastest is called the optimum pH.
 If the pH is either too high or too low, the enzyme can denature irreversibly.
 Some enzymes work best in neutral (pH 7-7.5) conditions like Amylase in saliva.
 Some enzymes work best in acidic conditions like Pepsin in the stomach.
 Some enzymes work best in alkaline conditions like Lipase in the duodenum.
 Changes in pH also alter an enzyme’s shape and slow down its activity, but this
can usually be reversed if the optimum pH is restored.
 An extreme pH level can denature enzymes – the active site gets deformed
permanently.
Specific objective: investigate the effect of changes in temperature and pH on the rate
of amylase and lipase activity
Investigation on how enzyme activity is affected by changes in temperature
Procedure:
1. Put 5cm3 of starch solution in three test tubes labelled 15°C, 35°C and 65°C
To make the starch solution:
- Dissolve 10g of soluble starch in 8cm3 of cold water

- Pour the solution into 1litre (1000cm3) of boiling water and stir well
- Boil the solution for 15 minutes, keep it covered to reduce evaporation
- Allow to cool
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2. Add amylase to the starch solution
To make an amylase solution:
- Weigh out 0.5g of the enzyme and add to 80ml of distilled water at room
temperature in a beaker
- Stir gently to dissolve and add water to a final volume of 100ml
- Store at 4°C (fridge) for a short period of time or on ice during use
3. Put the three test tubes with the mixture into a water bath for 30 minutes at
temperatures 15°C (use ice cubes), 35°C and 65°C
4. Use a dropper pipette to put a small sample of the mixture (of what is in each
test tube after 30 minutes) onto a white tile and add iodine solution to it
5. Observe which solution turns blue-black and which remains yellow-brown.

Explain your results
Specific objective: describe the role of enzymes in the germination of seeds and their
uses in biological washing powders and in the food industry
In seed germination
- Seeds contain inactive enzymes, an embryo plant and insoluble nutrients

- Maize seeds contain starch, bean seeds contain protein and sunflower seeds
contain lipids
- This starch, proteins and lipids are insoluble, and the embryo plant cannot use it
unless it is digested into soluble molecules
 Enzymes become activated when the seed absorb water during germination
 A plant growth substance is formed in the embryo and it activates the enzymes to
digest insoluble nutrients into soluble forms
 Enzyme amylase change the starch in the seed into maltose while protease
digests proteins into polypeptides and amino acids
 Enzyme lipase digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
 The soluble nutrients are used by the embryo plant during germination as a
source of energy for growth
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In biological washing powders
 Biological washing powder contain enzymes which breakdown insoluble

proteins, fats and starch stains that cannot be removed by detergents alone.
 Once broken down, the stains disappears because the smaller molecules that
result from the enzyme actions are soluble and can be washed away easier
 Protein stains like blood haemoglobin are digested by protease enzymes into
soluble amino acids
 Fat stains are digested by lipase enzymes into soluble fatty acids and glycerol
 Amylase digest starch stains into soluble sugars
In food industry
 The enzyme rennin or chymosin are added to milk to make cheese.

o The enzymes clot the milk to form milk curds, which are used to make
cheese
 The enzyme pectinase is used to make fruit juice.
o Pectinase soften the fruit cell walls. This makes it easier to extract more
juice from fruits, such as apples and oranges .
o Pectinase also helps to make cloudy juice become clear
 The enzyme amylase is added to bread dough in bread baking
o Amylase breaks down the starch in the dough into sugar
o When yeast is added to the dough, it can breakdown the sugar more
easily, releasing carbon dioxide that makes the bread dough to rise
 Enzyme trypsin is used to predigest proteins in the manufacturing of baby food.
o This makes it easier for babies to digest their food
 The enzyme papain is used to produce tenderised meat.
o Papain breaks down protein in the meat, making the meat easier to chew.
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Specific objective: Investigate the uses of biological powders that contain enzymes.
Requirements
1. Two boiled eggs

2. Two teaspoons
3. Two glass beakers with water
4. Regular and biological detergent
Procedure
1. Boil two eggs for about five minutes

2. Put marks on the two spoons for identification.
3. Push the teaspoons into the eggs to collect some yolk on the spoons.
4. Dissolve equal amounts of ‘regular’ and 'biological' washing powders in two
separate beakers of water and leave a yolk stained spoon in each glass.
Observe what happens to the yolk on both spoons put in the two washing powders. The
spoon put in the ‘regular’ washing powder still has yolk on but the yolk on the other
spoon has been digested by the ‘biological’ washing powder
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3.6 Nutrition
Specific objective: distinguish between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition
Definition of nutrition:
Nutrition (feeding) is the intake of inorganic and organic substances from which
organisms obtain energy and raw materials for growth and development
Autotrophic nutrition
Is a process where organisms use inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water),
an external source of energy (sunlight) and chlorophyll to build organic molecules
during photosynthesis
- Examples of organic molecules are: glucose, starch, fats and proteins
Heterotrophic nutrition
Is a process where organisms obtain and digest organic molecules during
nutrition and use it as a source of energy and for growth
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3.6.1 Plant nutrition
3.6.1. 1 Leaf Structure
Specific objective: Identify the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as
seen in cross section.
External structure of a dicotyledonous leaf
Internal structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross section
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Specific objective: state the significance of these structures in terms of function, i.e.
distribution of chloroplasts for photosynthesis; stomata, (opening and closure) and
mesophyll cells for gaseous exchange and vascular bundles for transport.
 A leaf is made of different layers of cells (different tissues).
 The upper epidermis is a layer of transparent cells (because they do not have
chloroplasts) which allows light to pass through to the mesophyll cells.
 The upper epidermis covers the upper surface of the leaf to protect the inner cells of the
leaf and it produces the cuticle.
 The cuticle is a waxy, waterproof layer covering the upper epidermis, to reduce water
loss from the leaf by evaporation.
 The lower epidermis is a layer of transparent cells (because they do not have
chloroplasts) which covers the lower surface of the leaf to protect the inner cells of the
leaf and sometimes produces the cuticle.
 The lower epidermis a layer of transparent cells that allows light to pass through to
mesophyll cells. The mesophyll layer is the middle layer of the leaf, situated between
the two epidermises.
 The cells in the mesophyll layer just below the upper epidermis are called the palisade
mesophyll cells (layer).
 The palisade mesophyll cells is where most of the photosynthesis takes place as it have
larger number of chloroplasts.
 The cells in the mesophyll layer in the lower part of the leaf, just above the lower
epidermis, are called the spongy mesophyll cells (layer).
 Cells of the spongy mesophyll are round, loosely arranged cells with large air space
between them (like a sponge), which allows for gaseous exchange by diffusion
between mesophyll cells and the air.
 Photosynthesis also takes place in this layer.
 The leaf contains vascular bundles (veins), which are made up of xylem and phloem.
 Xylem is made up of tiny tubes called xylem vessels (tubes) which transport inorganic
substances (water and mineral ions).
 The phloem transports organic substances (sucrose and amino acids) by translocation.
 Stomata are found in lower epidermis. These are small pores (stomata openings) with
two guard cells, one on either side of the stomata openings. The guard cells control the
opening and closing of a stoma.
 The stomata allow gaseous exchange, where carbon dioxide and oxygen can diffuse
into or out of the leaf, and allow transpiration to take place.
 The guard cells contain few chloroplasts so some photosynthesis can take place here.
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Specific objective: explain how the internal structure is adapted for photosynthesis
 A leaf has a very large surface area that can be exposed to absorb the greatest
(maximum) amount of light.
 It is thin to allow light to penetrate to all cells.
 It is thin to reduce the distance for diffusion.
 A leaf is supported by a stem and petiole to expose as much of it as possible to
light and air.
 The upper and lower epidermis are transparent to allow light through to the
mesophyll layer.
 The palisade mesophyll cells are closely packed to absorb more incidental light.
 The palisade mesophyll cells are near the leaf surface to maximise light
interception.
 Palisade mesophyll cells are arranged at right angles to the leaf surface to reduce
the number of cell walls for light to pass through.
 Palisade mesophyll cells have large numbers of chloroplasts to maximise light
absorption.
 Spongy mesophyll cells are round and loosely arranged to accommodate air
spaces, which act as reservoirs for gases and to assist in gaseous exchange.
 Mesophyll cells have large vacuoles to push chloroplasts to the edge of the cells.
 Mesophyll cells have thin cell walls so there is a short diffusion pathway.
 Chloroplasts can move within mesophyll cells towards light.
 Chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity to avoid damage.
 There are stomata in the lower epidermis for gases to enter and leave during
gaseous exchange.
 Xylem vessels is present for the transport of water to the chloroplasts in the
mesophyll cells.
 Phloem tube is there to translocate the products of photosynthesis away from the
leaf.
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Specific objective: make temporary mounts of the upper and lower epidermis (using
nail varnish) with emphasis on the distribution of stomata.
Making temporary slides of the epidermis
- Stomatal density varies between monocots and dicots, between plants species and
between the underside and top side of the leaves on a plant.
- use clear nail varnish to make an impression of the epidermis
Materials needed:
 Different plant leaves.

 Clear fingernail polish.
 Clear cellophane tape (clear package sealing
tape).
 Microscope and microscope slides.
Procedure:
1. Obtain a leaf from a plant, generally any plant will work for this procedure.
2. Paint a chick patch of clear nail polish on the leaf surface being studied. Make
the patch at least one square centimetre (cm2). Try not to paint on the large
veins, as this makes it difficult to remove the dried nail polish.
3. Allow the nail polish to dry completely.

4. Tape a piece of clear cellophane tape to the dried nail polish patch.
5. Gently peel the nail polish patch from the leaf by pulling on a corner of the tape
and “peeling” the fingernail polish off the leaf. This is the leaf impression you will
examine.
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6. Tape your peeled impression to a very clean microscope slide. Use scissors to
trim away any excess tape.
7. Scan the slide until you find a good area where you can see the stomata.
Examine the leaf impression under a light microscope at X 400. Search for areas
where there are numerous stomata and where there are no dirt, thumbprints,
damaged areas or large leaf veins.
8. Draw the leaf surface with stomata. Each stoma is bordered by two sausage-
shaped cells that are usually smaller than chloroplasts. Sketch this. Label the
stoma, guard cells, epidermal cells and chloroplasts.
9. Count all the stomata in one microscopic field. Record the number in your data
table.
10. Repeat counts for at least three other distinct microscopic fields. Record all the
counts. Determine an average number per microscopic field.
11. From the average number / X 400 microscopic field, calculate the stomata per
mm2 by multiplying by 8.
View of the stomata as seen under a microscope
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Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides of transverse sections through a
leaf.
3.6.1.2 Mineral requirements

Specific objective: state the importance and explain the effects of iron, magnesium,
phosphate and nitrate ions on plant growth.
Mineral requirements
The metabolites that plants require for growth, development and repair come from
photosynthesis and respiration. However, there are other ingredients needed for the
production of these essential metabolites. They are called mineral ions
Importance of iron and effects on plant Deficiency effects on plant growth

growth
a micro nutrient required in small amounts
 Iron is needed for chlorophyll  Iron chlorosis (yellowing of the
synthesis. new upper leaves).
 Iron is also a constituent of electron  Leave become whitish and start
carriers. to die.
 It is needed for formation of some  Stunted growth.
enzymes.
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Importance of magnesium and effects on Deficiency effects on plant growth
plant growth
a macro nutrient needed in relatively large
amounts
 Magnesium ions are required for the  Yellowing of the older (lower)
synthesis of chlorophyll in plants. leaves will occur first as they
 Magnesium also acts as an enzyme become yellow between the veins
activator. and around the edges.
 It forms part of the middle lamellae  Eventually the leaf and the plant will
in plant cells. die.
Importance of phosphorus and effects on Deficiency effects on plant growth

plant growth
a micro nutrient absorbed in the form of
phosphate ions
 Used to synthesise nucleotides which  It leads to stunted growth (plants
form nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). are small), especially the roots.
 Used to form high energy compounds  Brown areas occur on leaves and
like ATP, the petioles.
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 A component of cell membranes in  they produce little or no flowers,
the form of phospholipids.  Have weak root systems or a bright
 Phosphate ions affects plant growth green or purplish
by increasing early growth and root
formation.
 Phosphorus also improves the plant’s
ability to absorb water and other
nutrients from the soil.
 Phosphorus encourages flower or
fruit production.
Importance of nitrates and effects on Deficiency effects on plant growth

plant growth
 Nitrates are required for amino acid  yellowing of all leaves will occur
synthesis (amino acids combine to  Symptoms include stunted plant
form proteins). growth
 They are used to synthesise  Thin weak stems and leaves that
chlorophyll. are pale green or yellow
 Nitrates are used to synthesise
nucleotides which form nucleic acids.
 Some plant hormones, like auxin,
contain nitrogen.
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Specific objective: Investigate the effect of mineral deficiency on the plant growth
- Here is a method to investigate mineral deficiency in a plant, using nitrate ions as

an example.
- You could do the same experiment with any of the following minerals: magnesium
ions, phosphate ions and iron ions.
Materials needed:
 Nitrogen fertiliser (ammonium or nitrate fertiliser)

 30 maize / mahangu (millet) seedlings
 Soil for each pot
 3 bottles with water to make the three liquid nutrient mediums
Procedure
1. Take 30 seedlings of the same plant (they should be the same age and height)
and plant them in separate pots.
2. Make up three nutrient mixtures (liquid nutrient medium) with varying
concentrations of nitrate ions. Make up one mixture with a high concentration,
one with a medium concentration and one with a low concentration of nitrate.
3. Split the plants into three groups. Each group should be given only one of the
three mixtures. Add about a cup of the nitrate liquid medium to each pot.
4. Record the height of each plant after seven weeks. Calculate the average height
of each group of plants.
5. During the experiment, it is important to keep all other variables the same, e.g.
the amount of sunlight and water the plant receive.
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Results
 The greater the concentration of nitrate, the more the plants will grow (average
heights of 12, 18 and 23 cm have been measured for plants given low, medium and
high concentrations respectively)
3.6.1.3 Photosynthesis
Specific objective: state the word and balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
A method of nutrition in green plants, where light energy is trapped in the chlorophyll
and organic substances (carbohydrates / glucose) are produced by using water and
carbon dioxide, with the release of oxygen as a by-product.
Equations for photosynthesis

Word equation
Carbon dioxide + water + (chlorophyll & light energy) → glucose + oxygen
Balanced chemical equation
Specific objective: Investigate the need for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, using appropriate controls
Carry out starch tests on leaves
- Carbohydrates are the products of photosynthesis.

- Simple sugars (glucose) is formed first but are immediately converted into starch,
the first visible product of photosynthesis.
- It is therefore possible to find out if the plant has carried out photosynthesis by
testing for starch.
- Presence of starch implies that photosynthesis has occurred.
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Procedures (steps) when carrying out a starch test on leaves
Use a green leaf which was exposed to sunlight for a few hours (glucose is produced
which is converted into starch for storage).
 Step one: Boil the leaf in water for about a minute till it is flabby (cell walls and
membranes are broken down and enzymes and cytoplasm destroyed for iodine
solution to penetrate)
 Step two: Place the leaf in a test tube with alcohol (ethanol) and place the test tube
in a beaker with boiling water (water bath) till the leaf is decolourised (for chlorophyll
to be dissolved and extracted).
 Step three: Rinse the yellow – white coloured leaf in hot water (to soften it after it
was hardened by the alcohol).
 Step four: spread the leaf in a shallow petri dish or on a white tile and cover it with
yellow – brown Iodine solution for a few minutes.
If the leaf turns blue- black, starch is present and photosynthesis took place.
Removal of starch from a plant
 Place a potted plant in a dark cupboard for 48 hours.

 This will ensure that no starch will be formed in its leaves during that period.
 Any starch already present is converted into sugar (glucose) to be transported out
of the leaves to the rest of the plant.
 When a leaf is now tested for starch, it will be noticed that no starch is present.
 Such a plant is said to be destarched.
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To show that light is essential for photosynthesis:
 Destarch a potted geranium plant (as outlined above)

 Do not remove any leaves, but select one at the top of a leafy shoot.
 Wrap a strip of aluminium foil around a part of this leaf and press it as close as
possible to the surface of the leaf so that this part cannot received any light.
 Expose the plant to sunlight for 4 to 6 hours.
 Remove the leaf with the foil from the plant. Test the leaf for starch.
 The exposed parts will turn blue- black.
 The covered part of the leaf will stain brown.
 Since starch has not formed in the part which receive no light, this shows that
light is necessary for starch formation and thus for photosynthesis.
Investigation set up to show if light is essential for photosynthesis
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To show that carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis
 Destarch a potted geranium plant.

 Put a small container of soda lime (or potassium hydroxide / sodium hydroxide)
close to the plant.
 Cover it with a transparent plastic bag and tightly seal with an elastic band so
that no carbon dioxide (air) can enter.
 The soda lime absorbs all the carbon dioxide.
 Remove the leaves and test them for starch.
 The leaves will stain brown.
 Since starch has not formed in the leaves which receive no carbon dioxide, it
seems that carbon dioxide is necessary for starch formation and thus for
photosynthesis.
To investigate if carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis
To show that chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis
 Destarch a potted geranium plant which has variegated leaves (leaves with
parts that have chlorophyll and non- green parts without chlorophyll).
 Remove a leaf and make a careful drawing of its green and non- green parts.
 Then test the leaf for starch.
 The green parts (containing chlorophyll) turn blue- black to show that (starch is
present).
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 The non- green parts (lacking chlorophyll) stains brown (starch is absent).
 Since starch is present only in the parts which originally contained chlorophyll, it
seems reasonable to assume that photosynthesis has taken place.
To show that oxygen is released during photosynthesis
 Set up the experiment as shown below

 Elodea can be used as a submerged plant.
 The gas collected in the test tube can be tested with a glowing splint.
 If it is oxygen, the glowing splint will glow brighter or even burst into a flame.
 This indicates that oxygen has been given off by the splint.
To investigate if oxygen is released during photosynthesis
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Specific objective: describe the effects of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
Effects of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the
rate photosynthesis
Light intensity
 At low light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis is lowered, because the energy
that the light provides is less and the reaction rate is slowed down.
 A higher light intensity will enable photosynthesis to happen faster.
Carbon dioxide concentration
 When there is insufficient carbon dioxide concentration, a plant will not be able to
photosynthesise to its full potential. Because there is less carbon dioxide
concentration – less reactant – fewer products are made.
Temperature
 In cooler temperatures (low), the rate of photosynthesis will decrease.

 At optimum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis become faster.
 If temperature is too high, photosynthesis stop.
Specific objective: Describe the synthesis of carbohydrates.

The synthesis of carbohydrates
- Green plants synthesise carbohydrates during the process of photosynthesis.

- Photosynthesis requires light energy, water and carbon dioxide.
- The end product of photosynthesis is glucose (carbohydrate) and oxygen.
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Requirements for the synthesis of carbohydrates
 Light intensity is absorbed by the chloroplasts and trapped by the chlorophyll in

the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells.
 This light energy is converted into chemical energy.
 This chemical energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ions and
oxygen.
 The oxygen is released by diffusion into the air spaces of the leaf and from there
through the stomata into the air outside the leaf.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses into leaf through the stomata and then into the air
spaces.
 From the air spaces, it diffuses into the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells.
 Water is absorbed from the soil by the root hair cells by osmosis.
 Water moves from the root hair cells through the cortex and endodermis into the
xylem and up to the leaf.
 From the leaf xylem, water moves by osmosis into the mesophyll cells and into
the chloroplasts.
 The carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms (from the water) combine. Carbon
dioxide is converted into carbohydrates, using the energy from sunlight.
 This forms an energy- rich carbohydrate called glucose.
Specific objective: describe the use and storage of carbohydrates made in

photosynthesis.
Use of carbohydrates (glucose)
 Glucose is used in the leaves as an energy source for respiration.

 It is changed into sucrose for translocation in the phloem sieve tubes.
 It is changed into cellulose to build and strengthen the cell walls.
 It is converted into amino acids / proteins (by reaction with nitrates) for growth
and repair.
 It is converted into chlorophyll (by reaction with magnesium and iron) to trap
light energy.
 It is converted into different vitamins.
 It is used to make nectar and fruits.
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Storage of carbohydrates (glucose)
 It is changed into insoluble starch to be stored in seeds, leaves and roots.
 It is changed into fats and oils to be stored in seeds.
 It is converted into amino acids / proteins to be stored.
Specific objective: define the term limiting factor as:
Something present in the environment in short supply that restricts life processes.
- Examples of limiting factors: temperature, availability of water, light intensity, carbon
dioxide concentration and amount of chloroplasts / chlorophyll.
Specific objective: identify and explain the limiting factors of photosynthesis, in

different environmental conditions.
Limiting factors of photosynthesis
Light as a limiting factor
 Light is a requirement for photosynthesis.

 As light intensity increases, so does the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. at 50 au
(arbitrary units) of light the rate of photosynthesis is 70, and at 150 au it is 170).
 It increases until the optimum light intensity is reached (at 230 au).
 A further increase in light intensity does not bring about any further increase in
the rate of photosynthesis (after 230 au it remains constant).
Graphical presentation of light intensity is a limiting factor
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Carbon dioxide as a limiting factor
 Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide.

 At low carbon dioxide levels, the rate of photosynthesis will be slow.
 The more carbon dioxide a plant is given, the faster it can carry out
photosynthesis.
 It increases until the optimum is reached.
Graphical presentation of carbon dioxide concentration is a limiting factor
Carbon dioxide is a limiting factor even though there is sufficient light
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Temperature as a limiting factor
 Most plants function best at optimum temperatures between 20°C and 35°C
 As the temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases.
 Any further increase in the temperature above the optimum temperature can
cause a drop in the rate of photosynthesis, because the enzymes become
denatured.
 If the temperature is low, the enzymes become less active and even inactive and
the rate of photosynthesis is slowed down
Temperature as a limiting factor
107
Specific objective: describe the use of CO2 enrichment, optimum light and optimum
temperatures in greenhouse systems and their importance to increase plant
productivity.
Greenhouse systems and plant productivity
- A greenhouse, also called a “glasshouse”, is a structure with walls and roof made
chiefly of transparent materials, such as glass, where the environment of plants can
be controlled and optimum conditions can be maintained to maximise growth and
yields.
Control of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration
 Carbon dioxide can be increased (carbon dioxide enrichment) by using burning

of fuels, e.g. gas or paraffin.
 Bottles of carbon dioxide can also be used to increase its concentration.
 Ventilators can allow fresh air with carbon dioxide to enter the greenhouse.
 As the CO2 concentration becomes higher, CO2 is no longer a limiting factor and
the rate of photosynthesis increases.
Control light intensity
 Position the greenhouse to receive maximum light.

 Additional light can be supplied by artificial lights (bulbs).
 Light which is too bright can be reduced by blinds which can be closed.
 Reflectors inside the greenhouse can reflect light directly onto plants.
Control of temperature
 Temperature can be increased by using heaters or by burning fuels.

 Temperature can be reduced by using of fans and ventilators.
 The temperature must be maintained because photosynthesis involves enzymes.
Control of humidity (water)
 Sprinkler irrigation systems can be used to control water and give continuous
supply of water to plants.
 Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in
water, without soil. Terrestrial plants are grown with their roots in the solution
only.
 Humidifiers can control the humidity to keep the air around plants humid, to
reduce transpiration and evaporation of water.
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Greenhouse (glasshouse)
Specific objective: investigate the effect of gas exchange on an aquatic plant kept in
the light and in the dark (use hydrogen carbonate indicators solution).
Procedure
1. Take two test- tubes label them P and Q

2. Fill up each test tube with a solution of red hydrogen carbonate indicator.
Hydrogen carbonate indicator turns yellow when the carbon dioxide
concentration increases and turns purple when the carbon dioxide concentration
decreases.
3. Place similar pieces of the same aquatic plant into tubes P and Q
4. Leave tube uncovered, but cover tube with tube Q with a black light – proof
cover.
5. Leave both tubes in a warm room in sunlight for four hours.
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What would be the colour of the hydrogen carbonate indicator in the two tubes after four
hours?
Tube P: When the carbon dioxide level falls, the hydrogen carbonate indicator changes
from red to purple (the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration).
Tube Q: It changes from red to yellow as the carbon dioxide concentration increases
(the rate of respiration exceeds the rate of photosynthesis).
Conclusion: Tube P absorb light and carbon dioxide that will enable photosynthesis to
take place while Tube Q did not received light thus photosynthesis did not take place
and carbon dioxide accumulate.
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3.6.2 Human nutrition
3.6.2.1 Diet and nutrients
Specific objective: describe the causes and effects of vitamins A, C, D and mineral
salts (iodine and iron only) deficiencies.
Vitamins
Vitamins are a group of organic compounds that are required in small quantities in the
diet.
Vitamin A (also known as retinol)

- Vitamin A cannot be made by the human body and so it is an essential part of the
diet.
- It is a fat- soluble Vitamin that is stored in the liver.
- Examples of food sources rich in vitamin A are liver, milk, butter, cheese, yogurt,
egg yolk, oily fish and fish liver oils and green leafy vegetables
- beta- carotene (which is found in green leafy vegetable and red, orange and yellow
fruits) can also be converted by the liver into vitamin A
Causes of vitamin A deficiency

 Consuming a diet with very low fat.
 Consuming a diet which lack food such as liver, dairy foods and dark green
vegetables
 When rice is the main food in your diet, vitamin A deficiency usually occurs as rice
doesn’t contain any carotene
 Excess alcohol consumption (alcoholism)
Effects of vitamin A deficiency

 Night blindness (does not produce a substance called rhodopsin that aids in night
vision)
 Poor complexion and dry skin
 Weaken immune system
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Vitamin C (also known to as ascorbic acid)
- Vitamin C is water soluble (your body doesn’t make or store it and you flush out the
excess daily via urine)
- Thus, we need to eat vitamin C daily.
- Food sources rich in vitamin C include mainly fruits and vegetables like tomatoes
Causes of vitamin C deficiency

 Consuming diet that lack vitamin C like citrus fruits and vegetables
Effects of vitamin C deficiency

 Slow in wound healing due to iron deficiency
 Weakened immune system unable to fight colds and flu
 Bruising as small vessels break
 Bone fractures
 Scurvy (bleeding of the gums)
Vitamin D
- Sometimes called the “sunshine vitamin” because it is produced in response to
sunlight.
- It is fat- soluble vitamin
- Our bodies can make most of what we need when we are directly exposed to sun.
- Vitamin D is stored in the liver and fatty tissue.
- Sources of food rich in vitamin D include fortified foods, salmon, sardines, fish liver
oil, liver, raw milk, butter, cheese, margarine and eggs and few minutes of exposure
to the sun daily
Causes of vitamin D deficiency

 A strict vegetarian diet (not eating any animal products that are good sources of
vitamin D)
 Your exposure to sunlight is limited (you are homebound, wear long robes or head
coverings for religious reasons, or have an occupation that prevents exposure to
the sun)
 You have dark skin as the pigment melanin reduces the skin’s ability to make
vitamin D in response to sunlight exposure.
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Effects of vitamin D deficiency
 Deficiency of vitamin D cause Rickets in children
 Deficiency of vitamin D in adults cause Osteomalacia and Osteoporosis (weak
bones that can break easily)
Mineral salts
Mineral salts are naturally occurring inorganic substances
Iodine
- Iodine is an essential mineral that is crucial for the thyroid of function properly.
- Sources include some sea food like fish, lobster, shell fish, table salt and
vegetables grown on iodine rich soils
Causes of iodine deficiency

 Eating a diet that lack iodine rich food like seafood
 It is also common in mountainous regions where food is grown in iodine poor soil.
Effects of iodine deficiency

 Leading to goitre (thyroid gland enlarges)
 Lead to lethargy and fatigue
 Slow metabolism and weight gain.
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Iron
- Iron is a mineral that is naturally present in many foods or added to some food
products and available as a dietary supplement.
- Iron is a mineral found in every cell of the body.
- Foods (dietary sources) that contain iron include red meat, pork, liver, kidneys,
eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, cabbage, broccoli and lettuce.
- Dried fruits such as raisins and apricots, as well as iron fortified cereals and bread
are also good sources of iron
Causes of iron deficiency

 Women, who lose a lot of blood during their monthly period, called menstruation,
are at risk of iron deficiency
 The loss of blood associated with trauma or surgery can also lead to iron deficiency
called anaemia.
Effects of iron deficiency

 anaemia, this reduces the number of red blood cells due to lack of iron
General objective
 Know the importance of a balanced diet for every person and understand their
different needs
 Know the effects of malnutrition and understand the problems related to famine
.
Definition of a balanced diet
A diet that contains all seven food nutrients in the correct quantity for growth, repair of
body cells and to stay healthy
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Specific objective: describe the role of a balanced diet with reference to: children,
adult/workers, nursing mothers, athletes and people with HIV/ AIDS
 In children
o Breast milk provide antibodies to strengthen their immune system
o Vitamin D promote calcium absorption for the development of strong
bones
o More protein promotes rapid growth
o Children need more carbohydrates and fats for more energy.
 Adults/workers
o Balanced diet will help them maintain healthy weight and a strong immune
system
o Men need more energy than women because they have faster metabolism
o Minerals such as calcium will maintain their bone strength
o High energy intake and less activity will lead to weight gain and problems
associated with being overweight
 Pregnant and nursing mothers

o Pregnant women need more protein for foetal growth.
o Pregnant women need more iron for the formation of haemoglobin (red
blood cell) for the foetus.
o Fibre is important for pregnant women to prevent constipation
o Breastfeeding women need additional calcium for production of breast
milk.
 Athletes
o They need more energy-rich food for their physical activities
o More protein is required to build the muscle mass
 People with HIV/AIDS

o A healthy and balanced diet boosts their immune system
o For example, they should eat plenty of fresh fruits and vegetable to ensure
that they take in sufficient vitamins, especially vitamin C and D.
o They need more protein to gain weight or build muscle mass
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Specific objective: explain how age, gender and activity affect the dietary needs of
humans, including during pregnancy and whilst breast-feeding
Babies, toddlers and young children (0- 10 years)

 Breast milk is the most natural food for new born babies as it provides all
essential nutrients for a baby up to the first six months.
 Carbohydrates provide more energy
 Proteins to make new cells to grow and repair tissues.
 Children need extra calcium and vitamin D for growth and development of their
bones and teeth
Puberty and adolescence (11- 19 years).

 Energy and protein requirements may be higher than in adults.
 Females have an increased requirement for iron because of menstruation.
 Males have an increased requirement for calcium for thickening bones.
Elderly persons
 An older person’s energy needs decline due to decreased physical activity and
basic metabolic rate thus needs less energy giving food.
 The ageing body replaces muscle with fat, which burns fewer kilojoules than
muscle does. Loss of muscle mass can also be due to inactivity therefore, they
need less fat-rich food intake.
 Elderly persons may also need less protein, or even more if they have very
inactive lifestyles.
 Elderly people, especially women, may be at risk of osteoporosis, so
supplementation of calcium and vitamin D is recommended.
 A reduction in foods like fruits and vegetables can lead to an insufficient intake of
Vitamin C, so supplements can benefit them.
Gender (sex) affects dietary needs

 Males need more energy giving food than females of the same age and even
when doing the same job, because males have more muscle mass and are
generally larger (broader muscles).
 Men have more muscle mass and higher metabolic rates than women therefore
have higher requirements for protein.
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Activities affect dietary needs
 Active persons require more energy than less active persons do.
 When you are active, you burn more kilojoules and if you burn kilojoules than you
eat, you lose more weight.
 If a child is extremely active, he/she will need more nutrients (i.e. carbohydrates,
fat, and protein).
 When athletes are doing sport, they require more proteins for building muscles.
 When doing sport, athletes require more carbohydrates for energy.
 A worker doing heavy work requires more energy than a worker doing light work
does.
Pregnancy
 The extra protein is needed for growth of the foetus.
 Calcium is used to build a baby’s bones and teeth
 Calcium is needed for the production of breast- milk.
 Extra iron can prevent anaemia in the mother and essential for formation of foetal
haemoglobin in the blood.
 Vitamin C assists in the absorption of iron and is necessary to make collagen, a
structural protein that is a component of cartilage, tendons and skin of the foetus.
 Vitamin A is important for the baby’s embryonic growth, including the
development of the heart, lungs, kidneys and formation of the retina and visual
pigments of the eyes.
 Vitamin D assists in the absorption of calcium for the formation of bones and
teeth.
 Fibre is important of prevent constipation in the pregnant mother.
 Reduced sugar intake is advised, because the mother is less active so less
energy is used. Eating sugar during pregnancy causes weight gain.
 Folic acid (a B vitamin) supplements help to prevent birth defects in this foetal
brain and spinal cord, known as neural tube defects.
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Specific objective: describe the causes and effects of malnutrition in relation to
starvation, constipation, coronary heart disease, obesity and scurvy
 Starvation
Is when there is a severe lack of food or under nutrition e.g. Kwashiorkor and
marasmus
Cause Effects
 During the first stage of starvation, the body uses up all

available carbohydrates for energy followed by all fat
 Poverty
reserves
 Famine
 After all the fats are exhausted, the body start using
protein, including the muscles
 Once all the muscle have been used up, the organs start
breaking down, which lead to death
Constipation
 A condition where faeces or stool is hard and egestion becomes difficult and
infrequent
Cause
 Lack of fibre (roughage)
Effects
 Difficult and infrequent egestion
 Colon cancer
Coronary heart disease

 Refers to the condition which develop when the coronary artery, which supply the
heart muscles with nutrient (glucose) and oxygen, become narrowed
Cause
 Eating too much animal fats increase the level of cholesterol, which is deposited
in the coronary arteries and this lead to narrowing/blockage of the coronary
arteries.
Effects
 If the heart muscles do not receive adequate supply of glucose and oxygen this
can cause a heart attack, which can lead to death.
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Obesity
Cause
 Eating too much sugary food, refined and fatty food
Effects
 Can lead to diabetes
 Can lead to coronary heart disease
Scurvy
Cause
 Lack of vitamin C (diet lacking fresh fruits and vegetable)
Effects
 Wall of blood vessels become weak and bruising on the skin can occur easily.
 Bleeding gums
 Poor healing of wounds
 Anaemia
Specific objective: investigate health problems particular to Namibia associated with

the over-consumption of sugar, fat, meat and salt
Dietary health problems in Namibia
Health problems associated with overconsumption of sugar

 The extra sugar will be stored as fats and this can contribute to weight gain that
can lead to being overweight or obesity.
 Being overweight or obese can lead to coronary heart disease (CHD), high blood
pressure and diabetes Type 2.
 Tooth decay results from eating large amounts of sugar, especially in
concentrated forms found in cold drinks and sweets.
Health problems associated with the overconsumption of fat

 Extra fats are stored in the body and can contribute to weight gain and obesity
 Animal fats (saturated fats) contained cholesterol, which can cause hypertension
(high blood pressure) and coronary heart disease.
 Cholesterol leads to blockage of coronary arteries, causing heart attacks.
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Health problems associated with the overconsumption of meat
 Excessive use of meat can lead to constipation.
 Overconsumption of meat can lead to weight gain. People who eat large
quantities of meat tend to be overweight or obese.
 Red meat contains saturated fats (cholesterol) which can lead to hypertension
and coronary heart disease.
Health problems associated with the overconsumption of salt

 Excessive use of salts can cause hypertension (high blood pressure)
 People who consume large amounts of salt run the risk of suffering from strokes
and coronary heart disease.
 Excessive use of salts can cause osteoporosis, because it can lead to the loss of
calcium.
 Excessive use of salts can also increase the risk of stomach cancer and kidney
disease.
Specific objective: discuss the problems that contribute to famine (unequal distribution
of food, drought and flooding, increasing population).
Increasing population
 When the population increase, the availability of food resources fall
 This leads to an inability to grow sufficient food
Drought and flooding

 Lack of rain or unpredictable rainfall makes it difficult to grow crops and rear
animals
 For example:
 In Africa, droughts are responsible for many food shortages
 In Asia, floods are the main cause of shortage of food
Poverty
 Unequal distribution of wealth between the rich and poor also contribute to famine
 The country may have enough food to feed its population, but poor people do not
have enough money to buy food
Unequal distribution of food

 Some countries faced with drought or wars do not receive sufficient amounts of food relief
 This increases starvation and possible death due to starvation
120
3.6.2.2 Alimentary canal (gut):
Specific objective: define the following terms as:
Ingestion- the taking in of substances into the body through the mouth
Digestion- the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the
food molecules (mechanical digestion) and the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules
into smaller, soluble molecules (chemical digestion)
Absorption- the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood
Egestion- the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed through the
anus
121
Specific objective: describe the functions of the various parts of the alimentary canal in
relation to ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion of food.
Mouth and mouth cavity (buccal cavity)
- The mouth, bounded by two lips, is the anterior (front) opening of the alimentary
canal.
- The mouth cavity contains the tongue, teeth, and duct openings of the salivary
glands.
 Chewing of food (mastication) occurs here, this is to make swallowing easier, to

increase the surface area for enzyme activity and to mix the food with saliva.
 Chewing is mechanical digestion.
 Six salivary glands produce saliva with water and mucus to soften, moisten and
lubricate dry food and the oesophagus.
 Saliva, which is secreted by the salivary glands into the mouth, contains amylase
which digests (hydrolyses) insoluble starch into soluble maltose.
 Masticated food is rolled into food bolus, by the tongue and pushed into the
pharynx.
Pharynx
- The region at the back of the mouth cavity where the windpipe, crosses the
oesophagus.
 The tongue pushes masticated food into it and the pharynx then contracts by
muscular action to push the bolus into the oesophagus.
Oesophagus
- The oesophagus is the part that starts in the pharynx and ends with an opening in
the stomach.
 It allows the food bolus to move from the mouth to the stomach by peristalsis
(rhythmical contractions).
 A sphincter muscle (cardiac sphincter) between the stomach and the
oesophagus stops food from passing back into the oesophagus.
Epiglottis
 It closes the trachea (windpipe) during swallowing to ensure that the food
passes into the oesophagus.
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Stomach
- It is the part between the oesophagus and the duodenum. At the entry point of the
oesophagus into the stomach is the cardiac sphincter muscle and at the exit point
of the stomach, where the duodenum is connected, is the pyloric sphincter muscles
 It holds and stores the food for a while.

 The circular muscles causes wavelike contractions to churn up the food and mix
it with gastric juice in the stomach lining.
 Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid (HCI) that kills pathogens such as
bacteria in the food and provide a suitable pH for pepsin.
 Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides
 HCI can convert sucrose into glucose and fructose.
 Some absorption of soluble molecules like glucose, water, alcohol and minerals
occur in the stomach.
The small intestine

The first part is the duodenum
 Chyme (mixture of food) from the stomach passes into it.

 Most digestion is completed in the duodenum.
 The intestinal glands in the wall of the duodenum release intestinal juice, which
contains the enzymes maltase, lipase and sucrase.
 Digestion of fats by lipase starts in the duodenum
 Pancreas release the pancreatic juice that contain hydrolytic (enzymes) to break
down polypeptides, starch and fats.
 Bile secreted from the liver into the duodenum neutralises the stomach acid.
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The second part is the ileum
 The end products of chemical digestion by enzymes end up here and are called
chyle.
 Amino acids, glucose, fructose, water- soluble vitamins and minerals are
absorbed into the bloodstream by the villi of the small intestine.
The large intestine
 The last part of the alimentary canal consisting of the caecum, appendix, colon,
rectum and anus.
 It receives indigestible materials from the ileum
 Minerals and some vitamins (like vitamin K and B) are absorbed from the large
intestine.
 The colon is responsible for absorption of water from the undigested food.
 The colon compacts the indigestible residue into semi- solid faeces, which moves
on to the rectum.
 To be as released faeces during defecation through the anus, which is controlled
by the anal sphincter muscle.
 The caecum is a pouch-like structure that receives the chyle from the ileum.
 The appendix is a finger-like tube attached to the caecum that has no proven
function in humans
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Specific objective: describe cholera as a disease caused by a bacterium.
 Cholera is an infectious disease, which is caused by a bacterium called Vibrio

cholera.
 Cholera is contracted by eating food or drinking water that has been
contaminated with faeces from someone infected with this bacterium.
The symptoms of cholera include:
 vomiting
 severe watery diarrhea, which can lead to dehydration and loss of salts
 Death, if untreated.
125
Specific objective: explain that cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing osmotic movement of water
into the gut, causing diarrhea, dehydration and loss of salts from blood.
Process of how cholera bacteria cause diarrhea
 The cholera bacteria are ingested, live, and breed in the small intestine.
 Cholera bacteria produce and release a toxic (poison) into the small intestine.
 The toxin causes the epithelial cells of the small intestine to secrete chloride
(salt) ions, which diffuse into the lumen of the small intestine.
 The presence of these chlorine ions results in an increased amount of water to
be released from epithelial cells of the small intestines.
 This is because water moves by osmosis into the lumen of the intestine (as the
salt level is now higher and the water potential is lower in the lumen).
 This increase in water causes watery faeces. It is discharged from the bowels
frequently and in a liquid form, resulting in diarrhea and dehydration.
 However, as long as enough fluids are given to replace these water losses, a
person will eventually recover from cholera.
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3.6.2.3 Digestion
Specific objective: state the role of enzymes in digestion with reference to

dependence of enzyme activity on the conditions of pH and temperature.
Role of enzymes in digestion
 Enzymes are protein that function as biological catalysts to speed the rate of
reactions such as digestion.
 Enzymes are necessary for digesting food nutrients
 Enzymes works best at optimum temperature, which is around 37°C in human.
 Each enzyme work best at its optimum pH.
 Deviations in pH outside their range can cause the enzymes to denature
The pH differs in different parts of the alimentary canal

 Salivary amylase best digests starch into maltose in the mouth at pH 6.5 to 7.2
 Pepsin best digests proteins into polypeptides in the stomach at pH 2.5
 Pancreatic amylase best digests starch in the small intestine at pH 8
 Lipase best digests lipids (fats and oils) into fatty acids and glycerol in the small
intestine at pH 8
 Trypsin best digests polypeptides into amino acids in the small intestine at pH 8
 Sucrase best digests sucrose into glucose in the small intestine at pH 8
 Maltase best digests maltose into glucose in the small intestine at pH 8
The diagram and graph showing pH requirements of different enzymes
127
Specific objective: state the importance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal
Types of digestion
Mechanical digestion
- A physical break down of food into smaller pieces by chewing, churning, chopping
and smashing in order to provide large surface area for enzymes to act on.
Chemical digestion
 Chemical digestion begins in the mouth where enzyme amylase breaks down
starch into maltose.
 Food containing proteins are digested chemically by enzymes
 Chemical digestion breaks large, complex, insoluble nutrients in food into small,
simple, soluble nutrient molecules that can be taken in by cells.
 Acids, made by the stomach, and enzymes, secreted by the stomach, chemically
digest nutrients.
 Enzymes from the pancreas further digest the carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
found in food in the duodenum into soluble form.
Structures in the digestive system and types of digestion
Structure Function Type of digestion

mouth Teeth grind food mechanical digestion
amylase changes starch to chemical digestion
maltose
stomach acids allow pepsin to break down chemical digestion
proteins
contractions smash and squeeze mechanical digestion
food
small intestine enzymes break down food chemical digestion
nutrients
food mixed, rolled, chopped and mechanical digestion
squeeze
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Specific objective: describe the digestion of starch in the alimentary canal
Digestion of starch in the alimentary canal

- Saliva, which is secreted by the salivary glands into the mouth, contains salivary
amylase.
 Amylase digests (hydrolyses) insoluble starch into soluble maltose. The digestion
of starch to maltose is the first stage of starch digestion.
 Salivary amylase in the mouth starts the breakdown process and further
breakdown occurs in the small intestine, where the remaining starch is digested
by pancreatic amylase.
 Once starch has been broken down to maltose, the maltase enzyme (which is
produced in the wall of the small intestine) continues the chemical digestion and
breaks the maltose down to glucose, i.e. a soluble, smaller molecule that can
easily be absorbed.
 Maltase is responsible for the final stage of starch digestion.
Specific objective: describe the functions of a typical amylase, protease and lipase,
listing the substrate and end- products.
Different enzymes and their functions
enzyme function substrate product
salivary amylase digests starch into starch maltose
maltose
Pancreatic amylase digests starch into starch maltose
maltose
maltase digests maltose into maltose glucose
glucose
Pepsin (protease) digests proteins into protein polypeptides
polypeptides
trypsin (protease) digests polypeptides polypeptides amino acids
into amino acids
lipase digests lipids into lipids fatty acids and
fatty acids and glycerol
glycerol
129
Specific objective: state the functions of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to
killing bacteria in food and giving an acid pH environment for enzymes.
Functions of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice (in the stomach)
 The hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice kills bacteria that enter the stomach,
protecting us from harm.
 The hydrochloric acid also creates acidic conditions below (pH 2-3) in the
stomach.
 These acidic conditions activate inactive pepsinogen into the digestive enzyme
pepsin, which begins protein digestion into polypeptides.
Specific objective: outline the role of bile in neutralising acidic mixtures and in
emulsifying fats in food
Bile
- Is a dark green to yellowish-brown, alkaline solution produced by the liver and

stored in the gall bladder.
- It enters the duodenum through the bile duct. Even in cases where the gall bladder
has been removed by surgery, the liver continues to manufacture bile.
Role of bile in digestion: Neutralising acidic mixtures
 Bile is alkaline, it helps to neutralize stomach acids (gastric acids).

 Bile juice reduces the acidity of chyme (the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the
stomach to the small intestine).
 The food coming from the stomach has to be made alkaline to create optimum
conditions for the pancreatic enzymes, e.g. lipase, trypsin and amylase to act on
it.
Role of bile in digestion: Emulsification of fats

 Bile causes emulsification of fats. (Emulsification is the breakdown of large fat globules
into smaller fat droplets to increase its surface area for lipase enzyme to act on it).
 Fats is broken down by lipase into fatty acids and glycerol in order to pass through the
walls of the intestine to be absorbed.
Emulsification of fats
130
Specific objective: investigate the effects of bile on fats
Effects of bile salts on fats
Bile is first used to emulsify fats entering the small intestine and lipase is used
afterwards to break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Materials needed
 Four test tubes.

 Bile solution.
 Lipase solution.
 Fat solution (oil).
Procedure
1. Label 4 test tubes A, B, C and D. Divide the fat solution equally into the 4 tubes.
2. In tube B, add about 2 cm3 of bile solution.
3. In tube C, add about 2 cm3 of lipase solution.
4. In tube D, add the 2 cm3 of bile and 2 cm3 of lipase solution.
5. Mix well until everything looks settled.
6. Tube A is your control
- Compare the 3 other tubes to the control and write down your observations.
- You should be able to make conclusions about the role of bile in digesting a fatty
solution and the extent of digestion with and without the addition of lipase.
3.6.2.4 Absorption
Specific objective: identify the small intestine as the region for the absorption of
digested food.
The small intestine
- The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of nutrients. It is
responsible for the absorption of over 90% of nutrients from the food.
131
Specific objective: describe the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface
area of the small intestine.
Significance of villi
 The primary function of the villi in the small intestine is to increase the
absorption of nutrients from food passing through the small intestine.
 Intestinal villi (singular villus) are small, finger-like projections that extend into the
lumen of the small intestine.
 Millions of villi increase the surface area.
 Micro-villi further increase the surface area.
The ileum contains about 5 million villi
Specific objective: describe the structure of a villus, including the role of capillaries
and lacteals in it.
Structure of a villus
 Villi are finger-like projections that increases surface area for absorption.
 Each villus is surrounded by a single layer of epithelium cells. One layer of
epithelial cells minimizes the distance for nutrients to travel. The epithelial cells
contain many mitochondria for active transport.
 Each epithelial cells has micro-villi (a brush border) to further increase the
surface area and absorption of nutrients.
 Between epithelial cells are goblets, which secrete mucus to keep the gut moist
and dissolve nutrients.
 Inside each villus is a single central lacteal (lymph vessel) for absorption of fats,
fatty acid, glycerol and fat-soluble and vitamins.
132
 Inside each villus is a dense network of blood capillaries for the absorption of
digested nutrients, e.g. glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins and
minerals.
Structure of a villus
Specific objective: state the role of the hepatic portal vein in the transport of absorbed
food to the liver.
Role of the hepatic portal vein
 The hepatic portal vein is a major blood vessel in the abdomen, transport blood
from the spleen, stomach, pancreas and intestines to the liver.
 All capillaries and venules from these organs join together to form the hepatic
portal vein and transport nutrient-rich blood to the liver.
The position of hepatic portal vein in the digestive system
133
Specific objective: describe the role of the liver in the metabolism of excess glucose
and in the breakdown of excess amino acids.
The role of the liver in the metabolism of excess glucose
High glucose level
 It lowers the level of blood glucose by converting excess glucose into glycogen.
Low glucose levels
 It increases the glucose level by converting glycogen into glucose.
Role of the liver in the breakdown of excess amino acids
 Excess amino acids cannot be stored as amino acids.

 In the liver, the nitrogen part from amino acids is removed. This is known as
deamination.
 Ammonia is then formed which is poisonous.
 The liver immediately converts ammonia into a harmless substance called urea
by combining ammonia with carbon dioxide (CO2)
 The rest of the amino acids is converted into fats or carbohydrates for energy
(glucose) and storage (glycogen).
Specific objective: describe the role of fats as a storage substance

Fats (a lipid) has many uses in the body.
 Fat serves as the storage substance for the body’s extra kilojoules.
 Fat act as a storage substance that fills the fat cells in adipose tissue
(subcutaneous fat) underneath the skin to help insulate the body.
 Fats are important to store certain fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and
K, which are insoluble in water.
 Fats are stored around some organs (visceral fat) in the abdominal cavity. It
helps protect vital organs such as the pancreas, kidney and liver against physical
trauma to the body.
134
Fats act as a storage substance
Specific objective: state that water is absorbed in the small intestine and colon.
 Water is absorbed in the small intestine and colon into the blood stream
135
3.7 Transport in plants
Specific objective: Identify and describe the structure of a dicotyledonous root and stem
limited to epidermis with root hairs, cortex, phloem and xylem from photomicrographs and
as seen under the light microscope.
Dicotyledonous root
Main functions of roots
 Roots are responsible for the absorption of water and mineral salts/ions (inorganic
substances).
 Roots firmly anchor the plant in the soil.
External structure of a dicotyledonous root
The internal structure of a dicotyledonous root
 The epidermis is a single-celled layer which surrounds the outer part of the root.
The epidermis protects the underlying tissues.
 The root hairs are finger-like outgrowths of some epidermal cells. They increase
the absorption surface area for water and mineral salts.
 An epidermal cell plus its root hair outgrowth is called a root hair cell.
 The first layer of cells directly inside the epidermis is the broad cortex. The cortex
allows water and mineral ions to pass through to the xylem and it stores starch.
 The innermost layer of the cortex is a single-celled layer called the endodermis.
The endodermis regulates the passage of water from the cortex to the xylem.
 The vascular bundle is a central column in the very centre of the root.
136
 The endodermis is found around the central vascular bundle.
 Inside the vascular bundle are the xylem vessels and the phloem sieve tubes.
 The xylem is located in the centre of the vascular bundle and is arranged in the
form of a cross. The xylem transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the
rest of the plant.
 The phloem is found closer to the endodermis between the “arms’ of the xylem
cross. The phloem transports manufactured organic substances from the
photosynthesizing part to the rest to the plant (during translocation).
 Between the xylem and phloem is the cambium tissue.
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides of roots and stems, including the
structure of xylem and phloem tissue
Cross and longitudinal section through the structure of a dicotyledonous root
Outline (drawing) of a cross section through the structure of a dicotyledonous root
Photomicrograph of a cross section of a root
Drawing of a cross section of a root
137
Structure of a dicotyledonous stem
Main functions of stems
 Stems expose the leaves in a favourable position for the absorption of light for
photosynthesis.
 They bear the flowers in a favourable position for pollination.
 They bear fruits in a favourable position for the dispersal and distribution of seeds.
 They transport water and mineral salts from roots to the rest of the plant.
 They transport organic substances from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
 They store reserve nutrients and water.
External structure of a dicotyledonous stem

The internal structure of a dicotyledonous stem
 The epidermis is a single-celled layer which surrounds the outer part of the stem.
Some epidermal cells are modified to form lenticels (stomata).
 The epidermis protects the underlying tissues. The lenticels allow gaseous
exchange.
 The region directly under the epidermis is the broad cortex. Intracellular spaces in
the cortex allow gaseous exchange.
 The vascular bundles are mostly arranged towards the outside of the stem and
organised into a circle in the cortex,
The reason for this is so that the xylem can give support to the herbaceous stems.
 The xylem is always located more on the inside of the vascular bundle, while the
phloem tissue is located on the outside of the vascular bundle.
 The xylem and phloem are separated by the cambium.
 The region internal to the cortex is called the pith.
138
Outline drawing and photomicrograph of a cross section through the structure of a
dicotyledonous stem
Drawing of a cross section of a stem Photomicrograph of a cross section of a stem
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides of roots and stems, including the
structure of xylem and phloem tissue.
Diagrams of prepared slides of roots showing the xylem and phloem tissue
When making an outline drawing of the above slides, it must look like this:
139
Diagrams of prepared slides of stem showing the xylem and phloem tissue
When making an outline drawing of the above slides, it must look like this:
140
Specific objective: explain the mechanisms by which water enters a plant, crosses the
root, moves up through xylem vessels, enters leaf cells, and leaves the plants through
stomata
The pathway of water through a plant
Uptake of water by osmosis
 Water is absorbed from the soil into the root hairs by osmosis.
 Water moves from a high water potential (Ψ) in the soil to a low water potential (Ψ)
in the root hair cells.
 Root hair cells are adapted for this by having a large surface area to speed up
osmosis.
 Root hair cells have a partially permeable membrane that permits water molecules
(and minerals) to enter but not to leave.
 A root hair cell has a large vacuole to increase the concentration of salts and
sugars, thus increasing the rate of absorption.
Water movement through a plant
Water movement through the root
 Water moves by osmosis from the soil into the root hairs, from where it moves
through the epidermis of the root to the cortex cells.
141
 From the cortex cells, water moves through the endodermis into the xylem vessels.
Flow diagram of water movement through the root
Water moves through the root by following three pathways.
 The apoplast pathway is where most water travels from cell to cell via the cell walls.
Most water moves this way because of little obstruction and it is the fastest way.
 The symplast pathway is where water travels from cell to cell via the cytoplasm
and through the plasmodesmata. This is a slower way of movement.
 The vacuolar pathway is where little water passes via vacuoles located in the cells.
This is a very slow movement of water and very little water flow occurs this way
Water movement up the xylem in the root and the stem
 Water can move up the stem xylem vessel because of different forces.
 Water which is absorbed from the soil into the roots creates a force known as root
pressure, which forces water up the xylem. (If a stem is cut near the roots, water
will seep from the cut surface).
 Cohesion is the tendency of water molecules to attract one another. Water

molecules pull up other water molecules and thus moves up the stem xylem.
 This pulling effect causes transpiration pull because of evaporation of water

during transpiration, which causes a sucking force for water up the xylem.
 Adhesion is the tendency of water molecules to be attracted to molecules of a

different type. Adhesion forces between the water molecules and the walls of
xylem vessels help water to move upwards in the xylem.
142
 This phenomenon is known as capillarity. Water automatically moves up a tube
and the smaller the diameter of the tube, the higher it rises. Xylem vessels have a
diameter of 2 mm, therefore has considerable capillarity force to move water up
the stem.
Demonstration of capillarity Demonstration of root pressure and transpiration pull
Water movement through the leaf
 Water moves by osmosis from the stem xylem into the leaf xylem.
 From the leaf xylem, water moves to the mesophyll (palisade and spongy) cells by
osmosis.
 Water evaporates from the mesophyll cell walls into the air spaces as water
vapour.
 Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata by transpiration which causes

transpiration pull
143
Movement of water through a leaf
Xylem
 Xylem transports water and mineral ions upwards in plants.

 It provides support to plants
 Xylem consists of long cylindrical hollow tubes connected end to end to form a
long continuous column.
 It has no end walls, enabling it to form a continuous tube.
 It contains no cytoplasm and organelles (cells are dead) so there is no
obstruction to the flow of water and mineral ions.
 Its walls are thickened with lignin (lignified walls) to strengthen it and preventing
the cell from collapsing (it supports the plant)
 Xylem walls have unlignified areas called pits for lateral movement of water.
Phloem sieve tubes

 Phloem transports sucrose and amino acid upwards and downwards in plants.
 Phloem consists of phloem sieve tubes and companion cells.
 Have living cells and contain cytoplasm and organelles.
 The tubes are connected end to end for easy flow of sucrose and amino acids.
 They contain very little cytoplasm and few organelles to transport sucrose and
amino acids with little resistance.
 Organelles are at the edges to give more space for movement of sucrose and
amino acids.
 Have end walls with sieve plates (plates with pores) to permit continuous
movement form cell to cell.
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Specific objective: investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water through the
above-ground parts of a plant.
For this experiment, you will need:
Three stalks of celery, water, food coloring, three clear plastic or glass cups/beakers
and a knife or scalpel.
 Cut the base (non-leafy end) of each of the fresh celery stalks under water.
 Place the cut ends into the cups/beakers of water containing red, green and blue
food dye.
 Leave the celery stalks in bright light at room temperature in a breeze (wind).
 After a few hours, cut across the stalk with a sharp knife or scalpel and observe
the cut end.
- If you leave the celery stalks in the coloured water for a day, the leaves will turn
green, red and blue.
- As leaves transpire and lose water to the air, the coloured water is sucked in at the
cut end of celery into the xylem vessel and appears as coloured dots.
- The coloured water, which moves from the stem xylem into the xylem of the leaves
makes the leaves to appear green, red and blue.
A cross and longitudinal cut section of celery stalks showing the position of the xylem
(celery left standing in food colouring, causing leaves to turn green, red and blue as seen
below)
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Specific objective: define transpiration as:
Loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of
mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the stomata.
A closed and open stomata
Specific objective: describe transpiration, and explain how environmental conditions

(temperature, wind speed, humidity and light intensity) affect the rate at which water
vapour diffuses out of stomata, and hence affects rate of water uptake.
Describe transpiration:
- Transpiration occurs through the stomata of leaves and through lenticels of green
stems
Advantages of transpiration: Disadvantages of transpiration:

- It causes the transpiration pull - The rate of water loss can exceed
- It has a cooling effect on plants the uptake of water and this can lead
- Transpiration pull brings mineral ions to wilting and death of the plant
with the water to the plant
Environmental conditions which affect the rate of transpiration

Temperature
 An increase in temperature causes an increase in transpiration rate.

 Higher temperature causes an increase in kinetic energy of water molecules and
thus increases the rate of transpiration.
 Water molecules move faster when heated.
 Air with a high temperature can hold more water molecules.
 High temperature lowers the relative humidity of air.
 A decrease in temperature decrease the rate of transpiration.
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Wind speed
 Wind (air movement) will increase the rate of transpiration and water loss through
the leaves.
 In the absence of any wind, the water vapour which diffuses out of the stomata
accumulates near the leaf surface.
 The faster the wind speed, the more rapidly the moist air is removed and the
greater the rate of transpiration. This creates a water potential gradient between
the moist air on the leaf and outside the leaf.
Humidity
 Low humidity increases the rate of transpiration because there is less water vapour
outside the leaf and more water vapour inside the leaf.
 This creates a water potential gradient between the moist air in the leaf and dry air
outside the leaf.
 When the external air has a high humidity, the gradient is reduced and less water
is transpired.
Light intensity
 Stomata open in light and close in the dark.

 Light stimulates the opening of the stomata.
 An increase in light intensity increases the transpiration rate.
 A decrease in light intensity decrease the transpiration rate.
Specific objective: investigate and compare the relative number of stomata on the upper
and lower epidermis of a leaf using clear nail varnish or water-based varnish
(Refer to previous chapter on procedure)
Another method is to use cobalt chloride paper to show that transpiration occurs
through the stomata
Materials needed:
- Cobalt chloride paper (special paper that is blue when dry but turns pink when wet)
- A healthy tree around the school yard
- Tape/rubber band to hold the cobalt paper against the leaf
- Stop watch
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Procedure:
- Take the blue cobalt chloride paper and attach it on the lower surface of three
leaves
- Take another cobalt chloride paper and attach it on the upper surface of three
identical leaves on the same tree
- Use the rubber band or tape to keep the paper attached onto the leaf while
observing changes
Observation:
- The paper attached on the lower leaf surface will turn pink faster than the one
attached to the upper leaf surface
Suggest a reason for the results observed in terms of stomata distribution
Specific objective: investigate and describe the effects of variation of temperature and
humidity on transpiration rate (use a simple photometer).
How to use a simple potometer to investigate and describe the effects of variation
of temperature and humidity on transpiration rate
- The more water is lost during transpiration, the faster the uptake of water occurs.
- Transpiration speed in a cut leafy shoot can be measured by means of a
potometer.
- To be strictly accurate, the potometer measures the rate of water uptake of a shoot,
but in practice, this is almost the same as the rate of transpiration.
- A little of the water taken up can be used by the plant for photosynthesis and other
metabolic processes, but most water is transpired.
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What is a potometer?
This is an instrument used to determine the rate of transpiration in a plant by measuring

water uptake.
Precautions when setting up a potometer
 Use a healthy, undamaged non-wilted shoot.

 Cut the shoot under water to make sure no air goes into the xylem.
 Cut the shoot at a slant to increase the surface area.
 Insert the shoot into the potometer under water.
 Make sure the entire apparatus is full of water – no airlocks or bubbles.
 Dry off the leaves.
 Ensure air and watertight joints
 Allow time for the shoot to acclimatize and become adjusted to the factor being
investigated.
 Keep the environmental conditions constant.
 Measure the distance travelled by the bubble in the calibrated tube in a given time
 Move the air bubble back to the beginning by opening the tap.
A bubble potometer
Variation of temperature affects transpiration rate
- Increasing the temperature is predicted to cause an increase in the rate of

transpiration.
- The effect of temperature variation can be tested experimentally by using heaters.
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Using a heater to show the effect of temperature on transpiration
Variation of humidity affects transpiration rate
- Increasing humidity is predicted to cause a decrease in the rate of transpiration.

- The effect of humidity can be tested experimentally by enclosing the plant in a
transparent plastic bag.
Using a transparent plastic bag to show the effect of humidity on transpiration
Specific objective: describe how and why wilting occurs.
 Wilting occurs when the rate at which plant leaves lose moisture into air, in a process
called transpiration, exceeds the ability of plant roots to supply enough water.
 Wilting refers to the loss of rigidity of non- woody parts of plants.
 This occurs when the turgor pressure in non- lignified plant cells falls towards zero.
 The cells lose their turgidity and become flaccid.
 Wilting is one of the first signs of plant stress and most often indicates a lack of soil
moisture.
 Mild wilting typically does not permanently harm a plant if it is corrected immediately.
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Why wilting occurs in plants
 When the rate of water loss from the plant is greater than absorption of water in
the plant, wilting occurs.
 If the soil around the roots of a plant lacks water, the rate of water loss is faster
than the rate of absorption of water.
 A plant wilts because of shortage of water, or because there is no water in the
central vacuole over a period of time when the plant really needs water.
Specific objective: discuss ways in which xerophytes can reduce water loss, with
reference to two locally occurring examples (e.g. Aloe; Euphorbia; Quiver tree).
Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants that need very little water and are adapted for growing in very dry
(arid) places, where water is very scarce.
Xerophyte plants
Adaptations of xerophytes to reduce water loss (xeromorphic features)
 Some xerophytes have thick succulent stems to store water, e.g. Euphorbia and
quiver tree.
 Some xerophytes have thick succulent leaves to store water, e.g. Aloe.
 Xerophytes have a reduced number of stomata, so there are fewer openings to
cause loss of water.
 The stomata are situated in pits (sunken)
 The surface (epidermis) of the leaf has a layer of hairs that can trap water vapour
to reduce water loss.
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 Leaves may be rolled up (curled) to expose the outer waterproof cuticle while
stomata are hidden inside.
 Leaves may be reduced in size (smaller leaves) to have less surface area for loss
of water. Smaller leaves have fewer stomata.
 Leaves may be reduced to spines (thorns), so there is less surface area for loss
of water
 Some plants lose their leaves during the winter (deciduous)
Specific objective: define translocation in terms of:
The movement of sucrose and amino acids from the region of production or of storage
to the region of utilisation or demand in respiration or growth.
- Translocation is the transport of organic molecules (sucrose and amino acids) in

the phloem from a region of production e.g. leaves to regions of utilization, like
areas that demand it for growth or respiration (e.g. flowers) or for storage (e.g.
roots.).
Specific objective: describe the translocation of applied systemic pesticides in phloem

throughout the plant.
 Systemic pesticides are sprayed onto plants.

 The pesticides are absorbed into the leaf of the plant through the cuticle and
stomata.
 The pesticides will be translocated in the phloem.
 The pesticides move into the phloem by active transport.
 Aphids and other sucking plant pests use their proboscis to suck plant sap (juices)
with amino acids and sucrose from the phloem.
 The pests also remove poisonous sap from the phloem.
 Once an insect have ingested enough pesticide it will die.
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Figure above shows an aphid feeding on plant stem by inserting its tube-like mouthpart
(proboscis) into phloem sieve tubes and sucking out plant sap with sucrose and amino
acids:
3.8 Transport in animals

3.8.1. Heart and lymphatic vessels
Specific objective: describe the heart in terms of its gross structure and the functions
of the parts
- The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ

system that permits blood to circulate around the body.
- The circulatory system is composed of the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins and
blood.
- The circulatory system also includes the lymphatic system, which circulates
lymph. The lymph, lymph nodes and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system.
Gross structure of the heart
- The major part of the heart is made up of cardiac muscles called the
myocardium.
 The heart has four chambers –two atria and two ventricles.
 The atria are the receiving chambers
 The ventricles are the discharging chambers.
 The upper, thin-walled chambers are the left and right atria (singular-atrium).
 The two atria are separated by the septum.
 Each of the atria opens into a thick-walled chamber, the ventricle, below.
 The left and right ventricles are separated by the interventricular septum
 The blood is prevented from flowing backwards by four sets of valves.
 Between the right atrium and left ventricle is the bicuspid or mitral (two-flap)
valve.
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 The bicuspid (mitral) valve prevents backflow of oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle to the left atrium.
 The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are known as atrioventricular valves.
 The flaps of these valves have strings called tendons or cords.
 These tendons link the valves to little bumps of muscle protruding from the inner
surface of the ventricles, called papillae. The tendons prevent valves from turning
inside out.
 At the start of the aorta is the aortic semi-lunar valve.
 At the start of the pulmonary artery is the pulmonic semi-lunar valve.
 The heart muscle is supplied with blood from coronary blood vessels.
 The coronary arteries provide the heart muscle with glucose and oxygen from the
aorta.
Internal structure of the heart and direction of blood flow
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Functions of the different parts of the heart.
The heart pumps blood through the circulatory system all around the body. Blood
enters the atria from large veins and leaves via the ventricles into arteries.
 The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
 The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps
it through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle.
 The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it
through the semi-lunar valve (aortic valve) into the aorta.
 The aortic valve (semi-lunar valve) prevents backflow of blood from the aorta to
the left ventricle.
 The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.
 The vena cava inferior carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the
right atrium.
 The vena cava superior carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the
right atrium.
 The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava and pumps it
through the tricuspid valve into the pulmonary artery.
 The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs.
 The pulmonic valve (semi-lunar valve) prevents backflow of blood from the
pulmonary artery to the right ventricle.
Specific objective: draw the external structure of the mammalian heart

A photograph of the external structure of the mammalian heart
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Class activity
Observe the heart on the photograph above and label the parts A to G below
Drawing the external structure of the heart should look like this:
Specific objective: outline how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries are
adapted for their functions.
The structure of blood vessels and their functions
- Blood vessels are tubular structures that transport blood throughout the human
body.
- There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins.
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Arteries
 Arteries have a diameter of up to 3 cm (aorta) and are not permeable.

 Blood flows through arteries under high pressure (10 – 16 kPa).
 Blood moves in pulses and flows rapidly.
 Arteries are capable of constriction.
 Small arteries are known as arterioles
 Arteries are the blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to the body.
 All arteries transport oxygenated blood, except the pulmonary artery and the
umbilical artery (in the umbilical cord) which transport deoxygenated blood.
An artery
Veins
 Veins have a diameter up to 2.5 cm (vena cava inferior) and are not permeable.
 Small veins are known as venules.
 Blood flows through veins under low pressure (1 kPa).
 There are no pulses in veins and blood flows slowly.
 Veins are the blood vessels that carry blood to the heart from the body.
 All veins transport deoxygenated blood, except the pulmonary vein and the
umbilical vein (in the umbilical cord) which transport oxygenated blood.
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A vein
Valves in veins
Capillaries
 Capillaries have an average diameter of 8 micrometer and are permeable.

 Blood flows through capillaries under reduced pressure (4-1 kPa).
 There is no pulse and blood flows slowly.
 They are the smallest blood vessels and are considered to be the endings of
arteries and beginnings of veins
 They link arteries and veins.
A capillary
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The table Shows adaptations of blood vessels.
Structure of arteries How structure adapts for function
Thick muscular walls To withstand high blood pressure and

prevent bursting
Single layer of epithelial cells inside lumen Reduces friction inside
Thick layer of smooth muscle and elastic To stretch outwards and recoil with the
tissue pressure of the heartbeat
Small lumen To maintain high blood pressure
Structure of veins How structure adapts for function
Strong walls with collagen Prevent bursting

Large lumen, relative to thickness of wall Blood flows easily and freely
One-way valves Prevent backflow of blood
Thinner walls Allow skeletal muscles to squeeze vein
causing blood to move forward
Single layer of epithelial cells inside lumen Reduces friction inside
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Structure of capillaries How structure adapts for function
Numerous (many-100 000 km of Provide large surface area and are close
capillaries) to all body cells
Very, very thin walls – one cell layer thick To provide short pathway for easy and
fast diffusion of different materials to and
from the blood
Small endothelial gaps between cells of For exchange of materials to and from
wall blood, for white blood cells to squeeze
out and tissue fluid to leak out
Smooth inner endothelial surface Reduces friction inside
Changes in pressure of blood as it flows through blood vessels
Blood pressure is the pressure, which the blood exerts against the wall of the blood
vessel through which it flows. Arteries have the highest blood pressure and veins have
the lowest.
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Specific objective: describe the double circulatory system of a mammal.
 A double circulatory system refers to a system in which blood is pumped through

the heart twice during one complete journey around the body.
- The deoxygenated blood arrives at the heart from the body, is then first pumped
into the lungs where it becomes oxygenated and then goes back into the heart,
before it is finally pumped into the rest of the body.
- The advantage of a double circulation is that oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood is separated.
Follow the blood flow from the kidney back to the kidney, showing how blood travels
through the heart twice:
Kidney→ renal veins → vena cava inferior → heart→ pulmonary arteries →

lungs → Pulmonary veins→ heart →Aorta artery → renal arteries → kidney.
Remember: In blood flow around the body there is no short-cut, blood must flow
through the heart twice!
Double circulatory system
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Specific objective: Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on the pulse rate
Taking pulse rate (heart rate)
Your pulse is the rate at which your heart beats. As your heart pumps blood
through your body, you can feel a pulsing in some of the arteries close to the
skin’s surface.
The usual resting pulse for an adult is 60 to 100 beats per minute.
Checking your pulse in the radial artery (radial pulse).
 Find a watch that shows seconds or a digital watch and put it on the table next to
you.
 Turn your left hand so that your palm is face-up.
 Find your pulse by placing the index finger, middle finger and sometimes even
the ring finger of your right hand in the dent at the wrist on the radial artery. Do
not press too hard, that will make the pulse go away. Use pressure. It can take
several seconds and several micro-adjustments in the placement of your fingers
on wrist to find your pulse.
 Keep moving your fingers down or up your wrist in small increments (and
pausing a few seconds) until you find it.
 After finding your pulse, count the number of beats for 20 seconds.
 Multiply by 3 to get your pulse rate in beats per minute, e.g. 26 x 3 = 78
beats/min (or just count for 60 seconds for a math-free option).
 Do not use your thumb if you take someone else’s pulse rate, because the thumb
has its own pulse that you may feel.
Taking the pulse rate at the radical and carotid arteries
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Checking your pulse in the carotid artery in the neck
 You can also check your pulse in the carotid artery.

 This is located in your neck, on either side of your windpipe.
 To check your pulse in your carotid artery, place your index and middle fingers
on your neck to the side of your windpipe. When you feel your pulse, follow the
same procedures as above.
 Be careful when checking your pulse in this location. If you press to hard, you
may become lightheaded and fall down.
Investigate the effect of exercise on pulse rate of a human
TAKE NOTE: Do not attempt this activity if you have a health problem or if you are
recovering from an illness.
Materials
A stopwatch
Procedure
 Read through and familiarize yourself with all procedures before starting.
 Sit down comfortably on a chair. Take 5 minutes to settle. Locate your pulse.
 Count the number of pulses per minute and record. Count the number of pulses
in 20 seconds and multiply this value by 3 to convert it to beats/ min (bpm).
 Repeat twice and calculate the average number of pulses per minute and record.
This is called the resting pulse rate.
 Stand up. Immediately measure your pulse rate and record. Do not count for
longer than 20 seconds, because your heart rate begins to slow down as soon as
you stop exercising.
 Walk briskly for 5 minutes. Immediately measure the pulse rate and record. Do
not count your pulse rate for longer than 20 seconds.
 Walk briskly for 5 minutes. Immediately measure the pulse rate and record.
Again, count for only 20 seconds.
 Run for 5 minutes. Immediately measure the pulse rate and record. Remember,
count only for 20 seconds.
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 Compare the pulse rates after the different levels of exercise.
 Replicate the investigation or cross-reference your results with other groups.
 Record your results in a table and draw conclusions from the results
 A bar chart of the results should be drawn.
Activity Pulse in beats per minute
(bpm)
Sitting down
Stand up
Gentle walking
Brisk walking
Running
Specific objective: describe the likely causes of a heart attack limited to diet, smoking,
stress, age and gender.
Heart attack (cardiac arrest)
The terms “cardiac arrest” and “heart attack” are often used interchangeable, but they
are actually two distinct conditions.
- A heart attack is when a coronary artery suddenly becomes blocked, stopping

the flow of blood to the heart muscle and damaging it. All or part of the heart
muscle becomes cut off from its oxygen supply. Left without oxygen, the heart
muscle is injured.
- A cardiac arrest is when the heart malfunctions and suddenly stops beating. The
treatment for a cardiac arrest is to, as soon as possible, deliver a large electrical
shock to the heart.
Likely causes of heart attacks
Poor diet
 Eating a diet with a high level of saturated animal fat results in high cholesterol in
the blood and body.
 It can cause damage of the endothelium layer lining the inside of the artery walls.
 Cholesterol is also deposited inside the walls in coronary arteries, which narrow
and eventually become blocked, leading to heart attacks.
 Too much salt can raise blood pressure, which can increase a person’s risk of a
heart attack.
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 Obesity (being overweight) is also linked to heart attacks. The increased flow
often leads to high blood pressure (hypertension).
Stress (tension, anxiety, fear)
 High levels of stress make other risk factors (such as high cholesterol or high
blood pressure) worse.
 Intense anger and grief can cause a heart attack. It probably occurs from a
sudden increase in heart rate and blood pressure triggered by the emotion
 Chronic stress that causes an increase in heart rate and blood pressure may
damage the artery walls.
 During moments of high stress, your body releases stress hormones and if your
body is constantly exposed to stress hormones, it can contribute to heart attacks.
 People may drink too much alcohol or smoke cigarettes to “manage” their chronic
stress however, these habits can increase blood pressure and may damage
artery walls.
Smoking (cigarettes, other tobacco products and passive smokers
 Smoking decreases oxygen to the heart muscle.

 It also increases blood pressure and heart rate.
 Smoking damages endothelial cells that line the inside of the coronary arteries.
 Smoking cause platelets to clump together, increasing the risk of a blood clot.
 It can cause the coronary arteries to spasm, cutting off blood supply to the heart
muscle.
Age and gender
 As you get older, your risk of a heart attack increases.

 As you age, so do your blood vessels. They become less flexible, making it
harder for blood to move through them easily. Fatty deposits called plaques also
collect along your artery walls and slow the blood flow to the heart.
 Men have a greater risk of heart attacks than women do and they have attacks
earlier in life.
Preventative measures for heart disease: (additional information)
 Follow a low cholesterol diet (less food rich in saturated animal fats)
 Avoid being obese (overweight).
 Reduce stress levels.
 Do not smoke.
 Exercise regularly (walking cycling, swimming – active sports).
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 Reduce salt intake.
 Avoid excessive sugar intake.
 Reduce alcohol consumption.
Specific objective: state ways of treating coronary heart disease limited to drug
treatment with aspirin and surgery (stents, angioplasty and bypass).
Treating coronary heart disease
Your heart’s coronary arteries can become narrowed or blocked by the build-up of the
cholesterol-laden plaques that form due to atherosclerosis.
Treating coronary heart disease: Drug treatment with aspirin
 People at high risk of a heart attack should take a daily low dose of Aspirin (if told
to by their doctor). Heart attack survivors also regularly take a low dose of
Aspirin.
 Aspirin also helps prevent blood clots. Aspirin works by “thinning” the blood and
preventing the formation of clots. Some chemicals in the blood trigger events that
cause blood clots.
 When Aspirin stops those chemicals, it helps slow the formation of the clots.
Treating coronary heart disease: Angioplasty
 Angioplasty is a procedure in which a narrowed section of the coronary artery is

widened or a blocked coronary artery opened, by putting in a balloon stent to
restore normal blood flow to the heart muscle.
 It is not a major surgery. Angioplasty can also be used during a heart attack to
quickly open a blocked artery and reduce the amount of damage to your heart.
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Treating coronary heart disease: Heart bypass surgery
 In heart bypass surgery, a surgeon takes blood vessels from another part of the
patient’s body to go around, or bypass, a blocked artery.
 The result is that more blood and oxygen can flow to the heart muscle again,
lowering the risk of a heart attack.
 The type of bypass surgery depends on how many of the arteries are blocked. A
single bypass (only one artery is blocked), a double bypass (two arteries are
blocked), a triple bypass (three arteries are blocked)
Specific objective: state that the lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and
lymphatic nodes
The lymphatic system
- The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and is a vital part of the
immune system, comprising a network of lymphatic nodes and lymphatic
vessels throughout the body.
- The tonsils, spleen and thymus are all part of the lymphatic system.
Diagrams showing some lymph nodes
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Specific objective: describe the functions of the lymphatic system limited to the
protection of the body from infection and circulation of body fluids.
Functions of the lymphatic system
 The lymphatic system collects and returns tissue fluid to the blood circulation.
This prevents oedema (accumulation of too much tissue fluid).
 Lymph nodes are the major site of lymphocyte production, which produces
antibodies to defend the body against infectious diseases.
 The lymphatic system also absorbs and transports fats, fatty acids and
glycerol from the ileum (lacteals in ileum) to the blood circulation.
3.8.2 Blood
Specific objective: identify red and white blood cells, as seen under the light
microscope, on prepared slides, in diagrams and photomicrographs.
Bloods cells as seen under a light microscope
Blood cells as seen from prepared slides and drawings
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Specific objective: state the functions of the components of blood limited to red blood
cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.
 Blood is made up of different types of cells: red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.
 All of these cells are floating in a liquid called plasma.
Functions of red blood cells
 To transport oxygen to all the tissues from the lungs. Red blood cells contain
haemoglobin, which binds with the oxygen to form oxyheamoglobin, enabling the
transport of oxygen.
 Red blood cells also transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
- Some carbon dioxide produced in the tissue cells diffuses into the blood plasma.
The largest fraction of carbon dioxide diffuses into the red blood cells and
combines with haemoglobin.
Functions of white blood cells
 White blood cells protect the body from infection.

 Neutrophils are white blood cell forming an essential part of the body’s defense
system by carrying out phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is the ingestion and digestion
of pathogens
 Lymphocytes are white blood cells that function as part of the immune system
which produces antibodies, which are proteins that specifically target bacteria,
viruses and other foreign materials.
Functions of platelets
 The primary function of platelets is to aid in the blood clotting process (or
coagulation), by gathering at the site of an injury and forming a scab, which
covers the wound and prevents blood from leaking out
Plasma
- Blood plasma is a yellowish, liquid component of blood and a mixture of many

different substances. Plasma the main transporter of different substances to and
from the cells.
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Functions of plasma
 The plasma transport blood cells (white blood cells, platelets and red blood cells
suspended within it) throughout the body.
 Plasma is the main transporter of nutrients to the cells. The soluble products of
digestion, e.g. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, ions (salts) and
vitamins are transported in the blood plasma.
 Plasma also transports waste products like urea from the liver to the kidneys,
where they are excreted from the body in urine.
 Plasma also transports waste products like carbon dioxide from the cells to the
lungs to be excreted during exhalation.
 Plasma transports chemical messengers such as hormones from endocrine
glands to target organs.
 Plasma also transports antibodies and blood clotting proteins (fibrinogen) around
the body.
Specific objective: State the function of lymphocytes and phagocytes as seen under
light microscope, and in diagram and images
 Phagocytes (Neutrophils) are white blood cells forming an essential part of the
body’s defense system by carrying out phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is ingestion
and digestion of pathogens
 Lymphocytes are white blood cells that functions as part of the immune system
by producing antibodies, which are proteins that specifically target bacteria
viruses and other foreign materials.
Specific objective: describe the process of clotting limited to the conversion of

fibrinogen to fibrin only.
Process of blood clotting
 A blood vessel is cut or damaged. blood plasma, blood cells and platelets flow
from a cut vessel.
 Platelets in the blood are activated by vitamin K and calcium ions.
 Platelets release an enzyme which acts on soluble fibrinogen in the blood
plasma.
 Soluble fibrinogen becomes insoluble threads of fibrin.
 Red blood cells become trapped in the mesh of fibrin and dry out.
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 This causes a scab to form and blood is stopped from flowing out
How different parts of the blood help to form a clot when a tissue is damaged
Specific objective: state the role of blood clotting.

Role of blood clotting
 If the blood vessels in the skin are damaged (cuts or extensive burns), the way is
open for bacteria, other pathogens and outside particles to enter the blood
stream, which could cause infectious diseases and infection.
 Damaged blood vessels in the skin could endanger life due to extensive blood
loss, so clotting prevents blood loss after an injury to keep a person from
bleeding to death.
 Blood clotting helps to seal wounds rapidly until a more permanent repair is
produced.
Specific objective: describe the transfer of nutrients between capillaries and tissue
fluid (details of roles of water potential and hydrostatic pressure are not required).
The transfer of nutrients between capillaries and tissue fluid
- Tissue fluid is formed when blood plasma, the liquid part of blood inside blood
vessels, leaks out and escapes from capillaries to surround and bathe the cells
by filling the spaces between the cells.
- Some of the tissue fluid returns directly back to the capillaries. The rest of the
tissue fluid returns to the circulation as lymphoma in the lymphatic vessels, to
become tissue fluid again.
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 The tissue fluid which leaks out of the capillaries contains amino acids, glucose,
minerals, vitamins and oxygen. It is the medium through which substances are
exchanged between the blood and the cells.
 The fluid leaks from capillaries through tiny gaps between the cells of the wall of
the capillaries.
 The gaps allow small molecules to pass through, but keep back red blood cells
and large plasma proteins.
 Tissue fluid contains carbon dioxide and other waste products from cells which
are carried away in the bloodstream.
 Tissue fluid maintains a relatively constant environment around body cells,
helping them to function efficiently.
 Not all tissue fluid returns to the blood in the capillaries. Excess fluid is returned
to the blood via the lymphatic system as lymph.
 The lymphatic system is a network of vessels called lymphatic or lymph vessels
which are spread all over the body.
 It does to form a continuous circulatory system and lymph is carried in one
direction only, namely away from the tissues.
 Lymph vessels contain one-way valves to prevent backflow of lymph.
 Lymph moves because of muscle contractions which compress lymph vessels,
exerting pressure to move lymph forward.
Lymphatic vessels
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3.8.3 Defence against Diseases
Specific objective: define pathogen as:
A disease- causing organism. For example bacterium, virus. Fungus or protozoan
Specific objective: define active immunity as:
The defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
Immunity
Immunity is the state in which the human body is protected from the invasion of
pathogens and therefore infectious diseases.
Specific objective: state the body’s defence mechanisms limited to mechanical

barriers, chemical barriers, antibody production and phagocytosis (white blood cells).
The body’s defence mechanisms
Mechanical barriers
Mechanical barriers represent the first line of defence for the body.
 The skin, when intact, is a very effective physical or mechanical barrier to block
the entry of pathogens into the body.
 The mucous membrane of various body systems such as the respiratory, urinary,
digestive tracts and eyes prevent invasion by microorganisms with the help of
their epithelium and mucous secretions, which form a protective covering.
 The conjunctiva of the eyes lines the interior surface of each eyelid and the
exposed surface of the eyeball.
 The respiratory system also forms part of the mechanical barriers against
pathogens. The respiratory epithelium traps the microorganism less than 10 µm
in diameter and transports them by ciliary action away from the lungs.
 Coughing and sneezing also help with the removal of microorganisms from the
respiratory tract.
Chemical barriers
 Pathogens may manage to reach the stomach but many of them are destroyed
by the gastric juice of the stomach.
 Kidneys, ureters and urinary bladder are sterile under normal conditions. The
lower urinary tract is flushed with urine which eliminates potential pathogens.
 The acidic environment (pH3 to 5) of the vagina also provides defence, as it is
unfavourable and inhospitable for many pathogens.
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 Lysozyme, an enzyme produced in tears, perspiration (sweat) and saliva can
break down peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria and thus acts as an antibiotic
(kills bacteria).
White blood cells
- Cells of the immune system that originate from bone marrow, where stem cells
divide by mitosis to produce cells that differentiate into different white blood cells
called lymphocytes and phagocytes (neutrophils).
- Some lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow (B lymphocytes) and some
mature in the thymus gland (T lymphocytes)
Antibody production
 When lymphocytes come in contact with pathogens, e.g. bacteria and viruses,
some B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells, which produce antibodies.
 Pathogens have antigens which cause an immune response in the host
organism.
- Antigens are substances on pathogens that cause an immune system to produce
antibodies against it.
 Antibodies combine with the antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex which
makes the pathogen harmless or inactivates it.
 Antibodies have a Y–shaped molecule with a receptor site to bind a specific
antigen (like a lock and key).
 Antibodies are specific to each antigen.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies
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 Some lymphocytes differentiate into memory cells to provide long-term immunity.
 These memory cells remain in the lymph nodes after an infection, to produce
plasma cells very fast when re-infected
 The plasma cells can then quickly produce antibodies before symptoms of the
disease are shown.
Phagocytosis
 Is the process of engulfing an object, e.g. a pathogen, and digesting it.

 Neutrophils (phagocytes) which are produced and matured in the bone marrow
carry out phagocytosis.
 There are receptor proteins on the cell membrane of a neutrophil.
 The neutrophil moves towards the pathogen, e.g. bacterium or virus, and when
the pathogen comes into contact with its cell membrane, it sticks to the receptor
protein.
 The neutrophil membrane infolds, then flows around and engulfs the pathogen.
 The cell membrane then pinches off and forms a vacuole (a vesicle called a
phagosome) inside the neutrophil.
 Lysosomes then fuse with the vacuole and enzymes are secreted into the
vacuole by these.
 The enzymes digest (dissolve) the pathogen into amino acids, glucose, fatty
acids and glycerol, which are absorbed into cytoplasm of the cell and are used.
Phagocytosis
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Specific objective: explain the role of vaccination in controlling the spread of disease.
Vaccination
- Vaccination (inoculation) is the treatment with a vaccine to stimulate an

individual’s immune system to develop acquired active immunity against a
pathogen and therefore a disease.
- A vaccine can be administered as an injection or given orally as drops.
 A vaccine contains weakened or dead pathogens, e.g. bacteria or viruses, or

poisonous toxins (made harmless) produced by pathogens.
 These pathogens and toxins do not cause infectious diseases (occasionally they
cause minor symptoms of diseases).
 The surface antigens are still present on the weakened pathogens, or on the
harmless toxins.
 This causes differentiation of lymphocytes into plasma cells.
 This process causes antibody production by plasma cells.
 Some plasma cells differentiate into memory cells.
 Memory cells ‘remember’ the antigen and rapidly release high levels of the
correct antibodies when the real pathogen enters the body (secondary
response).
 The antibodies are specific to the pathogen (antigen-antibody specificity).
 The antibodies attach to the surface antigen of the pathogen, preventing it from
causing the disease.
 The person is said to be immune to the disease.
Specific objective: define passive immunity as:
A short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another

individual.
Specific objective: describe the events leading to passive and active immunity.
Passive immunity:
- Passive immunity gives a person short-term protection against some pathogens

and infectious diseases because lymphocytes cannot produce antibodies.
- The antibodies must thus be acquired from another individual.
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Events leading to passive immunity
Event one
 During pregnancy, antibodies cross the placenta from the mother to the foetus.
 These antibodies are present in the mother’s blood from previous infections and
immunisations she had.
 After birth, the baby also gets antibodies when feeding on breast milk.
 Babies acquire immunity from their mothers by getting ready-made antibodies.
 The borrowed antibodies eventually disappear, so it gives a person only
temporary protection against diseases.
Event two
 Horses are injected with small doses of snake venom, as they can withstand high
doses of these venoms.
 The horses then produce antibodies against the snake venom. These antibodies
are then extracted (it is now known as antiserum).
 Snakebite victims can be injected with these antibodies to give them temporary
immunity and time for their own immune system to respond to the venom.
 The borrowed antibodies eventually disappear, so it gives a person only
temporary protection against venom.
Active immunity
- Active immunity gives a person long-term protection against some infectious

diseases.
- Some lymphocytes differentiate into memory cells so you can produce your own
antibodies before symptoms of a disease are shown.
Events leading to active immunity
Event one
 A person is exposed to a live pathogen (e.g. bacterium or virus) as a child and

develops an infectious disease such as chicken pox, mumps or measles.
 During the recovering period from a disease such measles, chicken pox or
mumps, the lymphocytes produce the correct antibodies.
 Some lymphocytes become memory cells so that if the same pathogen enters
again, the lymphocytes will release the correct antibodies very quickly to prevent
the symptoms of the disease.
 This immunity causes the body to make its own antibodies, is long lasting
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Event two
 A person is vaccinated (immunised or inoculated) against infectious diseases

such as polio, meningitis or tuberculosis with an oral vaccine or an injection.
 A vaccine can be in a harmless, weakened form of a disease-causing pathogen,
or a killed pathogen, or the inactivated toxin from the pathogen.
 Lymphocytes produce the correct antibodies in response to the vaccine the
person received.
 Some lymphocytes become memory cells so that if the real pathogen enters, it
will release the correct antibodies very quickly to prevent the symptoms of the
disease.
 This immunity causes the body to make its own antibodies, is long lasting
Specific objective: State that memory cells are not produced in passive immunity.
 In passive immunity a person is given ready-made antibodies. The borrowed

antibodies eventually disappear. It only gives you temporary protection against
diseases.
 Only antibodies can be passed across the placenta to the foetus during
pregnancy, and to the baby through breast milk while feeding.
 Memory cells do not go to the baby, so immunity is temporary.
 The body does not have memory cells to produce more antibodies.
Specific objective: explain the importance of passive immunity for breast-fed infants.
Importance of passive immunity for breast- fed infants
 Passive immunity is useful, because the baby’s immune system is not yet well
developed for the first few months of its life, the mother’s antibodies can protect
the baby against any disease she is immune to.
 The bulk of antibodies in breast milk the infant consumes adhere to the gut wall,
where they form a strong line of defence against a range of pathogens.
 Antibodies can move throughout the body, searching for any pathogens that may
harm the body.
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Specific objective: explain how passive immunity is a short-term defence against a
pathogen.
 Passive immunity is a short-term defence against a pathogen through antibodies

acquired from another individual, such as from mother to infant.
 However, the effects are immediate, but only last for a short time (a few weeks to
3 months)
 The antibodies will eventually break down when the body does not produce its
own memory cells or lymphocytes to clone them.
3.9. Gas exchange in humans

Specific objective: distinguish between breathing and respiration
 Breathing is a physical process of inhaling oxygen-rich air from the atmosphere

into the lungs and exhaling carbon dioxide-rich air from the lungs into the
atmosphere
 Respiration is the release of energy from breaking down of food substances
(glucose) in all living cells.
Specific objective: list the features of gas exchange surfaces in humans limited to
large surface area, thin surface, good blood supply and good ventilation with air
Alveoli (alveolus) - Is where gas exchange takes places.
 Alveoli are the gas exchange surface in humans.
Its features:
 Very large surface area

 Thin walls (one cell thick)
 Moist surface
 Good blood supply
 Good ventilation with air
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Alveoli structure
Respiratory system in humans
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Specific objective: state the functions of internal and external intercostal muscles and
cartilage in the trachea
External intercostal muscles
 Contract to move the rib cage upwards and outwards in order to allow oxygen-
rich air to flow into the lungs.
 It relax to move the rib cage inwards and downwards in order to allow carbon
dioxide-rich air to flow out of the lungs.
Internal intercostal muscles
 Relax to move the rib cage upwards and outwards in order to allow oxygen rich-
air to flow into the lungs.
 It contracts to move the rib cage inwards and downwards in order to allow carbon
dioxide rich-air to flow out of the lungs.
Diaphragm
 Contract and flattens to increase the volume of the chest cavity in order to allow
oxygen-rich air to flow into the lungs.
 It relaxes and forms a dome-shape to decrease the volume of the chest cavity in
order to allow carbon dioxide-rich air to flow out of the lungs.
Cartilage in the trachea (cartilage ring in the trachea)
 Keep the trachea (windpipe) open to prevent it from collapsing during breathing.
Breathing in Breathing out
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Specific objective: explain the differences in composition between inspired and
expired air.
Composition of inspired and expired air
Gas % in inspired air % in expired air Reason for difference

nitrogen 78 % 78 % It is insoluble, not
absorbed into the blood
and not needed for
respiration
oxygen 21 % 16 % It is soluble, absorbed
into the blood and used
in respiration
Carbon dioxide 0.04 % 4% It is a waste product of
respiration which goes
from the alveoli out of the
lungs
Temperature Variable warmer The body heats up the
air to body temperature
Water vapour variable saturated It is a product of
respiration which
evaporates from the
surface of the alveoli
Specific objective: investigate the differences in carbon dioxide concentration in

inspired and expired air, using limewater and or hydrogen carbonate indicator solution
 Lime water is used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide

 Clear lime water turns milky/cloudy in the presence of carbon dioxide
Practical procedure
1. Put 50ml of clear lime water into two 100ml beakers
2. Bubble room air through one beaker using a pipette and pipette pump
3. Observe and record the results
4. With the other beaker, bubble exhaled air through the solution for one minute
5. After one minute, record your results
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Findings:
Bubbling carbon dioxide into lime water calcium carbonate is produced which makes the
clear lime water appear cloudy or milky
Specific objective: explain the effects of physical activity on the rate and depth of
breathing.
Breathing rate is the number of times a person inhale or exhale per minute.
 During vigorous exercise, muscles need more energy which increases the
breathing rate and depth.
 The breathing rate and depth increases to allow more oxygen to be supplied to
the active muscle cells
 More carbon dioxide to be breathed out of the body through the breathing
system.
Practical Activity (Investigate the effects of exercise on the rate and depth of
breathing)
You will need:
 A stopwatch
Procedure
1. Work in pairs and record each other’s breathing rate.

2. Let your partner jump up and down twenty times and record the breathing rate.
3. Jump up and down twenty times and let your partner take your breathing rate.
4. After a rest, repeat step 2 and 3 in order to make sure your results are accurate.
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Results
Draw up a table with the measurements you have taken.
Questions
1. What is the difference in breathing rate at rest and after exercise?

2. Explain your answer.
Specific objective: describe the effects of tobacco smoke on the gas exchange system
with reference to carbon monoxide, nicotine and tar
 Tobacco smoke contains tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide, which are harmful to
gas exchange system.
 Tar is a sticky substance that stimulates the production of extra mucus, which
narrows the air passages and restricts the flow of air.
 Tar contains chemicals that are carcinogenic, which causes lung cancer in
smokers.
 Tar damages the alveoli which results into emphysema (people who suffer from
emphysema are usually short of breathe and they lack oxygen in the blood since
the alveoli are broken down)
 Nicotine is an addictive substance in tobacco smoke.
 Nicotine can cause narrowing of arteries, causing high blood pressure
 Nicotine increases chances of stickiness of platelets which may cause blood
clots
 Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas since it combines with haemoglobin in the
red blood cells to prevent oxygen from being transported in the body, this makes
the smoker to sometimes be short of breath.
Specific objective: state that tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD)
 COPD is a lung disease which makes it difficult to breathe because airflow is

obstructed
 Smoking increases the risk of getting COPD
 Tobacco smoking cause COPD diseases such as lung cancer and emphysema,
which can cause death.
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3.10. Respiration
There are two types of respiration
i. Aerobic respiration
ii. Anaerobic respiration
Specific objective: Define aerobic respiration as:
A chemical reaction in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to
release energy.
Specific objective: state the equation of respiration.
In words:
Glucose + Oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
As a balanced molecular equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
Specific objective: state the uses of energy in the human body
 Energy is used for muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
transport, transmission (passage) of nerve impulses and homeostasis.
Specific objective: investigate the uptake of oxygen by germinating seeds and the
effect of temperature on the rate of respiration of germinating seeds
Practical activity (Investigate the uptake of oxygen by germinating seeds)

You will need:
 20 germinating (live) seeds

 20 dead seeds
 Two gas jars with lids
 A marker pen
 Cotton wool
 Deflagration spoon with tea candle , matches and a stop watch
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Methods
1. Label the two jars A and B. line the bottom of the two jars with some cotton wool,
and moisten it with a little water.
2. Place the live seeds in jar A and dead seeds in jar B. seal each jar tightly with its
lid.
3. Leave the seeds in a sunny spot to germinate for 24 hours to a week.
4. After the seeds have been germinating for a day, loosen the lid of jar A (but do
not remove it). Light the tea candle with a match.
5. Remove the lid of jar A and, working as quickly as possible, lower the lit candle
into the jar, making sure that the deflagrating spoon cover seals the jar opening.
6. Use the stopwatch to time how many seconds pass before the flame goes out.
Record your observation.
7. Repeat steps 4-6 with jar B.
Questions
1. Identify the following:

a) The independent variable
b) The dependent variable
c) Two constant variables
2. Describe what happens when the lit candle is lowed into:
a) Jar A
b) Jar B
3. Formulate a conclusion based on your observations in questions 2.
4. Why is it necessary to have a jar with dead seeds when doing the experiment?
Explain your answer.
Specific objective: investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of respiration of

germinating seeds
Practical activity (Investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of respiration

of germinating seeds)
You will need:
 Three petri dishes

 Three pieces of cotton wool
 15 bean seeds
 A fridge
 A heater or lamp
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Methods
1. Moisten the cotton wool and wrap five beans in each piece of cotton wool. Place
the wrapped bean ‘packages’ in each of the petri dishes.
2. Place one petri dish in the fridge, leave another in the classroom (at room
temperature) and place the third petri dish next to a heater or under a lamp.
3. Ensure that you keep the cotton wool in each petri dish equally moist throughout
the investigation.
4. Check on the petri dishes every day at the same time until germination starts.
Note the day that germination started at each of the three temperatures.
Questions
1. Complete the following table:
Temperature/ °C Germination time/ days
2. Write a conclusion based on your results in the table.

3. Suggest a reason why the rate of respiration is the lowest at the lowest
temperature.
3.10.2 Anaerobic respiration

Specific objective: define anaerobic respiration as:
The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release a
relatively small amount of energy, in the absence of oxygen.
Specific objective: State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles during
strenuous physical activity and a balanced chemical equation for yeast
Word equation in muscles:
Glucose  lactic acid
Balanced chemical equation for yeast.
C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2
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Specific objective: describe the production of lactic muscles during exercise and
outline how lactic acid is removed during recovery
Production of lactic acid
 Lactic acid is produced during strenuous exercise when muscle cells use energy
fast that the circulatory system cannot supply enough oxygen to meet the
demand
 Muscle cells start to break down glucose in the absence of oxygen by lactic acid
fermentation to form lactic acid.
 This results in a built up of an oxygen debt as the body takes up insufficient
oxygen
 Lactic acid causes stiffness in the muscles during and after exercise, therefore it
needs to be removed.
 Blood becomes more acidic contributing to muscle fatigue and cramps
How lactic acid is removed during recovery
 After exercise a person continues to breathe quickly and deeply to supply the
body with extra oxygen to repay the oxygen debt
 The extra oxygen is transported to the liver with lactic acid
 In the liver, lactic acid is oxidized (broken down) into glucose, carbon dioxide and
water
Specific objective: describe the role of anaerobic respiration in brewing and bread-
making
The role of anaerobic respiration in brewing
 Yeast breaks down the sugars firstly aerobically until oxygen runs out
 Then sugars are broken down anaerobically to release alcohol (ethanol) and
carbon dioxide
 This is called anaerobic fermentation
The role of anaerobic respiration in bread-making
 Bread is made from dough (mixture of flour, salt, water, sugar and yeast)
 The yeast ferments the sugar to produce alcohol and bubbles of carbon dioxide.
 Baking the bread causes the bubbles of carbon dioxide to expand, making the
bread to rise and give it a light porous texture
 The alcohol evaporates during baking
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Specific objective: compare aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration in terms of
relative amounts of energy released
Feature Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration
Substrates needed Glucose Glucose
Products produced Lactic acid Carbon dioxide and
water
Number of molecules of ATP/ 2 ATP 38 ATP
molecule of substrate
Specific objective: investigate the production of carbon dioxide by yeast in anaerobic

conditions
Practical activity (Investigate the production of carbon dioxide by yeast in

anaerobic condition)
Procedure:
1. Add glucose solution to a test tube
2. Add dried (killed) yeast to the test tube and stir
3. Add two drops of oil to ensure that oxygen cannot interfere with the reaction. The oil
prevent oxygen entering the solution, making the yeast respire anaerobically
4. Put the test tube in a water bath and heat the water to vary the temperature
5. Use a rubber bung and delivery tube to connect the test tube, with glucose and yeast,
to a test tube with clear lime water
Conclusions:
- What changes happen to the lime water after carbon dioxide is passed through it
Apparatus set to test for anaerobic respiration in yeast
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3.11. Excretion in humans
Excretion is the removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and
substances in excess of requirement from organisms.
Specific objective: define deamination as:
The removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea.
Specific objective: describe the formation of urea and the breakdown of alcohol, drugs
and hormones in the liver
Formation of urea
 The amino group is removed from excess amino acids (deamination) and
ammonia is formed.
 Then, ammonia combines (react) with carbon dioxide to form urea.
Breaking down of alcohol
 Alcohol is broken down by the liver into water and carbon dioxide.
 The breaking down of alcohol by the liver is known as detoxification.
Breaking down of drugs
 Drugs are broken down by the liver to less harmful substances and the end
products pass out of the body in urine.
Breaking down of hormones
 Excess hormones are broken down by the liver and the end products are
expelled from the body in urine.
 Hormones are broken-down (metabolised) into inactive molecules to prevent
accumulation in the tissues.
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Specific objective: identify on drawings, diagrams and images the relative positions of
the ureter, bladder and urethra
Diagram showing the positions of the ureter, bladder and urethra
Specific objective: describe the functions of the kidney simply in terms of the removal
of urea and excess water and the re-absorption of glucose and some salts (details of
kidney structure and nephron are not required)
Removal of urea and excess water
 The renal artery carries blood with urea, excess water and excess salts to the
kidney.
 Blood is filtered as it passes through the kidneys to remove urea, excess water
and excess salts to form a solution called urine.
 Water is passively re-absorbed by osmosis
Re-absorption of glucose and some salts.
 During the filtration of urea and excess water, some useful substances like
glucose, amino acids and vitamins filtrate out of the blood.
 As the filtrates moves through the kidneys, any glucose in it must be re-absorbed
back into the blood.
 Most of the water, along with some of the salts is also re-absorbed and need to
be kept in the blood.
 Glucose is re-absorbed by diffusion and active transport.
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Specific objective: outline dialysis and discuss its application in kidney machines
Kidney failure can be caused by:
 Infections of the kidneys.

 Damage during accidents.
 High blood pressure or diabetes mellitus.
There are two major treatments for patients with kidney failure:
a) Dialysis
b) Kidney transplant
Dialysis
 It is the process of removing waste products and excess fluid from the body, when
the kidneys are not able to adequately filter the blood.
The diagram shows a kidney machine
Dialysis application in kidney machines (dialysis machine)
 Blood enters machine from a patient’s artery in the arm

 A pump push blood into the dialyser.
 Blood passes along the dialyser tubing (visking tubing or cellophane tubing) which
is partially (selectively) permeable and acts as a filter.
 The tubing is surrounded by a liquid called dialysis fluid.
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 The fluid always contains some salts, glucose and amino acids, but no urea or uric
acid.
 The dialysis fluid has the same osmotic potential as blood.
 Waste substances (urea and uric acid) and excess substances (water and salts)
pass from the blood to the dialysis fluid by diffusion.
 A bubble trap or counter flow removes air bubbles and blood clots from the blood,
and re-warms the blood so that the body is not ‘shocked’ when the blood returns.
 ‘Cleaned blood’ returns to the patient’s circulation via a vein.
 The dialysis fluid must be replaced continuously to maintain the correct
concentration.
Specific objective: discuss the advantage and disadvantage of kidney transplants

compared with dialysis
Dialysis machine Kidney transplants

Advantage - No donor is needed. - One can live a normal life after a
- The recipient cannot reject the transplant if the kidney is not rejected.
dialysis machine. - One is not dependent on machines
- It is a life saver if a transplant is after a successful transplant.
not possible. - Continuous filtration of blood occurs
after a transplant.
- A kidney transplant is cheaper than
dialysis, which has to be done over a
long period of time.
- A patient has a better quality of life
and a longer life expectancy.
Disadvantage - time-consuming process, 3 to 4 - Rejection of the transplanted kidney
times a week for 6 to 10 hours at by the immune response of the
a time. recipient can occur.
- One cannot live a normal life, - The recipient must receive
because dialysis is a continuous immunosuppressant drugs which can
process. lead to loss of resistance to infections.
- One needs to be close to a - In such cases, the recipient is
hospital at all time. vulnerable to other diseases and
- There can be a shortage of therefore must be kept in isolation.
machines. - In some cases immunosuppressant
- Dialysis is very expensive. drugs have to be taken for the rest of
the patient’s life.
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- There is no continuous filtration - There are always risks in any
of blood, therefore dangerous operation- bleeding, infection or
waste substances can breathing problems.
accumulate in the body before - The tissue type and blood group of
the next dialysis. donor and recipient must be closely
- The process can cause the loss matched.
of some minerals like calcium and
iron.
- Diet and fluid intake must be
controlled and maintained,
especially the intake of salts and
protein.
- A person cannot do sports.
Specific objective: use dialysis or Visking tubing to separate and identify mixtures of
glucose and starch or sodium chloride and starch.
An activity on dialysis tubing experiment.
- After 20 minutes have passed, the solution inside the dialysis tubing and the
solution in the beaker will be tested for glucose and starch.
- The presence of glucose will be tested with Benedict’s solution, the presence of
starch will be tested using the iodine solution
- Sodium chloride will be tested using silver nitrate.
- Which molecules or ions do you think were able to diffuse through the bag and
into the distilled water?
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As the purpose of dialysis is to mimic the function of the kidney, it is designed to
allow small molecules such as salt, glucose and water through, while stopping big
molecules like starch.
- Therefore, the starch will not pass through the distilled water, whereas the
glucose and salt will.
- This is why a patient is given additional glucose while on a dialysis machine, as
the machine is unable to reabsorb the glucose in a way that the kidney can.
3.12 Co-ordination in plants

Co-ordination
Is the ability of an organism to detect and respond to internal and external stimuli.
Stimuli
Any changes that occurs in an environment that causes an organism to react or

respond.
For example:
Plants respond to light, gravity, water, and chemicals sound, touch, temperature etc.
Importance of responding to stimuli
The environment of plants and animals is continuously changing so,
- In order to survive, organisms have to detect and respond to stimuli.

- This allows their bodies to adapt to the changing environmental conditions.
Coordination in plants is control by:
- plant growth substances (plant hormones)
Specific objective: Define Plant growth substances/hormones as:

Chemical substances that affect the activities of a particular cell and organs in plants.
Examples of plant growth substance
Auxins, Ethene, Abscisic acid, Gibberellin
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Tropism is a growth response of a part of a plant to stimuli (light, water, gravity,
chemical and touch)
Positive tropism
 a response of plant growing toward a stimuli
Negative tropism
 A response of a part of a plant growing away from stimuli
Two types of growth /tropic response in plants
 Phototropism
 Gravitropism (geotropism)
Specific objective: define Gravitropism as:

A response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity.
Positive gravitropism (geotropism)
Radicles and the roots they develop into, always grow down towards gravity
Negative gravitropism (geotropism)
Shoots (coleoptiles) and the stem and leaves they develop into, always grow away from
gravity
Specific objective: define Phototropism
As a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction from
which light is coming.
Positive phototropism
Shoots (coleoptiles), the stem and leaves that they develop into, always grow upwards
towards light
Negative phototropism
Radicles and the roots they develop into, always grow away from light
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Specific objective: describe the chemical control of plant growth by Auxins in
gravitropism and phototropism
Auxins (plant growth substance)
 Are plant growth substances, which control response in plants or that cause
differential growth
Where Auxin produced or made
 By cells in tips of the shoots (coleoptiles) and roots.
Auxin diffuse to the nearby cells where they cause differential growth.
Differential growth
 One side behaves differently from the other side.
Role of Auxin as plant growth substances

In shoots:
 Promote cell elongation when in high concentration

 Slow down the rate of growth when in low concentration.
In roots:
 Inhibit or slow down the rate of growth when in high concentration.

 Increase the rate of growth when in low concentration.
Chemical control of plant growth by Auxins in gravitropism (geotropism)
 Auxins is produced near the tip of the root

 Auxin diffuse away from the upper part of the root to the lower side.
 More auxin accumulate on the lower side of the root (due to effect of gravity).
 Inhibit elongation of the root
 The root grows downward due to gravity resulting in differential growth.
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The chemical control of plant growth by Auxins in Phototropism
 Auxin is produced in the tip of the coleoptiles (shoot)

 Auxin are light sensitive and thus diffuse to the shaded side away from light
 More auxin collects and accumulate on shaded side
 This stimulate cells on the shaded side to grow faster causing differential
growth.
 Shoot grows toward light.
NB: when shoot receive light from both side, auxin diffuse and is distributed equally
thus the shoot grows upwards
NB: shoots are also referred to as coleoptiles
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Specific objective: describe the effects of synthetic plant growth substances used as
weed killer
Synthetic plant growth substances /regulator
These are synthetic hormones sprayed onto weeds to encourage rapid growth that
cause the weed to die. This hormone is selective because it affect only some plants.
 Weed killers (herbicides) contains synthetic plant hormones such as auxin.

 Spray the selective weed-killer to dicot plants (broad leaved) so that it is
absorbed by the weed
 The weed grow rapidly die while
 Monocots grow at normal rate
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Specific objective: distinguish between gravitropism and phototropism
Gravitropism Phototropism
Growth of a part of a plant to the Growth of a part of a plant to the stimulus
stimulus of gravity of light
Auxin inhibits cell growth in roots if in high Auxin stimulates cell growth in stems if in
concentrations high concentrations
Roots always grow towards gravity Roots always grow away from light
(positive gravitropism) (negative phototropism)
Stems always grow away from gravity Stems always grow towards light (positive
(negative gravitropism) phototropism)
Differential growth can occur during Differential growth can occur during
gravitropism phototropism
Specific objective: explain gravitropism and phototropism in terms of auxins regulating

differential growth
- Differential growth is when one part of a plant grow at a different rate (faster)
than the other side.
Phototropism
 Auxins regulating differential growth during gravitropism and phototropism

 At the top of the cell, there is a section where cells are being produced by
dividing therefore the shoot grows.
 The growth of the cells is controlled by auxin, if you cut off the tip containing
auxin the plant will not grow.
 If plant grows facing where light is coming in, auxin accumulates on the dark side
where there is no light causing cells to grow at a faster rate on that side.
 The side where light is coming in grows normal. This happens because of
differential growth.
Gravitropism
 Auxin likes to settle at the bottom of the root due to the pulling force of gravity
 High concentration of auxin at the tip of the root slows down the growth
 This causes the root to bend and grow down towards gravity into the soil causing
top side to grow different from the lower side.
 This happens because of differential growth.
200
Specific objective: observe and interpret the appearance of seedlings grown in
uniform light, one-sided light and no light
Practical procedure:
 Take three pots filled with the same amount of soil.
 Plant about 20 seeds in each pot and leave to germinate and grow.
 Then place one pot in normal growth conditions, leave another pot in a dark
cupboard for several days and put the third pot in a place with light only entering
from one side (a box opened on one side)
 Supply equal amounts of water to all.
A B C
 Plants under normal conditions will grow slower, stronger and will be green (A)
 Plants in the dark will have under developed smaller leaves which will lack
chlorophyll and will appear more yellow, pale and white (B)
 Stems in the dark will be longer, thinner and weaker, have longer internodes and
grow faster.
 Plants in light will bend and grow towards the light because of positive phototropism
(C)
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Specific objective: investigate gravitropism and phototropism in shoots and roots
Gravitropism in shoots and roots
Use a Clinostat
 An apparatus for studying tropism in plants,
 A rotating disc to which the plant/seedling is attached so that it receives an equal

stimulus on all sides.
At rotating/when the clinostat rotates
 gravity will act equally on all sides of the shoot/roots
 Gravity have no influence on distribution of the auxins
 Auxin concentration spread/distributed equally or evenly
 Auxin cannot cause differential growth in the shoot/root
 there is no response to gravity/light as radicles and shoots grow straight
At stationary /when clinostat is switched off
 Gravity will act on one side of the root and shoot only
 Gravity has an effect on the distribution of the auxins
 More auxin will concentrate on lower side of the shoot and root tip
 Stimulating cells to elongate faster in shoots and inhibit cell growth in roots
 Shoots respond away from gravity due to negative gravitropism and roots
respond to gravity due to positive gravitropism
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Rotating clinostat stationary clinostat
Rotating clinostat Stationary clinostat
Investigating phototropism in shoots
 The tip of the shoot is the sensitive region of the shoot where the receptors that
detect light are found.
 The parts of the shoot that respond to the stimulus is the part below the tip called
the effectors.
 When auxins is produced at tip of the shoots, it diffuse downward causing the
cells behind the tip to get longer.
 If there is no auxins present, the cells will not elongate and grow.
203
Tips of coleoptiles is cut off, and separated from the rest of the coleoptiles by a
piece of gelatin/agar jelly:
 Growth continues toward the light
 Auxin diffuses through the jelly from the tip
 Cause more cell division or growth on the shaded side
If the gelatin block/ jelly jar with auxin is placed on one side of the tip
 Shoot grow bend to the side where there is no jelly
 Auxin diffuse from the jelly block and cell growth occurs on that side only.
Tip removed and mica substance inserted and tip replaced
 Growth stops
 Auxin cannot diffuse through the mica from the tip
Tip covered
 The shoot still grows because auxin is still produced at the tip
204
Class activity
The figure above shows the coleoptiles A, B and C after a certain experiment.
a) Suggest the aim of the experiment?
b) Explain the appearance of each A, B and C after a week.
205
3.13 Coordination in humans
The coordination in humans is divided into two parts:
1. The Nervous control system
 Is the main coordinating system of the body.
 It is responsible for detecting and responding to internal and external changes of

the environment (stimuli).
 Coordinate the body using electrical impulses through neurons (nerves),
 Made up of receptors, neurons (nerves) effectors (peripheral system), the spinal

cord, brain (central nervous system)
2. The endocrine (hormonal) system:
 Made of receptors, endocrine glands and hormones and effectors.
The human brain
206
3.13.1 Nervous control in humans
Specific objective: Identify motor, relay and sensory neurones from diagrams
Three types of neurones (nerve cells):
 Sensory
 Inter (relay/connector)
 Motor
Sensory neurone
Motor neurone
207
Function of Neurones/nerve cells
Sensory neurons
Conduct electrical impulses from the receptors (sense organs) to the CNS (brain
& spinal cord).
Inter (relay/connector) neurones)
Conduct electrical impulses inside the CNS from sensory to motor neurons
Motor neurons
Conduct electrical impulses from CNS to the effector (muscles and glands)
Specific objective: Describe effectors in terms of muscles and glands
 Effectors are muscles and glands that respond to stimuli.

 They receive impulse via motor neurons from the CNS.
 Impulses are sent along motor neurons to effectors to ensure the correct
response will take place
 Muscles contract and relax to cause the correct movement
 Glands secrete correct hormones
Specific objective: define a synapse as:

A junction between two neurones or between a neurone and an effector.
It consist of the
 presynaptic neuron,
 synaptic gap
 and post synaptic neuron
Specific objective: describe how nerve impulses are transmitted across the synapse
 A nerve impulse arrives at the end of the presynaptic neurone at the presynaptic
knob.
 The calcium channels open and calcium ions enter the presynaptic neuron
knob
 This causes the vesicles which contain neurotransmitter to move towards and
fuse with presynaptic membrane.
 The vesicles release the neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
208
 Neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the post synaptic membrane
 The neurotransmitter attach itself to the receptor site on the postsynaptic
membrane
 The sodium channel open
 Then sodium ions enter the postsynaptic neurone
Diagram showing a synapse
Specific objective: describe the effects of alcohol on the release of the

neurotransmitter
Alcohol influences and affects the release of neurotransmitters by:
 Slowing down the release of neurotransmitters

 Less impulses cross the synapse and slowed from being passed to the next
neuron
 Resulting in slower reaction or response of a person
Specific objective: Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary actions

Voluntary actions
 A voluntary action can be controlled for example kicking the ball, bending the
arm
 It involves a decision or thought-process
 It is not automatic
 Actions are made deliberately and consciously
209
Involuntary actions
 Involuntary actions cannot be controlled for example heartbeat, blinking,

breathing and walking
 It is automatic
 No thought required as it is an unconscious action
Specific objective: describe a simple reflex arc in terms of sensory, relay and motor
neurons
Reflex Arc
Is the pathway a nerve impulse travels along from the receptor to the effector to
bring about a correct reflex action.
 Reflex arc involve the sensory, relay and motor neuron.
Reflex arc
Reflex arc sequence
 A stimuli is received by a receptor.
 The stimuli is converted into a nerve impulse.
 An impulse is conducted along a sensory neurone to the coordinator (CNS).
 The impulse is conducted from the sensory neuron along the inter neurone to
the motor neurone.
 The motor neurone conducts the impulse from the spinal cord to the effector.
 The effector makes the correct response (reaction) to the original stimuli.
210
Specific objective: draw the structure of the transverse section of the spinal cord, from
photo micrographs and diagrams
Transverse section diagram of the spinal cord
Transverse section of the spinal cord as seen from photomicrographs
211
Specific objective: define a reflex action as:
A means of integrating and coordinating stimuli with responses of effectors
 Reflex action is a rapid (very fast) response to a stimulus
 An automatic response to a stimulus
 An inborn response
Examples:
 when you accidentally step on a pin/thorn and automatically jerk your foot
 Swallowing, sneezing, constriction and dilation of pupil are all reflex actions
Specific objective: Define Sense organs as:

Groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature
and chemicals.
Sense sense stimulus
organ
SKIN feeling of touch Touch, heat, cold,

pain, pressure
NOSE smell Chemical in air
TONGUE taste Chemical in food
EYE sight Light, Colours
EAR hearing and balance Sound vibrations,

motion and gravity
212
Specific objective: identify the structure of the eye, limited to the cornea, iris, pupil,
lens, retina, optic nerve and blind spot and state the function of each part
Functions of the parts of the eye

Cornea
 Allow light to enter into the interior of the eyeball

 Helps to refract (bend) light rays and causes them to converge
Lens
 Focuses light onto the retina at the back of eye.

 Helps the eye to focus on objects at various distances by changing shape
213
Iris
 Control the amount of light entering the eye, by changing the size of the pupil
through contraction and relaxation of radial and circular muscles
Pupil
 It controls the amount of light entering the eye
Retina
 The light-sensitive cells that releases impulses when stimulated by light. The
rods are concerned with black and white vision and cones with colour vision
Optic nerve
 Transmit impulses from the retina to the visual cortex where they are interpreted
Blind spot
 Blood vessels enter and leave at this point and no image formed
Specific objective: explain the pupil reflex in terms of light intensity and antagonistic
action of circular and radial muscles in the iris
 The pupil reflex is the changing of the size of the pupil of the eye in dim or bright
light.
Pupil reflex in bright light
 Circular muscles of the iris contract.

 Radial muscles of the iris relax
 Pupil constricts (smaller), less light enter the eye, preventing the retina from
damage.
214
Pupil reflex in dim light
 Circular muscles of the iris relax

 Radial muscles of the iris contract
 Pupil dilate (bigger)
 More light enter the eye, allowing better vision in dim light intensity
Antagonistic muscle action
 Antagonistic muscles are those that work in pairs but in opposite direction.
 The iris has radial and circular muscles which act as involuntary antagonistic
muscles.
 When the radial muscles of the iris contract, the circular muscles of the iris relax.
 This causes the pupil to dilate.
 When the radial muscles of iris relax, the circular muscles of the iris contract.
 This causes the pupil constrict.
Specific objective: explain accommodation to view near and distant objects in terms of
the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles, tension in the suspensory ligament,
shape of the lens and refraction of light.
Accommodation (focusing) of an eye
Definition
Is the change in the shape of the lens to focus light coming from different distances
object (far or near).
Parts of the eye involved Light rays from a near-by Light rays from a distant
in focusing of light rays object object
Ciliary muscle Contracts Relaxes
Suspensory ligaments Becomes slackened/loose Becomes taut/tight
Lens Becomes more rounder of Becomes less
fatter/more convex to convex/flatter/less round
refract the light rays more as light rays do not need
more bending
215
Specific objective: distinguish between rods and cones, in terms of function and
distribution in the retina of a human eye
 The retina contains two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.

 The cones are more sensitive than the rods.
 The rods and cones are not evenly distributed across the retina.
Function of cones
 Cones detect colour (red, green, and blue)

 Each cone is linked to one neurone and therefore it gives a very sharp image.
 Cones work in bright light
 Cones are more sensitive to light than rods
Distribution of cones
 Cones are found in the centre of the retina, mainly in the fovea centralis (yellow
spot)
 There are no cones in the blind spot
Function of rods
 Rods do not detect colour

 Groups of rods are linked to one neurone, therefore they do not give as sharp an
image as cones
 They work in dim light
216
Distribution of rods
 Rods are found in the peripheral areas (edges) of retina

 There are no rods in the blind spot
Specific objective: compare nervous and hormonal control systems in terms of speed
and longevity of action
Hormonal control Nervous control

Message transmitted by hormones Message transmitted by electrical impulses
Hormones are transmitted through blood Impulses transmitted by neurones/nerves.
Hormones travel slowly and Impulse travels faster and
reaction/response is slow. reaction/response is very fast
Response/effect usually lasts longer and Response/effect is short lived and is
may be permanent temporary
Transported to the target organ Transmitted to the effector or CNS
Response/effect is widespread Response/effect is localized
Originate in endocrine glands Originated in the sense organs/receptors
Response may be voluntary or Response always involves involuntary.
involuntary.
3.13.2 Drugs
Specific objective: define a drug as:
A substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the
body
 Drugs include legal and illegal drugs.
 Legal drugs are prescribed to a patient by their doctor or bought over the counter
 Illegal drugs include prescription drugs that have been dangerously modified and
substances that are banned by law.
217
Specific objective: describe the use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial
infection
 Antibiotics are drugs that are used to kill or stop the growth of disease-causing
bacteria.
 Bacteria cause bacterial diseases like tuberculosis, syphilis, gonorrhea and
pneumonia.
 Many bacterial diseases of humans and other animals can be successfully
treated with antibiotics
Use of antibiotics
 Antibiotics weaken the cell walls of bacteria so that when substances enter the
bacterium, it cannot resist internal pressure that will lead to bursting of the
bacterium cell.
 Antibiotics are used to damage the cell surface membrane of the bacterium
cell, which causes the cell contents to leak out, thus killing the cell
 Antibiotics can also inhibit bacterial growth by binding to the ribosome of some
bacteria.
 This stops protein synthesis therefore no proteins and enzymes can be
produced for the bacteria.
Specific objective: explain why antibiotics kill bacteria but do not affect viruses
 Antibiotics cannot kill viruses because viruses have different structures and
replicate in a different way from bacteria.
 Antibiotics weaken or prevent cell wall production and damage the cell surface
membranes.
 Viruses do not have cell walls or cell surface membranes, they are surrounded
by a capsid (protein coat) which is unaffected by antibiotics.
 Viruses also do not have cytoplasm therefore there is no internal pressure
which can cause the virus to burst
218
Specific objective: describe the effects of excessive alcohol consumption and heroin,
limited to:
- Powerful depressant drugs
- Effect on reaction time and self-control
- Liver damage
- Negative social implications, e.g. crime, rape etc.
- Cause infections such as HIV
Effects of excessive alcohol consumption

Alcohol is the intoxicating agent found in beer, wine and liquor made through a
process called fermentation.
Powerful depressant drugs
 Alcohol is a depressant which in low doses can cause euphoria, sociability and
reduce anxiety.
 in higher doses, alcohol causes intoxication and unconsciousness
 Alcohol slows down the functions of the central nervous system.
 Consuming alcohol prior to driving increases the risk of vehicle accidents and
deaths.
 Alcohol affects safe driving skills such as judgements, concentration,
comprehension, coordination, visual acuity, and reaction time become impaired.
Reaction time and self-control
 Reaction time is the amount of time taken to respond to a stimulus.

 Alcohol slows down reaction time to external stimuli.
 Alcohol dulls the brain signal that warns people they are making a mistake, while
drinkers are aware of their error, the alcohol causes them to care less about it.
 Alcohol damages the part of the brain that governs self-control.
Consumption and liver damage
 Alcohol related liver disease is caused by damage to the liver from excessive
drinking for many years.
 Years of alcohol abuse can cause the liver to become inflamed and swollen that
can also cause cirrhosis.
219
 Cirrhosis is a disease in which normal liver cells are replaced by scar tissue
which interferes with all of the liver’s important functions
 Cirrhosis is the final stage of liver disease.
Addictions and withdrawal symptoms
 Occurs when heavy drinkers suddenly stop or reduce their alcohol intake.
 They may experience a combination of physical and emotional symptoms.
 Moderate withdrawal symptoms include physical reactions like headache,
excessive sweating and increased heart rate.
 Some symptoms are as severe as hallucinations.
Negative social implications
 Alcohol plays a strong role in relation to crime.

 40% of all violent crimes and 37% of convicted offenders in jail report that they
had been drinking at the time of their arrest.
 Alcohol has been found to be closely associated with violent crimes, including
murder, rape, assault and child and spousal abuse.
Infections such as HIV
 People who abuse alcohol are more likely to engage in behaviour that puts them
at risk of contracting HIV.
 Alcoholics have a high rate of injection drug use.
 Alcohol abusers have high tendency toward high-risk sexual behaviour,
including unprotected sexual intercourse.
 Too much alcohol can weaken the immune system.
Effects of heroin
Powerful depressant drug
 Is the most dangerous drug that reduces nervous activity and slows down brain
activity
 Heroin also lowers neurotransmission levels
 Abusers typically report feeling a surge of pleasurable sensation
220
Reaction time
 A depressant drug, that slows down the transmission of impulses, thus

increasing the reaction time and slows down a person’s reactions.
Liver damage
 Heroin has little effect on the liver. The major problems that result from its use
are not from the heroin, but from contaminants in the drug which can severely
damage the liver.
Addiction and withdrawal
 When someone has a heroin dependency, they will feel uncomfortable and sick
without the substance in their system.
 This occurs because the body has become so accustomed to the heroin that its
absence is unusual and may results in withdrawal symptoms.
 Withdrawal symptoms of heroin include: restlessness and discomfort racing
heartbeat, anxiety, sweating, shivering, pain in the muscles and bones,
diarrhoea, vomiting and inability to sleep.
Negative social implications
 Criminal behaviour and substance abuse manifests in the form of prostitution,

drug trafficking, theft and burglary, rape, domestic violence poor judgement of
behaviour, poor ability to work and emotional problems.
Infections such as HIV
 Using heroin increases the risk of a person being exposed to HIV infection,
through contacting with infected blood or body fluids (e.g. semen, saliva)
resulting from the sharing of syringes
 or through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
221
3.13.3 Hormones in humans (endocrine system)
Specific objective: define a hormone as:
A chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters
the activity of one or more specific target organs
Endocrine glands: Are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream and not into a duct
Target organs: are organs or cells in the body which are affected by hormones
Specific objective: Identify specific endocrine glands and their secretions, limited to
adrenal glands and adrenaline, pancreas and insulin, testes and testosterone, ovaries
and oestrogen
Diagram showing some major endocrine glands in humans
222
Endocrine glands Location Hormone produced
2. Pancreas Pancreas Insulin and glucagon
3. Adrenal gland Top of kidney Adrenaline
4. Ovary Ovary Oestrogen and

progesterone
5. Testes Testes Testosterone
Specific objective: discuss the role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control
of metabolic activity, including increasing the blood glucose concentration and pulse
rate
 Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each
kidney in the abdominal area.
 Adrenaline prepares the body to cope with stress and to meet danger and deal
with emergencies
 Fear or anger cause adrenaline to be released into the bloodstream.
Adrenaline causes an increase in the blood glucose concentration
 Promote the release of glucose from the locations in the body where it is stored.
 Adrenaline stimulates the breakdown and conversion of glycogen into glucose
in the liver, which sends it via the bloodstream to the muscles.
 Stimulates the breakdown and conversion of glycogen into glucose in the
muscles, instead of releasing that glucose, the muscles hold on to it to use for
immediate release of energy.
 This results in an increased glucose concentration in the blood and muscles and
can be used for energy to either combat or flee dangerous situation
223
Adrenaline causes an increase in the pulse rate
- Pulse (heart) rate is a measurement of the number of times a person’s heart

beats in one minute.
 Adrenaline increases the pulse (heart) rate , because it increases pressure in the
coronary arteries
 It also increases the breathing rate and depth of breathing
 This results in more oxygen being taken in faster
 It also results in more glucose and oxygen being delivered to the muscles
 To increase the rate of aerobic respiration
 More energy is therefore released to combat or flee a potentially dangerous
situation
3.14 Homeostasis
- Our body is equipped with a self-regulatory system that monitor and regulate
changes of factor in our body.
Specific objective: define Homeostasis as:

The maintenance of constant internal environment
Living organisms have two environments:

1. External environment: the surrounding in which the organism lives.
2. Internal environment: the space inside your body. I.e. the space between the
cells filled with tissue fluid.
Homeostasis helps to maintain:
- A constant internal body temperature of around 37˚C, which helps enzymes to

work.
- A constant amount of water, to prevent damage of body cells or losing too much
water by osmosis.
- A constant blood glucose level, which means that there is always enough fuel for
respiration.
- A constant blood pH at about 7.4 as variation in pH can lead to denaturation of
enzymes.
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the body
224
Specific objective: explain the concept of control by Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is a response which automatically brings about a correction

through a certain condition that brings a situation back to normal.
 Receptor cells detect changes and send a message (chemical or hormonal) to

the control centre (brain).
 The control centre (the brain) Issues new instructions that are received by an
effector.
 The effector responds by carrying out some corrective action to bring the
changed factor back to its normal state.
 This is followed by feedback to the receptor cells about the effector’s corrective
action
 If the factor is within its normal range, nothing more happens.
 If the factor is still out of limits, the receptor cells send another message to the
brain and the effector responds again.
 Another message, (a negative one) is now sent from the receptor to the effector
to stop its corrective action from going too far (to prevent overcorrection).
 This is known as negative feedback, getting the body environment back to an
ideal balance
Principle of negative feedback
225
Specific objective: Describe temperature regulation in ectothermic and endothermic
animals
Exothermic Animals (cold-blooded animals)
- Animals that cannot generate sufficient heat inside the body

- Rely on external sources such as the sun for body heat
- Ectothermic animals have low metabolic rates and their body temperature
changes as external temperature changes
- Examples include: reptiles, insects
Endothermic Animals (warm-blooded animals)
- Rely on heat produced within bodies by metabolic reactions (i.e. respiration) to

control their body temperature.
- Endothermic animals include the mammals and the birds
Ways of regulating temperature in Ectothermic animals

In cold weather:
 Position themselves to absorb solar radiation by climbing up vegetation and

stones (bask in the sun).
 Use radiant energy from the sun to raise their body temperature.
 Skin become darker in colour and absorbs more radiant energy
 Goes into hibernation
In warm weather:
 Escape to places of low heat (shade, underground burrow, under stones or

water).
 Opening of mouth (panting) to lose more water by evaporation (leading to
cooling).
 Aestivation a state of dormancy due to dry condition in the summer, also occurs
in some reptiles and toads
Ways of regulating Temperature in Endothermic animals
 Endothermic have higher metabolic rates and effective physiological

mechanisms for controlling body temperature to keep it constant.
 Endothermic animals maintain a constant body temperature of 37°C
226
When temperature is low
 Cellular respiration which takes place in each living cell, is the main heat
generator. An increase in adrenaline causes an increase in metabolic rate,
which results in faster and more heat released
 By consuming hot drinks and food or
 By exposing the body to heat from the sun.
When temperature is high
 Endotherms lose heat by radiation (when heat is lost from a warm body to a cold
environment)
 Through Evaporation (when fluids absorb energy and change into gas therefore,
sweat evaporates, heat is lost)
 Through Convection (when heat is lost in fluids)
 Through Conduction (when heat is lost from touching warm objects to cold
objects)
Graphical presentation of temperature regulation by ectotherm and endotherms
227
Specific objective: describe the maintenance of a constant internal body temperature
in humans in terms of insulation, the effects of sweating, shivering related to
vasodilation and vasoconstriction only
Insulation
- An insulator is something that does not easily allow heat to escape.
 Fats underneath the skin provide humans with insulation by creating a fatty layer
in their bodies which stops internal body heat from escaping.
 Wearing of more clothes when it is cold slow down the heat loss from your body
to the air around you.
 When the external temperature is low (cold) hair erector muscle contracts, hairs
stand upright and trap a layer of air that acts as insulation against the cold
 When the external temperature is high (hot) hair erector muscle relaxes, hairs
lies flat on skin surface and does not trap a layer of air and thus prevent
insulation
Sweating
 When temperatures are high, the arterioles, which supply the sweat glands with
blood dilate
 This causes more blood to flow to the sweat glands
 More sweat is produced
 More evaporation of sweat from the skin surface occurs.
 More heat is lost through evaporation
 When temperatures are low, the arterioles which supply the sweat glands with
blood constricts
 Less blood flows to the sweat glands
 Less sweat is therefore produced and secreted
 Less evaporation of sweat from the skin surface occurs.
 Less heat is lost by evaporation
228
A section through the skin
Shivering
 When the external temperatures are low, the muscles in the skin start to
contract and relax uncontrollably.
 This twitching exercise produces heat, which helps to raise body temperature
 More heat is generated through respiration in the muscle cells during shivering
Vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction refers to the narrowing of the blood vessels, in particular

arterioles.
 When the external temperature is low and the body temperature falls below 37°C
the muscles around the arterioles contract.
 The arterioles in the skin constrict and reduce in diameter resulting in less blood
flowing in the skin capillaries.
 This makes the skin turn pale because less blood reaches the surface, so less
heat is lost through radiation from the skin.
229
Vasodilation
Vasodilation refers to the widening of the blood vessels, in particular arterioles.
 When the external temperature is very high and your body temperature rises too
much above 37°C, the muscles around the arterioles in the skin relax.
 The arterioles in the skin dilate and increase in diameter resulting in more blood
flowing in the skin capillaries.
 This makes the skin turn darker because more blood reaches the surface, so
more heat is lost through radiation and convection from the skin.
The diagram shows vasoconstriction (cold environment) and vasodilation (warm

environment)
230
Specific objective: describe the control of the glucose content of the blood by the liver,
and the roles of insulin and glucagon from pancreas
Control of blood glucose level in the body
- The normal concentration of glucose in the blood is 90-100mg glucose/ 100cm3
of blood (0.1%), but this can vary.
- After a meal rich in carbohydrates, the blood glucose level may rise to 150mg.
- After a prolonged and strenuous period of physical exercise, the blood glucose
levels may drop to as low as 70mg.
- After an extended period without eating food, the blood glucose levels may also
drop to as low as 70mg.
- Blood glucose levels need to be kept within narrow limits, because respiration is
a continuous process which needs a regular supply of glucose.
- If the blood glucose falls below normal, a person may faint and go into a coma
which can be fatal.
- If the blood glucose level is too high, water may be drawn out of cells and tissue
fluid by osmosis back into the blood.
- This will cause kidney to excrete this water which can lead to dehydration.
The roles of insulin in the pancreas (high glucose levels)
 The beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormone
insulin into the bloodstream.
 This stimulates cells all over the body to uptake glucose especially the skeletal
muscles
 The bloodstream transports the insulin to the liver
 The insulin instructs the liver cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen
 Insulin can also increase the rate of respiration
 Glycogen can be stored in the liver and the muscles
The roles of glucagon in the pancreas (Low glucose levels)
 The alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormone
glucagon into the bloodstream.
 The bloodstream transports the glucagon to the liver
 The glucagon instructs the liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose
 Glucagon can also decrease the rate of respiration
 Adrenaline can also be secreted from the adrenal glands to stimulate the
conversion of glycogen to glucose
 The entire activity is controlled by homeostasis.
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Diagrammatic presentation of blood glucose control
Specific objective: outline the symptoms of and treatment of Type 1 diabetes (details
of β (beta) cells are not required)
 Type 1 diabetes is a chronic auto-immune disease in which the immune system

attacks the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.
 The beta cells of the pancreas become incapable of secreting insulin and the
lack of insulin leads to increased glucose in the blood and urine.
Symptoms of Type 1 diabetes
 Extreme constant thirst

 Frequent urination
 Unintended weight loss
 Extreme hunger
 Irritability and other mood changes
 Fatigue and weakness
 Blurry vision
 In females, a vaginal yeast infection
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Treatment of Type 1 diabetes
 There is no cure for diabetes. Frequent blood sugar monitoring involves regular
measurement of blood glucose levels.
 Too high blood glucose can be controlled by daily administrations of insulin
injection
 Sufferers must change their diet by avoiding eating too much sugary food
(carbohydrates)
 Exercise regularly and maintain a healthy weight
Specific objective: Investigate the rate of cooling of a warm body (represented by

tubes containing hot water) under different conditions (e.g. large or small surface area,
with wet or dry covering).
Materials
- Hot water
- 4 glass beakers
- 4 rubber bands
- 4 thermometers
- Stop watch
- Piece of newspaper
- Woolen sock (to represent feathers or fur)
- Piece of cotton cloth
- Piece of tinfoil
Procedure
1. Align the four glass beakers in a row on an even surface.
2. Pour the same amount of very hot water into each glass beaker.
3. Cover each glass beaker with one of the four materials from above (foil, cotton
cloth, woolen sock and newspaper)
4. Secure the materials over the top of each glass beaker with a rubber band.
5. Leave the glass beaker for half an hour.
6. Remove all the materials from the glass beakers.
7. Place a thermometer into each glass beaker. Leave it for two minutes and read the
temperature in °C. The one which has the warmest water had the best insulator as
a cover.
For our experiment a good insulator is a kind of material which keeps things warm for
longer, it help to stop heat from escaping.
233
Topic 4 Development of the organism and the continuity of life
4.1 Cell division
- Growth and reproduction in animals is usually a result of cell divission.
- Cell division is the process by which cells produce new cells.
- All cells are derived from pre-existing cells.
Specific objective: define mitosis as:

Nuclear division, giving rise to genetically identical cells
Specific objective: describe mitosis simply, in term of the exact duplication of

chromosomes resulting in identical daughter nuclei (details of stages are not required
During mitosis, the cell nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei.
 Each contain exactly the same number of chromosomes.

 Before division, the nucleus makes copy of the chromosomes.
 Mitosis form two daughter nuclei of identical cells with the full set of
chromosomes (diploid).
Simple presentation of the process of mitosis
234
Specific objective: State the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damage tissues,
replacement of cell and sexual reproduction.
Role of mitosis
 Growth
- Mitosis occur where new cells are needed for growth
- Mitosis is the basic component of growth
- A zygote will develop into a functioning multicellular organism because of mitosis
 Repair of tissues
- Mitosis multiply cells for the repair of damaged cells of multicellular organism
- Skin cells go through many mitotic division during the repair of the epidermis
after an injury
- Repair can also occur during regeneration of missing parts in some multicellular
organisms
 Replacement of cells
- Skin cells are shed daily and they are replaced by mitosis.
- Red blood cells that are lost are replaced by mitosis
- Cells lost in donated blood gets replaced by mitosis
 Asexual reproduction
- Mitosis is a form of asexual reproduction
- Simple organisms make copies of themselves and split by binary fission during
mitosis
- A wide range of organisms reproduce by asexual method involving Mitosis.
Specific objective: observe, and interpret from diagrams and photomicrographs,

mitosis in root tips.
Diagram of mitosis in root tips Photomicrograph showing stages of mitosis
235
Specific objective: prepare and stain temporary slides of root tip squashes to show
mitosis
(Refer to page 337 NAMCOL Biology learner’s book for procedure)
Specific objective: define meiosis as:
The reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to
haploid resulting in genetically different cells (details of stages are not required)
Specific objective: draw and interpret prepared slides showing meiosis in animal and
plant tissues.
Slides showing meiosis

Specific objective: state that meiosis is involved in production of gametes.
Meiosis and the production of gametes
- Not any diploid cell produces gametes through meiosis.

- Diploid cells destined to become haploids are cells in the ovaries in females and
testes in males or in ovule and anthers of a plant flower.
 Meiosis result in the formation of four daughter cells, each with the half number
of chromosomes of the parents. This form the basis of sexual reproduction.
 Reduction division reduces the diploid chromosome to a haploid number.
 Gametes are formed during meiosis.
 At fertilization, haploid male gametes fuse with female haploid gametes to form a
diploid zygote.
 Genetic variation occurs because meiosis provide opportunity for new
combination of genes to occur in gametes.
236
The diagram shows the process of meiosis
Specific objective: explain how meiosis produces variation by forming new

combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes (details are not required)
Genetic Variation.
- Maternal chromosomes are the ones received from the mother and paternal ones
are received from the father.
- Chromatids exchange genetic materials and different sections of chromosomes
are exchanged.
- This major genes reshuffling take place during cross over.
Meiosis causes genetic variation (due to crossing over and reshuffling of genes)
237
Specific objective: distinguish between mitosis and meiosis
The table below shows the distinction between mitosis and meiosis
Features mitosis meiosis
238
4.2 Reproduction
4.2.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
- Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are

produced from their parents.
- There are two forms of reproduction: Sexual and Asexual
Specific objective: define asexual reproduction as:

A process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent.
Specific objective: describe asexual reproduction in bacteria, spore production in fungi

and tuber formation in potatoes
Asexual reproduction in bacteria
 Bacteria are unicellular organisms that reproduce by a form of a cell division

called binary fission.
 This occurs when duplicates of DNA divides into daughter cells which then also
divides and the life cycle continue
Binary fission in bacteria
239
Asexual reproduction in spore production in fungi
 Reproduction takes place by means of spores

 Fungi produce genetically identical spores by mitosis.
 Some of the hyphae become aerial
 At the tip of these aerial hyphae, sporangia form where spores are produced and
stored.
 When matured, sporangia burst open, spores are released into the air and
dispersed by wind.
 Once these spores land on a favourable environment (moist and warm) they
geminate, grow and develop again
 All these offspring are genetically identical.
Spore production in fungi
Asexual reproduction in tuber formation in potatoes.
 Potato tubers have auxiliary buds on their surface.

 In favourable conditions, new shoots and roots grow from these buds using
stored nutrients in the tuber.
 The new roots and leaves grow by mitosis. The new plants are identical to the
parent plant.
 Roots grow downwards and the shoots and leaves grow upwards.
 The tips of the ground stem swell as they store nutrients.
 These nutrients are translocated down the stem to be stored in tubers.
 As more nutrients are stored, new tubers are formed
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Asexual reproduction in Irish potatoes
Specific objective: discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Advantages of asexual reproduction
 It’s a fast and simple process

 Only one parent is needed or does not involve gametes
 The offspring are identical to their parents and retain advantageous
characteristics of the parent
 Rapid increase in number and spreading can out-compete competitors by
forming large colonies
 No need for agents for pollination to carry pollen and seeds during seed
dispersal.
241
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
 All offspring are genetically identical

 Has lesser chance of adopting to environmental changes
 All offspring maybe affected or killed by the same diseases because they are
genetically identical.
 Overcrowding may occur and resources can be used up.
Specific objective: define sexual reproduction as:
A process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote
and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
Specific objective: define fertilization as the fusion of gamete nuclei
Fertilization in animals
Specific objective: discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Advantages of sexual reproduction Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

Results in genetic variation Two parents required
Gives new offspring better chance of The new young ones are vulnerable
survival in changing conditions
Seeds can be dispersed to other areas Produces fewer offspring than asexual
reproduction
Evolution and formation of a new species It takes time and energy
can occur
Outside agents are needed to carry
pollen in flowering plants
Pollen and seeds are wasted
242
4.2.2 Sexual reproduction in plants
Specific objective: define self-pollination as:
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
or different flower on the same plant
Specific objective: define cross-pollination as:
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a
different plant of the same species
Specific objective: describe the different structural adaptations and functions of the
parts of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
- Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the flowers

- Flowers carry the reproductive organs of a flower
- Unisexual flowers are those that have the male reproduction organs (stamen)
and female reproduction organs (carpel) on separate flowers
- Bisexual flowers have both stamen and carpels in the same flower
243
Structure of an insect pollinated flower
Structure of a wind-pollinated flower
244
Functions of the parts of a flower
Flower part Functions
Flower stalk (stem) Connects the flower to the stem; carries inorganic and organic
nutrients to the flower
Receptacle Top thickened part of the flower stalk which bears the flower; where
the parts of the flower are attached to
Sepals (calyx) Green outer part of the flower that enclose and protect a developing
flower bud
Carpel (pistil) The female reproductive organs of the flower (the stigma, style and
ovary containing ovules)
Stigma Receptive tip of the style where pollen is deposited during pollination;
it produces the nutritive juices for pollen to germinate
Style Part of the carpel that joins the ovary to the stigma; supports the
stigma to be exposed to agents of pollination; pollen tube grows
through the style
Ovary Enlarged basal part of the carpel where ovules are produced; it
contains the ovules; it becomes the fruit after fertilization
Ovule Structure inside the ovary which contains the female gametes; it
becomes the seed after fertilization
Female gamete The haploid sex cell which fuses with the male gamete during
fertilization to form the diploid zygote
Stamen The male reproductive organs, each stamen consists of an anther
and a filament
Anther The tip of the stamen which contains pollen sacs to produce pollen
grains
Pollen sacs The chambers in the anther where the pollen grains are produced
Pollen grains Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen
grains in which the male gametes are produced
Male gamete The haploid sex cell produced in the pollen grains which fuses with
the female gamete during fertilisation to form a haploid zygote
Filament The stalk of the stamen which carries the anther and hold it to be
exposed to agents of pollination
Petals (corolla) The often conspicuous coloured and scented part of a flower which
attracts pollinators for pollination
Nectary gland and A gland-like swelling found on the receptacle or other parts of some
nectar flowers which produces nectar a sweet sugary fluid collected by bees
to make honey
245
Structural adaptations of an insect and wind pollinated flower
Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

Large, brightly coloured and conspicuous Small, dull and inconspicuous flowers
petals to attract insects for pollination
Flowers have nectaries to produce nectar Nectaries absent, no need to attract
to attract pollinators pollinators
Scented flowers with attractive odours to flowers not scented (have no attractive
attract pollinaters smell)
Firm anthers inside the flower to allow Anthers dangle outside the flower on
visiting insects to brush against them long, slender filaments for pollen to be
easily released into the air
Stigmas are enclosed within the flower for long filaments with anthers that hang
visiting insects to brush against them outside the flower
when collecting nectar
Small anthers that produce less pollen Large anthers to produce lots of pollen
as most pollen are wasted
Small stigmas to deposit pollen Large, branched and feathery stigmas
accurately with a large surface area to filter and
catch pollen grains from the air
Pollen grains are sticky and spiky to help Pollen grains are smooth, light and dry
it adhere to the body of the insects to aid wind transport
Pollen grains are larger in size compared Pollen grains are small in size
to wind-pollinated pollen grains
246
Specific objective: investigate and draw the anthers and stigmas of an insect-
pollinated flower using a hand lens
- A hand lens is a magnifying glass that is used to enlarge an object
Using a hand lens:
- First hold the instrument out at arm’s length

- to get the best view of the object, hold the lens as close to your eye as possible
- bring the object up in front of the lens until it is in focus
- obtain your focal distance, which is the distance at which you must hold the
object in front of the lens for it to be in focus
- the higher the magnification of the lens, the shorter the focal distance needs to
be and the smaller the field of view
- e.g. a 10X hand lens has a focal distance of 25mm while a 20X hand lens has a
focal view of 12mm
Specific objective: observe, draw, interpret and compare the structure of wind-
pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers
Activity
Collect a flower from a wind pollinated plant like grass and from an insect pollinated
plant and make an enlarged labelled drawing of the flowers.
247
Specific objective: Name the agents of pollinated
Pollination:
Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower
Agents of pollination
Agent method
Wind Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by blowing wind
Insects Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by insects like bees,
flies, ants
Water Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by flowing water
Animals Pollen is carried from one flower to the next by animals
Humans Pollen is carried artificially from one flower to the next by humans
using a small brush
248
Specific objective: discuss the implications to a species of self-pollination and cross-
pollination in terms of variation and reliance on pollinators
Implications to a species of self-pollination
 there is less genetic variation in the offspring than if there was cross-pollination
 variation allows species to have a better chance of survival, with self-pollination,
species become less adaptive to changing conditions
 if plants become susceptible to a disease, their resistance can be reduced
 Self-pollination creates less variation, but can be advantageous if there are no
other plants nearby. Pollination can still occur in areas with scarce pollinators
 less pollen is wasted as pollen transfer is more precise
Implications to a species of cross-pollination
 causes more genetic variation due to mixing of gametes

 plants are more able to adapt to changing conditions creating better chances of
survival for a plant species
 plants can develop more resistance to diseases
 more pollen is wasted as pollen transfer is less precise
- plants like maize avoid self-pollination because anthers mature before the
stigma
Specific objective: describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule
followed by fertilisation (details of production of endosperm and development are not
required)
 Pollen grains land on the stigma during pollination

 The stigma produces a sticky nutritive fluid
 Pollen grain absorbs this fluid and burst open
 A pollen tube emerges from the pollen grain and grows through the stigma and
style to the ovary
 Male nucleus moves down the pollen tube
 The tip of the pollen tube ruptures and the male gamete enters the ovule
 The male gamete fuses with the female gamete (egg cell) to form a diploid
zygote during fertilization
249
 The zygote then forms the embryo plant by mitosis
 After fertilization, the petals and style dry and fall off
 After fertilisation, the ovule stores nutrients and becomes the seed
 After fertilisation the ovary becomes the fruit
Specific objective: investigate the formation of pollen tubes in sugar solutions

- Growth of a pollen tube can be observed under medium power of a microscope
Materials needed:
- Sucrose (a sugar) solution

- Boric acid solution
- Microscope slide
- Light microscope
- Fresh pollen grains
Procedure:
- Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10g sucrose and 10mg boric acid in
100ml distilled water
- Take a few drops of this solution on a clear slide and dust a few pollen grains
from the stamen of a flower in it
- Observe the slide under a microscope
Observations:
- After every half hour, observe the slide under a simple microscope
- Pollen grains with developing pollen tubes will be seen
- Most pollen grains germinate in a 10-20% sugar solution (you can use sugar
solution alone if there is no boric acid
250
Germinating pollen grains as seen through a light microscope
Specific objective: explain the importance of seed dispersal

Seed dispersal:
The spreading of seeds and fruits as far away as possible from the mother plant
Methods of seed dispersal:
- Wind
- Water
- Self-explosion
- Animals
Importance of seed dispersal
 The offspring (seedlings) do not compete with parents for resources such as
water, sunlight, space and minerals
 Avoid overcrowding of plants in a small space
 Risk of soil depletion of its resources is reduced
 Risk of spreading of diseases in a plant species is reduced
 A natural disaster cannot destroy a whole community
 Dispersal reduces inbreeding and thus promote outbreeding
 Increases chances of plants becoming established in new habitats and to
colonise new areas
251
4.3. Human reproductive system
4.3.1 Sex hormones in humans
Specific objective: describe the sites of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual
cycle and in pregnancy
Menstrual cycle:
Regular natural changes that occur in the female reproductive system and it makes
pregnancy possible
- the cycle is required for the production of the female gametes

- it prepares the uterus for pregnancy
- the cycle occurs over 28 days and includes ovulation (the release of an egg from
the ovary)
- the cycle includes thickening of the uterus wall and menstruation if fertilization did
not occur
Sites of oestrogen and progesterone production in the menstrual cycle
Hormone
Oestrogen Progesterone
Site of production: Site of production:
- produced and secreted by the - produced and secreted by the
Graafian follicle in the ovary corpus luteum (yellow body) in
the ovary
Site of oestrogen and progesterone production during pregnancy
Hormone
Oestrogen Progesterone
Site of production: Site of production:
- produced by the placenta - produced by the placenta
252
Specific objective: explain the role of hormones in controlling the menstrual cycle and
pregnancy limited to FSH, LH, progesterone and oestrogen
Hormone Roles in the menstrual cycle

FSH (follicle stimulating - in the first 5 days of the cycle, it stimulates the
hormone) produced and development of the Graafian follicle in the ovary
secreted by the anterior - it stimulates the Graafian follicle in the ovary to produce
lobe of the pituitary gland oestrogen
- its concentration rises after menstruation and peaks on
day 14
- a low FSH level after menstruation prevents further
follicle stimulation
LH (luteinizing - it peaks on day 14
hormone) produced and - it controls and stimulates ovulation to occur on day 14
secreted by the anterior - stimulates the corpus luteum In the ovary to produce and
lobe of the pituitary gland secrete progesterone
Oestrogen - oestrogen rises from day 4/5 and peaks on day 12/13
- high levels of oestrogen causes the cells in the uterus
lining after menstruation to divide, repair, thicken and
build up a new uterus lining
- causes blood vessels and glands to develop in the uterus
lining
- stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and secrete LH
Progesterone - its production peaks a week after ovulation to help
maintain the thickness of the uterus lining
- it prevents the uterus lining from breaking down in order
to keep the uterus lining ready for implantation of the
embryo
- it thickens the uterus lining even more
- it inhibits the production of FSH so it inhibits the
development of a new follicle
- a fall in progesterone levels on days 23-28 removes the
maintaining effect and causes the uterus lining to break
down
- break down of the uterus lining leads to menstruation
- if fertilization occurs progesterone levels stays high
during pregnancy and no menstruation occurs
253
Hormone Role during pregnancy
FSH -remains low during pregnancy to prevent
ovulation
LH -stimulates the corpus luteum to produce and
secrete progesterone
Oestrogen - prepares the uterus for labour by increasing the
sensitivity of the uterus muscles so it can contract
during labour
- causes the lining of the vagina to become
thicker, tougher and have a better blood supply to
allow an easy passage during birth
- makes the placenta grow and function properly
- it triggers the development of the organs and
bone density of the developing foetus
- promotes growth of maternal breast tissue to
prepare the pregnant woman for lactation
Progesterone - high levels of progesterone ensures that
pregnancy is maintained as it keeps the uterus
lining thickened
- high levels will inhibit contractions of the uterus
walls to prevent abortion of the foetus
- prevents menstruation during pregnancy
- helps to suppress immune responses of the
mother to the foetus antigens in order to prevent
rejection of the foetus
- prevents any further ovulation during pregnancy
by inhibiting the release of FSH
- stimulates the development of secretory tissues
in the mammary glands to prepare the breasts for
milk production and lactation
254
4.3.2. Sexual reproduction in humans
Specific objective: identify from diagrams the parts of the male and female
reproductive system and state the function of these parts
Female reproductive system
Front view side view
Functions of the parts of the female reproductive system

Ovaries
- a pair of tiny glands situated in the pelvic cavity, one on either side of the uterus
womb
- ovaries are held in position by ligaments and are connected to the uterus by the
ovarian ligaments
Functions:
 produce, store, ripen and release egg cells (ova)
 produce and secrete the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone
255
Oviduct (fallopian tube)
- narrow tube that extends from each ovary to the uterus through which the ovum
travels
- walls of the oviduct is lined with ciliated epithelium
Functions:
 where the ovum is released into and travels down towards the uterus with the
help of the flicking movement of the cilia
 where fertilisation occurs, the developing zygote and embryo are moved by
the cilia and peristaltic movements towards the uterus
Uterus (womb)
- a muscular organ about 7cm long and 5 cm wide

Functions:
 provides a place where the embryo develops into a foetus
 it is within the uterus that the foetus develops during pregnancy before birth
 during birth the baby is pushed out by the walls of the uterus through a series of
contractions
Cervix
- lower part of the uterus that leads to the vagina
- it is the neck of the uterus
Functions:
 it dilates (widens) during labour and birth for the baby to pass out to the outside
 passage through which sperms travels through to fertilise an egg cell after sexual
intercourse
 a mucus plug forms in the cervix to close off the uterus during pregnancy
Vagina
- muscular tube lined with a thick mucous membrane

- it opens to the exterior through the vulva
Functions
 receives the penis during sexual intercourse (copulation), semen is released into
the top part of the vagina
 baby passes through the vagina during natural birth
 has a membrane called the hymen that partially closes the vagina of a virgin
256
Vulva
- the outer part of the female genital, includes the opening of the vagina, the labia
and clitoris
Male reproductive system
Front view Side view
Functions of the parts of the male reproductive system

Scrotal sac (scrotum)
- consist of a sack of skin and smooth muscle and is located under the penis
Functions:
 contains and encloses the testes and the epididymis and part of the vas deferens
 regulates the temperature of the testes by maintaining it at 2 degrees below the
normal body temperature
 this ensures an optimum temperature for sperm production
Testes (testicles)
- usually two testes located descended from the pelvis

- the testis is surrounded by skin called the scrotum which hangs outside the body
between the legs
Functions
 where the production of sperm (male sex cells) takes place (in the seminiferous
tubules in the testes)
 has cells that are responsible for the production of testosterone
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Epididymis
- a six meter long tube that lies on top of the testis

- the tube that connects a testis to a vas deference
Functions:
 where sperm undergo maturation processes to make them functional and

mobile
 where sperms produced in the testis enter to be stored
Vas deferens (sperm duct)
- tiny muscular tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
Functions:
 transports sperm by peristaltic movements towards different glands where

seminal fluid is added to the sperm
 during ejaculation, the smooth muscle in the walls of the vas deferens contracts
reflexively to propel the sperm forward into the urethra
Seminal vesicle
- two small glands that lie directly above the prostate gland, attached to the vas
deferens
Functions:
 secrete the bulk of the seminal fluid, a combination of sperm and seminal fluid is
called semen
 the fluid is rich in fructose an important source of energy for sperm to swim
 the fluid also prevents sperm from drying out
Cowper’s gland
- secretes a sticky fluid before actual ejaculation of sperms and semen
Functions:
 the fluids are alkaline to protect sperms from the acidic environment of the male
urethra
 the fluids helps in penetration by providing lubrication
 the fluids make the semen alkaline, to increase survival in the acidic conditions of
the vagina
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Prostate gland
- located between the bladder and the penis just in front of the rectum
- the urethra runs through the centre of the prostate from the bladder to the penis
Functions:
 secretes prostate fluid, one of the components of semen which energises the
sperm
 secretes the alkaline fluid found in semen and makes the vaginal canal less
acidic
 it squeezes fluid into the urethra as sperm move through during ejaculation
Urethra
- tube connected to the bladder

- it travels through the penis and thus carries both urine and semen to the exterior
Functions:
 carries semen from the sperm duct to the penis during ejaculation
 urine also passes through the urethra from the bladder during urination
Penis
- external male organ that transfers semen from the male to the female and also
serves as the urinary duct
Functions:
 it is the organ which is inserted into the vagina during sexual intercourse
 contains erectile tissue (a collection of blood vessels separated by sheets of
connective tissue)
 during an erection the blood vessels fill up with blood and causes the penis to
become erect
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Specific objective: describe fertilisation as:
The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete and a female gamete (egg cell/ovum) to
form a zygote
During fertilization:
 the sperms propel themselves using its tail and swim through the cervix up to the
uterus and into the oviduct
 egg cell released during ovulation has to be inside the oviduct for fertilization to
occur
 when sperms reach the egg cell, only one sperm cell enters head first and loses
its tail in the process
 the membrane around the egg cell becomes impermeable to other sperms that is
why only one sperm is capable of entering the egg cell
 the haploid nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the haploid nucleus of the egg
cell in the oviduct and thus fertilization occurs
 the fertilized egg becomes a diploid zygote
Specific objective: describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation
to exchange of gases dissolved nutrients and excretory products
- after fertilization the fertilized egg (zygote) divides by mitosis and develops into
an embryo
- the developing zygote and embryo are moved by the cilia in the oviduct towards
the uterus for implantation
- implantation is the attachment of the developing embryo in the thickened uterine
walls
- this thickened uterine walls is called the placenta
- the placenta has two arteries and one vein (making up the umbilical cord)
connecting it to the developing foetus
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Functions of the placenta
 acts as an endocrine gland to release hormones (oestrogen and progesterone)

during pregnancy
 it is used for the exchange of substances between the mother and the foetus
 oxygen and nutrients like amino acids, glucose, water, vitamins) diffuse across
the placenta from the mother’s blood to the foetal blood
 placenta allows the passage of antibodies from the mother to the foetus
 waste excretory products like carbon dioxide and urea diffuse through the
placenta from the foetal blood to the mother’s blood
 placenta forms a barrier between the blood systems, preventing maternal and
foetal blood systems from mixing
 placenta prevents pathogens like viruses from passing through to the foetal
blood, but a damaged placenta can fail to do that
Functions of the umbilical cord

- connects the placenta to the navel of the foetus
 consist of two arteries and one vein which forms the only connection between
the foetus and the placenta
 One vein inside the cord takes substances to the foetus from the placenta
 Two arteries in the cord take substances from the foetus to the placenta
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The uterus, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid
Uterus Amniotic sac (amnion) Amniotic fluid

- organ which holds the - strong membrane that - fluid that surrounds the
foetus during pregnancy surrounds the foetus during foetus during pregnancy
pregnancy and keeps - allows foetus to float and
- muscular organ that amniotic fluid in move in the fluid
increases its size and
thickness during - produces and secretes - keeps the foetus in a space
pregnancy amniotic fluid free from the effects of gravity
and pressure
- prevents entry of
pathogens from the vagina - helps minimise temperature
changes
- collects foetal urine

- prevents drying out of the
foetus
- provides a sterile
environment for the foetus
Specific objective: outline the growth and development of the foetus in terms of
increasing complexity in the early stages and increasing size towards the end of
pregnancy
- Growth refers to the permanent irreversible increase in size and number of cells
of an organism
- Growth is a result of cell division (mitosis)
- Development refers to the stage of growth which includes changes in structure
and appearance of cells (differentiation and cell specialization)
- The new cells forms new tissues and organs and the body becomes more
complicated and increases in complexity
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Stage in pregnancy Developmental changes
Week 1 to week 4 - amniotic bag and sac forms around embryo

- placenta and umbilical cord develops
- foetus forms a primitive face with large dark circles for
eyes
- mouth, lower jaw and throat start developing
- embryo size by week 4 is about 4mm in length
Week 5 to week 8 - other facial features including arms, legs and fingers
start forming
- the brain, spinal cord and other central nervous tissues
forms
- bone start to replace cartilage
- head enlarges in proportion to the body
- digestive tract and sensory organs begin to develop
- at 6 weeks a heartbeat can be detected
- embryo size by week 8 is about 2.5cm in length
Month 3 - embryo is now called a foetus with fully formed limbs
- foetus can open and close its fists and mouth
- finger and toe nails began to develop
- beginnings of teeth start forming as well as reproductive
organs
- organs are present and foetus is fully formed and will
continue to mature in order to become functional
- foetus is about 9cm in length
Month 4 - heart beat is audible
- limbs and nails and facial features are formed
- teeth and bones become denser
- nervous system start to function, foetus can stretch,
suck thumb or yawn
- reproductive organs are fully developed and can be
seen on ultra sound
Month 5 - foetal movement can be felt by mother as muscles are
developing
- hair grows on head
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- baby skin is covered with a protective coating that is
shed before birth
Month 6 - foetal skin is reddish, wrinkled and veins can be seen

- finger and toe prints become visible
- foetus responds to sound by moving or increasing pulse
rate
- foetus born premature after week 23 can survive with
intensive care
Month 7 - foetus continues to mature and develops reserves of
body fat
- foetus changes position frequently and responds to
stimuli like sound, pain and light
- fluid begins to diminish
Month 8 - as foetus continue to mature, it starts kicking more
- brain develops rapidly and foetus can see and hear
- most internal systems are well developed, the lungs
may still be immature
Month 9 - growth and maturity continues, with lungs nearly fully
developed
- reflexes are coordinated (blinking, closing eyes, turning
head and responding to touch n sound)
- foetus moves less due to tight space, position is
changed with head facing down
- foetus drops in the pelvis area, skin is smooth
- foetus is about 49cm in length and ready to be born
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Specific objective: outline the processes involved in labour and birth
- At about forty weeks, the foetus is about to be born

- Labour approaches as the mother ‘s body undergoes changes to prepare for the
birth of the baby
- Labour is the time period that precedes birth
- Oxytocin a hormone that stimulates contractions is secreted by the pituitary gland
Stage one: labour
 Contractions of the uterus occur (can be gentle at first with hourly intervals
between contractions)
 As contractions become regular, the foetus’s head moves down into the
pelvis and cervix start to get thin and dilate
 Mucus plug is pushed out, mucus near the cervix protects baby from bacteria
 Next water will break (the amniotic sac ruptures and releases fluid as
contractions continue
 The dilation of the cervix and position of the baby will be monitored
periodically
 Contraction become longer, stronger and more frequent and the cervix
stretches the last few centimetres (cervix becomes fully dilated at ten
centimetres wide)
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Stage two: birth or delivery of the baby
 Involves pushing the baby out through the vaginal canal

 Pushing during contractions pushes the head of the foetus out of the
cervix into the vagina
 Small cuts can be made on the vagina by the doctor to enlarge the vaginal
opening
 Once the baby’s head fully appears, one more push is required to push
the rest of the baby’s body out
 Immediately after delivery, the baby is expected to cry within one minute
 Crying is important as it allows the baby to draw breath into its lungs and
start breathing on its own
 After the baby starts to breath, the umbilical cord is clamped and cut
Stage three: delivery of after birth
 Involves delivery of the placenta and umbilical cord (afterbirth)

 Contractions will begin five minutes after birth signaling the time to deliver
the placenta
 Placenta is expelled through the vagina
 Any cuts and tears will be repaired by the doctor
Specific objective: discuss the advantages and disadvantages of breast-feeding

compared to bottle-feeding
Advantages of breast-feeding or Disadvantages of bottle-feeding or
breast milk formula milk
- always the correct temperature - needs to be heated or cooled to correct
temperature
- contains protective antibodies - contains no antibodies
- more convenient and is always - sometimes not available in shops
available
- free of charge - very expensive
- digested more easily - more difficult to digest
- free of harmful pathogens - can contain harmful pathogens
- suckling from breast helps baby to feel - suckling from a bottle lets baby feel less
safe and develop a sense of security safe and does not help to develop a sense of
- can protect mother against ovarian security
cancer - no protection against ovarian cancer
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Advantages of bottle feeding or Disadvantages of breast feeding or breast
formula milk milk
- no pain because of cracked nipples, -breast-feeding comes with pain because of
bite marks or mastitis cracked nipples, bit marks or mastitis
- one can comfortable feed a baby with a - feeding in public can be uncomfortable
bottle any place
- entire family can share in the - only the mother can feed the baby
experience of feeding the baby
- mothers are not required to change - mothers are required to change their diet
their diet and can eat whatever they want and cannot eat whatever they want
- the mother knows exactly how much
milk the baby has consumed - the mother does not know the exact quantity
the baby has had resulting in over or under
feeding
4.3.3 Methods of birth control and increasing fertility
Specific objective: outline the following methods of birth control: natural methods:
limited to abstinence, monitoring body temperature and cervical mucus; chemical
methods: IUD, contraceptive pill, implant and injection; barrier methods: limited to
condom, femidom and diaphragm; surgical methods: vasectomy and tubal ligation
Birth control (contraceptive)
The use of medications, practices or devices to prevent pregnancy
Birth control methods:
- Natural methods
- Chemical methods
- Barrier methods
- Surgical methods
 Natural methods
Birth control that rely on observations about the woman’s body and menstrual
cycle
Examples include:
Abstinence
- No sexual contact of any kind involved
- It is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.
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Monitoring body temperature
- A woman’s temperature rises slightly around the time of ovulation and this can
alert a woman when she is most fertile and likely to fall pregnant
- A sustained increase in temperature that lasts for three days indicates that
ovulation has taken place
- A woman can therefore identify when ovulation has passed and the fertile stage
of her menstrual cycle has finished
Cervical mucus
- Cervical mucus changes in thickness throughout a woman’s menstrual cycle
- As egg develops in the ovary, oestrogen is released making the mucus thinner
and slippery (sperms can then swim easily to the egg)
- After the egg is released, an increase in progesterone causes mucus to thicken
and act as a barrier to other sperm
- A woman can track the state of their mucus to give them insight into their fertility
 Chemical methods
Involves the use of chemical hormones to control the menstrual cycle or
ovulation
Examples include:
IUD (intrauterine device)

- A small, T-shaped device which is placed through the vagina directly in the
uterus by a doctor
- The device contains hormones which prevents implantation
- Some IUD releases copper ions which immobilise the sperm and makes it hard
for sperm to swim through the uterus
- Once inserted in the uterus, it can stay in place for 5-10 years
- After it is removed, the contraceptive wears off and one can become pregnant
fast
- A cost effective option that is effective against pregnancy but not against STIs
Contraceptive pill
- The 21 day pill is a birth control method designed to be taken orally every day, at
the same time of the day in order to prevent pregnancy
- It contains a combination of oestrogen and progesterone hormones
- The pill prevents the body from ovulating so no egg is available for fertilization to
occur
- It prevents ovulation by inhibiting the production of FSH
- The mini pill (28 day pill) contains progesterone only
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- Contains 28 pills which are all active
- The progesterone thickens the mucus at the cervix, making it hard for sperm to
swim to an egg
- This prevents the entry of sperm through the cervix into the uterus
- The morning after pill is an emergency contraception used after unprotected
sexual intercourse has taken place
- The morning after pill delays ovulation as well as prevents implantation or
increase the cervical mucus to prevent sperm from accessing the egg cell
Implant
- Is a flexible plastic rod that is implanted under the skin (upper arm) by a health
care professional
- The implant prevents pregnancy by releasing low but steady dose of
progesterone hormone to thicken the cervical mucus
- The implant suppresses ovulation
- It offers effective long term contraception against pregnancy but not against STIs
Injection (the shot)

- A three-monthly contraceptive injection containing synthetic progesterone
hormone
- Patients returns every twelve weeks for an injection by a doctor
- The injection releases progesterone in to the blood stream which prevents
ovulation
- It also thickens the cervical mucus to make it difficult for sperm to swim through
the cervix and thins the uterus lining to prevent implantation
 Barrier methods
Involves physical barriers designed to stop sperm from entering a woman’s
uterus
Examples include:
Male condom
- Tube of thin latex rubber material that is rolled onto an erect penis before sexual
intercourse
- Semen is captured at the tip of the condom so that no sperm cells reaches the
ovum therefore preventing fertilisation
- Condoms are very effective against pregnancy and STIs if used correctly
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Female condom (femidom)
- A long pouch with flexible rings that is inserted into the vagina before intercourse
- The femidon covers the cervix, vaginal canal and semen is trapped inside the
femidom and thus sperms cannot reach the ovum and no fertilization can occur
- They are very reliable if used correctly
Diaphragm
- A soft, silicon rubber dome shaped device folded in half and inserted vaginally to
cover the cervix
- It is inserted no more than 3 hours before intercourse and should be removed 8-
24hours after intercourse
- Cervix is covered to prevent sperm from reaching the uterus and oviduct to avoid
fertilisation
- It works best with a spermicide (cream that kills sperm) and thus make them very
effective and reliable
- It gives no protection no protection against STIs
 Surgical methods
Involves carrying out surgical procedures on the reproductive organs
Examples include:
Vasectomy (male sterilisation)
- A surgical procedure for male sterilisation

- The vas deferens are cut and tied to prevent sperm from entering into the urethra
- The testis will still produce sperms but will be broken down and absorbed by the
body so there will be no sperm in semen
- It is considered a permanent method of contraception
- It does not protect against STIs
Tubal ligation (female sterilisation)
- A surgical procedure for sterilisation in which the woman’s fallopian tubes are
clamped and blocked or cut and sealed
- This prevents sperms from reaching the eggs
- Tubal ligation is considered a permanent birth control method
- It is effective at preventing pregnancy but not STIs
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Specific objective: outline the use of hormones in contraception and fertility treatments
- Fertility is the natural capability of humans to produce offspring

- Infertility is the failure to achieve pregnancy after twelve months or more of
regular unprotected sexual intercourse
Reasons why a couple may have difficulty conceiving a baby
In females In males
- Blocked oviducts - No sperm production
- No egg production - Produces defective sperm cells
- An irregular menstrual cycle that cannot swim
- Hormonal insufficiency that - Low sperm count
inhibits ovulation - Blocked sperm ducts
- Unsuitable uterine environment - Reduced testosterone levels
for implantation - Due to STIs like gonorrhoea
- No proper development of the
uterus lining
- Post menopause
Use of hormones in fertility treatments
- This involves the use of using substances like fertility drugs to treat women who
experience difficulty in becoming pregnant
- Fertility drugs causes the body to release hormones that trigger or regulate
ovulation
 Fertility treatments are given to women because they don’t produce enough FSH
that allows their eggs to mature
 The fertility drugs contain FSH and LH
 A woman is injected with this drugs during the early stages of the menstrual cycle
 FSH treatment will stimulate production, development and maturation of egg cells
 LH stimulates ovulation
 More eggs are then released which increases the chance of fertilization
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Specific objective: discuss the social aspects of contraception and fertility treatments
Positive social implications and aspects of using fertility drugs
 Enables infertile couples to have children

 Can help increase populations in countries with falling birth rates
Negative social implications and aspects of using fertility drugs
 Being infertile and undergoing fertility treatments can be very stressful for
couples wanting to conceive
 Fertility treatments are expensive especially when it is repeated before success
 Sometimes fertility drugs do not work and so infertility will not be treated
 Fertility drugs can result in multiple births while couples only wanted one child
 Multiple births are often risky and babies can be born prematurely and this can
bring financial hardships on parents
 Fertility treatments can increase the human population which is already over
populated
 There are many religious objections to the use of fertility drugs
 Unused embryo may die or used in research and this may be considered as
murder
 Social problems may arise from the donation of embryo from one woman to the
other
 Elderly parents may raise concern about the child’s welfare in childhood and
beyond if the elderly parents die
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4.3.4. Sexual transmitted infections (STIs)
Specific objective: define sexually transmitted infections as:
An infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact
Specific objective: describe the methods of transmission of the human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the ways in which it can be prevented from spreading
Methods of transmission of HIV
 During unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person as virus is

found in semen and vaginal secretions of infected persons
 Drug users sharing contaminated hypodermic needles and syringes infected
with blood
 Health workers getting stuck with an HIV contaminated needle or sharp object
 During blood transfusions if given untested blood
 An infected mother can pass it to the foetus during pregnancy if the placenta
is damaged
 An infected mother can pass it on to the baby during labour and birth because
of blood contact
 An infected mother can pass the virus to the baby during breast feeding
Methods of preventing HIV from spreading
 Through abstinence
 Using barrier methods of contraception like condoms and femidom
 Drug users to use sterilised needles and not share needles
 Ensure blood is screened and tested before given to anyone else
 Promote health education to create awareness of the dangers of HIV
 The use of Antiretroviral (ARV) drugs to prevent the spread of the virus in the
body
 People to know their status by being tested
Specific objective: discuss the increased vulnerability of Namibians to other illness

due to the increased prevalence of HIV and AIDS
273
 HIV and AIDS lead to a weakened immune system and reduced immunity to
diseases because white blood cells are destroyed
 HIV and AIDS reduces the action of phagocytes and lymphocytes
 This results in less antibody production and less phagocytosis
 B-lymphocyte response is low, so TB and pneumonia pathogens can multiply
faster and are not destroyed before it causes diseases
 The immune system is unable to fight TB and other opportunistic diseases
 AIDS is a syndrome and not a disease, it is opportunistic as it results in an
opportunity for other infections because of a weakened immune system
Specific objective: discuss the socio-economic consequences of the HIV and AIDS
pandemic for Namibia
 Loss of young skilled workers affect the country’s economy negatively due
to reduced labour force
 Lower productivity as people are too sick to work and thus absent from
work
 Cost pressure for companies increases as they have to provide benefit
payments for sick workers
 Increases costs on medical care, drugs and funeral expenses
 Healthy family members may miss work or school to take care of AIDS
sufferers
 Cost incurred to take care of orphans
 Indirect costs incurred to train and recruit new members to replace absent
workers
4.3.5 Growth and development

Specific objective: define growth
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Growth is the permanent irreversible increase in size and dry mass of an organism.
Specific objective: define development
Development is an increase in complexity of an organism as it grows.
Specific objective: describe the environmental conditions that affect germination
Germination: the process by which an embryo plant grows from a seed after a period of
dormancy.
Environmental conditions needed for seeds to germinate:
 Water
- Water starts the germination process by breaking the dormancy of the seed
- Water softens the seed coat and causes the seed to rupture for the embryo plant
parts to emerge
- Water enters the seed through the micropyle, and activate enzymes to break up
stored insoluble nutrients into smaller soluble parts
- Water acts as a solvent to transport soluble nutrients to the growing embryo
(radicle and plumule)
 Suitable temperature
- Suitable temperature provides an optimum temperature for enzymes to work
faster
- A suitable temperature increases the metabolic rate in the seed to digest and
break down stored nutrients
 Oxygen
- Oxygen is needed for respiration of the embryo
- Stored nutrients like glucose, fats and oils are used to release energy for the
growth of the embryo plant
- That is why there is a decrease in dry mass during germination as some nutrients
are being used
275
Specific objective: investigate the environmental conditions necessary for seed
germination
Practical activity
Materials:
- Five small paper cups - fifteen viable bean seeds - potting soil
- One black piece of felt - refrigerator or cooler - masking tape
- Pens - cotton balls - petroleum jelly
- Plastic wrap - rubber bands
Procedure:
1. Add potting soil to the cups so that each is about half full
2. Place 3 bean seeds in each cup at a depth equal to the length of the seeds.
Space seeds around the edge of the cup.
3. Label the cups 1 to 5:
Cup1: seeds deprived of water at room temperature
Cup 2: seeds watered at room temperature
Cup 3: seeds watered at cold temperature
Cup 4: seeds watered at room temperature with no light
Cup 5: seeds watered at room temperature with no oxygen
4. Add the following:
Cup 1: don’t add anything to this cup during the experiment other than the seeds
Cup 2: add water until the soil is damp. Do not soak the soil, water this cup each
day for the next 2 days
Cup 3: add water until the soil is damp. Water this cup each day for the next 2
days. Place this cup in a refrigerator or in a cooler for the rest of the experiment
Cup 4: add water until the soil is damp. Water this cup each day for the next two
days. Place a piece of black felt over this cup except for when you are watering
it.
Cup 5: add water until the soil is damp. Place cotton balls that have been
covered with petroleum jelly so they completely cover the soil surface. Smear a
layer of petroleum jelly around the top rim of the cup. Place a piece of plastic
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wrap on top of the petroleum jelly so that it completely covers the opening of the
cup. Use a rubber band to firmly hold the seal in place and keep out oxygen.
5. Place the cups in a location where they will not be disturbed for the next 3
days
6. Each day for the next 2-3 days, observe what is occurring in each cup and
record it in a data table
Conditions for germination
Number of seeds that Cup A Cup B Cup C Cup D Cup E

germinated
After 24 hours
After 48 hours
After 72 hours
7. Conclusion made from the data recorded.

Possible questions needing answers in the conclusion:
- In which cups did germination occur and why; is light required for germination;
- Is oxygen required for germination? Explain
- Is water required for germination? Explain
- Can seeds germination under cold conditions? Explain
- List the conditions necessary for the germination of a seed
- At what point in their development do you think plants must receive light to
survive and why?
- How could you manipulate the variables to design a new experimental trial
Specific objective: compare the percentage germination of seeds stored for different
times or under different conditions
277
Percentage germination: the overall percentage of seeds that germinate to produce
a live plant.
- Every plant species is adapted to certain conditions, thus its seeds are also
adapted to different storage conditions
- Storage conditions can affect its germination percentage
Practical activity to compare the germination percentage of seeds stored under

different conditions
1. Take 20 quality seeds of the same species (maize, peas, beans) and store ten
seeds at 40C in a refrigerator and ten seeds at room temperature for the same
amount of time
2. Wash the seeds and soak in distilled water for 2-3 hours, rinse and remove
excess water with tissue paper. Allow seeds to dry
3. Sow the seeds kept in the refrigerator in a seed tray or pot labelled ‘’40C’’; and
saw the ones kept at room temperature in a seed tray or pot labelled ‘’room temp’’.
Use the same soil to plant the seeds in
4. Thoroughly water the seed trays or pots and place in the same conditions to
germinate. Supply the same amount of water regularly for 15 days
5. Find the rate of germination after 15 days. Calculate the percentage for both
treatments and compare them
Specific objective: describe methods of measuring growth in a herbaceous plant and a

mammal
Measuring growth in a herbaceous plant (measuring the height)
 Using a ruler for smaller plants or measuring tapes for taller plants
- Place the ruler at the base of the plant to its highest point and record the
measurement
- Repeat measurements every two to three days
 Calculate the average growth rate using the formula:
S2 – S1 ÷ T where S1 is the first measurement, S2 the second measurement
and T is the number of days between each
Measuring growth in a herbaceous plant (measuring dry weight)
278
Dry mass is the mass of an organism (plant) excluding the fluctuating water
concentrations. It is a more reliable measure than fresh mass
Procedure:
 Plant a large number of seeds of the same plant in identical conditions in a pot or
large tray
 Conditions like temperature, water supply, humidity and nutrients must be the
same for all seedlings
 Every week randomly remove a sub sample of about 5 seedlings from the pot
 Wash and remove all soil from the roots
 Heat the seedlings in an oven at a suitable temperature of about 60-1100C to
remove all water from the plants
 Cool the plants in a dry environment
 Then weigh the dry plants (the plants now contain no water but dry mass only)
 Every week record the dry weight of the five plants and calculate the average
 Compare mass for the different days, an increase in dry mass show growth
Measuring growth in a mammal (measuring height, length, width and girth)

Growth of animals can be determined by measuring:
- Its height
- Its length
- Its width
- Its girth (measurement around something like a chest or waist)
 Various measuring instruments like rulers, measuring tapes can be used
 When determining height, ensure the animal is standing straight on levelled
ground
 Measurements can be taken weekly or monthly to determine growth
Specific objective: measure and record the growth of an annual herbaceous plant from
sowing to maturity, and use these results to construct and explain a growth curve
279
Practical activity to measure growth in a mammal using live weight
 Weight of a chosen animal can be taken daily, weekly or monthly using a

measuring scale
 The animal can be weighed before the morning feeding
 Record the weight in a table and draw a line graph of the weight increase
Practical activity to measure growth of an annual herbaceous plant
 An annual herbaceous plant dies completely at the end of the growing season or
after it has flowered and produced seeds or fruits
 Growth can be measured using the dry mass procedure or height of the plant
starting from sowing stage until maturity
 Draw a growth curve of the weekly measurements
Specific objective: discuss the advantages of different methods of measuring growth
Advantages of measuring height, length, Disadvantages of measuring height, length,
width and girth in organisms width and girth in organisms
- Quick and easy -
Roots and shoots can vary in length
- Does not kill or damage the organism without an increase in the mass
- Can be done anywhere suitable - Only measures one direction of growth
in plants
- Two leaves of the same mass can differ
in length
- Difficult to keep animals still to get
accurate measurements
Advantages of measuring dry mass of Disadvantages of measuring dry mass of
organisms organisms
- Gives accurate measurement - Time consuming process
- Not influenced by water content - It kills the organism
- Reflects permanent increase in mass - Two leaves of the same mass can differ
- Not influenced by variation in growth in length
patterns
Advantages of measuring wet mass of Disadvantages of measuring wet mass of
organisms organisms
- quick process - plants need to be uprooted to get
- does not kill the organism measurement
- more accurate than height and length - difficult to measure large organisms
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4.4 Inheritance
Specific objective: define inheritance as:
The transmission of genetic information from generation.
Specific objective: define chromosomes as:
Thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of the genes
Specific objective: define homologous chromosomes as:
Chromosomes having the same genes at the same loci but not identical with different
alleles.
Specific objective: define the terms haploid nucleus and diploid nucleus:
Haploid nucleus in a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes (e.g. in
gametes)
Diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g. in body cells)
Specific objective: define gene as:

A length of DNA that codes for a protein
Specific objective: allele as:

A version of the same gene
Specific objective: explain the concept of genetic code with reference to the sequence
of bases in a gene to form amino acids in a correct order for a specific protein
 It is an order or sequence of DNA bases which determines the sequence of

the amino acids in protein.
 There are three bases code for one amino acid.
 The code defines how sequences of DNA bases called codons specify which
amino acid will be added next during protein synthesis.
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Specific objective: explain how DNA controls cell function by controlling the production
of proteins, antibodies and receptors for neurotransmitters
 By controlling the production of proteins
- The nucleotide sequence that make-up DNA are a “code” for cell to make
hundreds of different type of proteins.
- It is these proteins that function to control, regulate cell growth, division,
communication with other cells and other cellular functions.
 By controlling the production of antibodies
- DNA in cells produce antibodies.

- An antibody is a protein used by immune system to identify and neutralize
pathogens like bacteria and viruses.
- These proteins (antibodies) are made in plasma cells due to the genetic code on
the DNA which carries the code for its production.
 By controlling the production of receptors for neurone transmitters

- A gene or length of DNA does not produce a behavior, emotion or even a fleeting
thought.
- DNA sequence codes for a specific protein and some of these proteins have a lot
to do with the behaviors, feelings and thoughts.
- These proteins include hormones (which carry messages between cells) and
neurotransmitters (which carry messages between nerve cells).
- They also include receptors that receive hormone and neurotransmitter
messages and the enzyme that synthesize and degrade those messages.
4.4.2 Monohybrid inheritance

Specific objective: define the terms:
Genotype as the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present
Phenotype as the observable features of an organism.
Homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene.
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Dominant as an allele that is expressed if it is present.
Recessive as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the
gene present.
Specific objective: Calculate and predict the results of monohybrid crosses involving
1:1 and 3:1 ratios (use a genetic diagram)
Monohybrid crosses involving 1:1
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Monohybrid cross involving 3:1
Specific objective: describe the inheritance of sex in humans with reference to XX and
XY chromosomes.
 Sex (gender) is determined genetically.
 There are two kinds of chromosomes: the autosomes and the sex chromosomes.
 There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans: 22 autosomal pairs and one pair
of sex chromosomes.
 The autosomal pairs are numbered 1 to 22 according to their size, while the sex
chromosomes are called X and Y.
 Females are determined by two identical sex chromosomes, having a genotype

XX.
 Males are determined by using X in combination with the second kind of sex
chromosome Y. Their genotype is XY.
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The human karyotype
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Specific objective: Describe how to use a test cross to identify an unknown genotype.
 A test cross is a way to determine the genotype of an organism.
 A test cross is a cross of an individual of an unknown genotype with an

individual of a known genotype (homozygous recessive).
 The pattern of observed phenotypes in the offspring can determine the unknown
genotype of the parent.
E.g. in humans, brown eyes (B) are dominant over blue eyes (b).
- When you look at someone who has a dominant trait, you cannot tell if they are
homozygous or heterozygous for that trait.
- For example, if someone has brown eyes and brown is the dominant trait, they could
be BB (homozygous) or Bb (heterozygous).
How can one use test cross to determine if the trait is BB or Bb?
 Always start the test cross with a purebred homozygous (BB or bb) in the P1
generation.
 Take a recessive (in this case blue eyes, or bb) and cross it with brown eyes
showing the dominant trait.
 If in the F1 generation of offspring are all dominant, then the dominant parent is
probably a BB. If there are any recessives in the F1, then the dominant parent
has to be a Bb.
- If a known parent is homozygous recessive (bb) and an unknown parent is

homozygous dominant for a trait then all offspring will be heterozygous and show
the dominant trait.
- If a known parent is homozygous recessive (bb) and an unknown parent is
heterozygous dominant for a trait then 50% of the offspring will be dominant and
50% recessive.
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Specific objective: Predict the results of monohybrid crosses involving co-dominance
or sex- linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios (use genetic diagrams).
Co- dominance is when the two alleles of a gene both have an effect when they are
present together (equally dominant).
 Neither of the two alleles for a particular trait is more dominant over the other
(equally dominant).
 Example: Dark skin is dominant in one parent. Light skin is dominant in the
other parent. Breeding results in the skin colour not dark or light, but in between”.
 In some breed of cattle, two of the alleles for coat colour are co-dominant (red
coat and white coat give a roan coat). Roan is a colour produced by a mixture of
red and white hair.
 The letter C is used to indicate co-dominance.
 Human blood groups A and B are co-dominant, that is why a child with alleles A
and B will have a blood group called AB
 Blood group alleles are written as superscripts on the letter I e.g. IAIB
 Sex-linked characteristics are those characteristics in which the gene responsible

is located on the sex chromosome
 Examples of a sex-linked characteristic include a genetic disorder called

Haemophilia and colour blindness
 Sex linked alleles are indicated as superscripts of the sex chromosomes X or Y

e.g. XHXH
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Specific objective: Investigate inheritance of one or more characteristics using for
example tomatoes or genetic maize to stimulate genetic crosses.
- A homozygous maize plant with black kernels is crossed with a homozygous

maize plant with yellow kernels.
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4.4.3. Variation
Specific objective: define variation as:
The differences between individuals of the same species
There are two types of variation:
 Continuous variation
 Discontinuous variation
Specific objective: state that phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and
environmental factors
 Phenotypes are the traits or characteristics of organisms that are observable

 Some phenotypes such as blood type cannot be seen on the outside
 Other examples of phenotypes include size, colour, shape, gender etc.
What causes the different phenotypes?
 Genes inherited from parents

 Environmental factors
 A combination of genes and environmental factors
Phenotypic variation
 The variation that exists in a population

 Examples of phenotypic variation include eye colour, tongue rolling ability, hair
colour, weight, leaf shape etc.
Specific objective: describe continuous variation as influenced by the environment and

genes as illustrated by height in humans
Continuous variation
A smooth gradation between individuals
 Continuous variation is caused by genes and environment factors

 Histograms are used to show continuous variation
Examples of continuous variation
Height, hair colour, nose shape, fingerprints, skin colour, weight, intelligence etc.
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Example of a histogram to present continuous variation
Specific objective: record and present the results of investigations into continuous and
discontinuous variation with reference to height in humans, length of leaves and mass
of seeds
Activity on recording and presenting results of continuous variation
a) Measure and record the lengths of the leaves below along the lines indicated.
Question: does the result show continuous or discontinuous variation?
b) Use a measuring tape to measure the heights of 10 randomly selected girls in

the class and record the results a table
Question: do the results show continuous or discontinuous variation of height in

the 10 girls selected?
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Specific objective: state that discontinuous variation is mostly caused by genes alone
e.g. A, B, AB and O blood groups
Discontinuous variation
Shows that there is no gradual change between two extremes
 there are distinct categories so there is no in between category

 discontinuous variation is caused by genes only
 a bar chart is used to show discontinuous variation
 human blood groups (A, B, AB and O), tongue rolling, ear lobes attached or free
are all examples of discontinuous variation
Example of a bar chart to present discontinuous variation

Activity on recording and presenting results of discontinuous variation
 count the number of people in the class that can roll their tongues or whose ear
lobes are attached and loose
 present the results on an appropriately labelled graph
Loose ear lobe attached ear lobe
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Specific objective: define gene mutation
Gene mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA
 gene mutation occurs when the sequence of basis (nucleotides) is not copied
precisely in replicating a strand of DNA
 this results in a change in the instructions for the formation of proteins
 this results in the formation of a faulty protein or even no protein at all
 once this occurred, it is replicated in the formation of further strands of DNA
Examples of gene mutation
 albinism (inheriting altered genes that do not make usual amounts of the skin
pigment melanin)
Specific objective: outline the effects of radiation and chemicals on the rate of
mutation
 mutation is a spontaneous or sudden change in the genetic structure of an

organism but there are factors that can increase the chances of mutation to occur
Factors (mutagens) that increases the chances of mutation
 radiation such as UV rays, X rays, gamma rays, alpha and beta particles
 chemicals such as tar in cigarette smoke
Specific objective: describe mutation as a source of variation, as shown by Down’s

syndrome
 the spontaneous unpredictable changes in the genetic structure of an organism

can be a source of variation between species
 down’s syndrome is a result of chromosome mutation
 a down’s syndrome person receives three copies of chromosome 21 (trisomy)
instead of two copies only
 this chromosome mutation (95%) originates during meiosis to produce egg cells
in the mother
 a zygote will have 47 chromosomes after fertilization instead of 46
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Individuals with Down’s syndrome
 often have learning difficulties
 have thick set bodies
 have flattened nose and face
 have short fifth finger which curve inwards
Karyotype showing trisomy

Specific objective: describe the symptoms of sickle-cell anaemia
Sickle cell anaemia
 is an inherited blood disorder where there is an abnormality in the oxygen

carrying protein haemoglobin (haemoglobin S) in red blood cells
 the haemoglobin S changes the shape of red blood cells to form an abnormal
sickle (crescent) shape
 red blood cells are normally bi-concave disc shaped
 sickle cell anaemia is caused by a recessive allele represented as (Hbs)

 normal haemoglobin allele is HbA
 an individual with HbA HbA (homozygous dominant) have normal haemoglobin
 an individual with HbA Hbs (heterozygous) is a carrier of the abnormal
haemoglobin but the individual does not have sickle cell anaemia
 an individual with Hbs Hbs (homozygous recessive) have sickle cell anaemia
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Symptoms of sickle cell anaemia
 red blood cells become sickle-shaped in areas of low oxygen concentration in

tissues
 person has fewer red blood cells
 the sickle shape red blood cells have a reduction in surface area and volume so
they have less haemoglobin
 less haemoglobin results in less efficient at transporting oxygen and delivers less
oxygen to the body’s tissues
 less respiration occurs because of less haemoglobin to transport sufficient
oxygen
 less respiration means less energy is released and the person experiences
fatigue, breathlessness and exhaustion
 sickle shaped red blood cells may clump together and get stuck in capillaries
causing blockages
 this increases the chances of thrombosis (clotting of the blood in the circulatory
system)
Specific objective: explain the distribution of the sickle-cell allele in human populations
with reference to the distribution of malaria
 sickle cell anaemia disease is more common in people of African, Mediterranean,

Middle East, South and Central America descent
 these are areas where malaria is common
 it is an advantage to be a carrier of sickle cell anaemia in a malaria prone area
 an HbA HbA person does not have sickle cell anaemia but will be susceptible to
malaria
 a carrier HbA Hbs does not have sickle cell but is less susceptible to suffer from
malaria
 an Hbs Hbs person have sickle cell anaemia but will not suffer from malaria
 hence, it is a selective advantage to be heterozygous in a malaria area
 this is because, the malaria parasite will not be able to survive and multiply on
sickle shaped red blood cells carrying less oxygen
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4.4.4 Adaptive features, selection and evolution
Specific objective: define adaptive features as:
The inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness
Specific objective: define adaptation as:
A process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to
their environment over generations
Specific objective: describe the adaptive features of hydrophytes and xerophytes to

their environment
Hydrophytes (aquatic plants) Xerophytes

This are plants adapted to growing and This are plants adapted for growing in dry
living partially or completely in water environments
 some species have leaves totally  can survive extremely dry

submerged in water while other conditions and high temperatures
species have leaves that float on
the water
Examples of hydrophytes Examples of xerophytes
Adaptations: Adaptations:
- large air spaces in the leaves to keep - thick waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
them close to the water surface for light and the shiny layer to reflect heat and
absorption lower temperature around the plant
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- small roots to extract nutrients from the - sunken stomata in pits in the epidermis
surrounding water through tissues so that moist air is trapped and reduce
- stomata mainly found on the upper evaporation
epidermis and are usually open all the - rolled leaves with stomata inside to
time for easy gaseous exchange reduce surface area for transpiration
- lower leaves lack stomata to prevent - leaves covered with hairs to trap moist
water entering the air spaces air and reduce water loss
- small leaves or leaves reduced to thorns
to reduce transpiration
- thick leaves or stems which stores water
Specific objective: define natural selection as:

The selection of only the best adapted organisms for survival and reproduction
Specific objective: describe natural selection with reference to: production of many
offspring, variation within populations, struggle for survival, competition for resources
and reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment and passing
their genes to the next generation
 variation among individuals within a population of animals give some individuals

a better chance of survival in any environment
 in environments with limited resources, individual organisms best suited to such
conditions are the ones able to survive and reproduce
 examples of such natural selection adaptations include:
 production of many offspring
 variation within populations
 struggle for survival
 competition for resources
 reproduction
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Specific objective: define evolution as:
The process of change over a period of time
Specific objective: describe evolution as the change in adaptive features of a

population over time as the result of natural selection
 over successive generations, populations are modified in response to changes in

the environment
 individuals with different characteristics survive and reproduce to give rise to a
new set of alleles that are passed on to their offspring
 over time, this will bring about a change in the characteristics of the species and
cause evolution
 such characteristics enable individuals to become better suited or adapted to
their environment
Specific objective: outline the importance of natural selection as the mechanism for
evolution
 natural selection is a main mechanism of evolution of species

 mutations lead to genetic variations that improves the traits of individual
organisms
 organisms that are able to survive and adapt to environmental changes,
reproduce and pass on their adaptive genes to the next generation
 hence, new organisms carry inheritable adaptive traits different from their
descents and thus evolve
Specific objective: describe the development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria

as an example of evolution by natural selection
 Antibiotics are drugs used to destroy disease causing bacteria

 Examples of antibiotics include penicillin
 Antibiotics cause the cell walls of a bacterium to become weaker during its
production
 The bacteria will then not be able to resist turgor and it bursts and dies
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How bacteria become resistant to antibiotics (an example of evolution by natural
selection)
 Bacteria becomes resistant when the antibiotic loses its ability to effectively control or kill
the bacteria
 This bacteria that could not be killed by the antibiotic becomes resistant and continue to
multiply in the presence of the antibiotic
 Antibiotics are widely over used and also incorrectly prescribed
 Patients most often do not complete the whole course of antibiotics as prescribed and
this results in bacteria becoming resistant
How natural selection occurs
 The bacteria show genetic variation in resistance to antibiotics

 Bacteria with the resistant gene is more likely to survive when given the antibiotic, while
the non-resistant bacteria are killed
 The resistant bacteria divide and multiply and passes on the resistant allele to the new
strains of bacteria
 This increases the antibiotic resistant population of bacteria
 This is an example of natural selection
Specific objective: define artificial selection as:
The modification of species by selective breeding
 Humans deliberately breed organisms with desired characteristics which may not occur
easily with natural selection
 Bred animals are called breeds and bred plants are called varieties
 When two animals are crossed together, they are referred to as cross breeds
 When two plants are crossed, they are referred to as hybrids
Specific objective: describe the role of artificial selection in the production of varieties of
animals and plants with increased economic importance
 Results in plant and animal varieties that are resistant to diseases

 Cows which produces the best yield and quality of milk are selected to improve yield
and quality of milk
 Breeding a good male horse with excellent racing qualities with a healthy horse results in
offspring with the desired traits of racing
 Selecting animals to produce the best quality meat
 Crops that are climate adapted can be produced
 Crops with better storage qualities can be bred to reduce product loss in storage
 Crops with larger seeds and fruits can be bred compared to existing varieties
 High yielding crops can be produced to increase food production

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TOPIC 5: Relationships of organisms with one another and with their environment
5.1. Energy flow, food chains and food webs

Specific objective: Describe the flow of energy transferred as heat or light through living
organisms and its transfer to the environment
 Principal source of energy is the sun in the ecosystem.

 During photosynthesis, chlorophyll in chloroplasts traps light energy which is
converted into chemical energy in plants.
 Chemical energy is stored in organic molecules e.g. starch, proteins and lipids.
 Animals to obtain organic molecules by eating during nutrition.
 Energy released from organic molecule is used in all living cells during respiration.
 Some of the energy is lost to the environment as heat.
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Specific objective: Define the following terms
 Producer as an organism that makes its own organic nutrients usually using
energy from the sunlight, through photosynthesis
 Consumer as an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms
 A food chain as showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next,
beginning with a producer
 Food web as a network of interconnected food chains
 Herbivore as an organism that gets its energy by eating plants
 Carnivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
 Decomposer as an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic
material
 Trophic level as the position of an organism in a food chain, food web, pyramids
of numbers or pyramid of biomass.
Specific objective: construct simple food chains
 Food chains always start with producers (green plants)

 Consumers get their energy and biomass by eating other organisms
 Flow of energy in a food chain is shown by arrows
 Arrows always go in the direction in which the energy flows
Examples of food chains:

Grass  grasshopper  scorpion  baboon  leopard
Seed plant  antelope  lion  vulture
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Specific objective: Identify producers, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
consumers as the trophic levels in food chains, food webs, pyramids of numbers and
pyramids of biomass.
Producers
 Producers are responsible for the input of energy into an ecosystem.

 They occupy the first trophic level.
Examples of producers: green plants, some protoctista, phytoplankton and some

bacteria.
Examples of producers
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Consumers
Types of consumers
(a) Primary consumers
 Feed directly on producers.

 are plant -eaters ( herbivores)
 They occupy the second trophic level.
Examples: cattle, antelope, kudu, springbok, rhino, seed-eating birds
Examples of primary consumers

(b) Secondary consumers:
 Are animals that feed on primary consumers.

 they occupy the third trophic level
Examples: cheetahs, lions, leopards and eagles.
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(c) Tertiary consumers
 Feed on secondary consumers.

 They occupy the fourth trophic level
Examples: hawks, owls, tick birds, hyenas and vultures
(d) Quaternary consumers
- feed on meat and flesh of tertiary consumers

- they occupy the fifth trophic level
Examples: sharks eat carnivorous fish and hawks that eat owls.
Definition of omnivore
An omnivore is an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals and plants.
 Omnivores are secondary, tertiary or quaternary consumers.

 These are animals that feed on a mixed diet of animals and plant material.
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Decomposers
Examples of decomposers: fungi and putrifying (decomposition) bacteria.
Food web is a network interconnected food chains
 The food web below shows seven food chains interlinked together.
 The food web shows the feeding relationships between these living organisms.
 This food web shows that most animals can have more than one food source,
e.g. the owls feed on frogs and mice, and mice feed on grasshoppers and plants.
 A food web also shows the flow of energy in an ecosystem from the producers to
the consumers.
Diagram shows how food chains can be interconnected in a complex way.

Specific objective: Describe how energy is transferred between trophic levels
 Energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, in the form of chemical
energy in food and lost from the food chain as heat.
 The amount of available energy decreases from one trophic level to the next.
 Only around 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level.
 The rest of the energy lost in form of heat, life processes, faeces and remains
passed to decomposers.
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Flow of energy in a food chain
Specific objective: explain why food chains have usually fewer than five trophic levels
 Less energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next (only 10%)
 The biomass gets smaller
 The longer the food chain, the more energy is lost, the less energy will be
available for the organisms at the highest trophic level.
 Due to a decrease of energy and biomass from the lower to higher trophic
levels, so the length of food chains is limited.
Specific objective: describe and interpret pyramids of biomass
 Biomass is the total weight of organisms in an area (ecosystem).
A pyramid of biomass
 Shows the dry mass of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain.
 Measures the total mass (weight) of biological material at each trophic level.
Calculation of biomass
 Number of individual organisms X mass of each organism.
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Interpretation of pyramids of biomass
 The length of the bars represents the relative biomass of organisms
 The larger the bar, the greater the mass
 Bottom bar show producers followed by consumers
 Biomass in each trophic level is always less than the trophic level below
Examples of pyramids of biomass
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Specific objective: Explain why there is an increased efficiency in supplying green
plants as human food compared to the relative inefficiency in feeding crop plants to
livestock that can be used as food
 90% of energy is lost during transfer from one trophic level to the next.
 More energy is available at the second trophic level than at the third trophic level,
 More humans can be supported and fed.
 Less land is needed for growing crops and there are fewer expenses involved.
 More land must therefore be used as arable land to produce food.
5.2. Biochemical cycling

What is cycle?
 A Cycle is when a substance is removed, used and released to be reused

again.
 Biochemical is a chemical element used to make biomolecules such nitrogen
and carbon.
 Biochemical cycle is the cyclic movement of biochemicals between the
environment and living organisms.
Specific objective: describe the nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen cycle: is the continuous movement of nitrogen from the atmosphere through
living organisms and returning it back to the atmosphere.
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Importance of nitrogen
 For synthesis of amino acids, proteins and DNA.
 Used for plant growth in form of nitrates.
 For synthesis of chlorophyll in plants used during photosynthesis
- Nitrogen is changed into more reactive forms such as ammonia or
nitrates during nitrogen fixation process, because it is unreactive by
nature.
Nitrogen cycle diagrams
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Nitrogen cycle process occurs in the following ways
 Nitrogen fixation
 Nitrification
 Denitrification
 Decomposition (Ammonification)
1. Nitrogen fixation
A. By nitrogen fixing bacteria (rhizobium)
 Bacteria live in the soil and in root nodules of leguminous plants like
peas, beans, Lucerne, clover, soya beans and vachellia sp.
 Bacteria converts nitrogen (N2) into ammonia and ammonium
compounds into amino acids.
 Some biological nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen into
ammonia and ammonium compounds or converted into nitrates.
B. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation (lightning)
 Lightning breaks up nitrogen molecules for atoms to combine with

oxygen in the air forming nitrogen oxides.
 Nitrogen oxides dissolves in rain, forming nitric and nitrous acids
that combine with other salts to form nitrates.
 Oxides dissolve in rain and are washed into the soil in the form of
nitrates and absorbed by plant roots.
C. Industrial nitrogen fixation

 During the harbour process at 600o C atmospheric nitrogen and
hydrogen are combined to form ammonia (NH3)
 Ammonia is used directly as fertilizer (NPK Fertilizers) that contain
nitrogen which forms nitrates when added to the soil and absorbed
by plants
 Ammonia is further processed into urea and ammonium nitrate.
2. Ammonification (decomposition)
 plants and animal remains are decomposed by bacteria and fungi
by removing an amino group and hydrogen to make ammonia
during deamination
 putrifying bacteria converts nitrogen containing compounds into
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ions (NH4+)
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 Nitrogenous waste like urea ,uric acid (excretory products of
animals ) are decomposed to form ammonia and ammonium
compounds
 Faeces and animal manure are decomposed into ammonia and
ammonium compounds
3. Nitrification
 Nitrifying bacteria oxidise ammonia and ammonium compounds
into nitrites and then into nitrates
4. Denitrification
 Is a process that occurs in anaerobic conditions where denitrifying
bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen gas.
 Denitrifying bacteria obtain their energy by breaking down nitrates
into nitrogen gas.
Specific objective: state the roles of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle limited to
decomposition, nitrification, nitrogen fixation and denitrification
 purifying bacteria
Converts nitrogen containing compounds into ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium ions (NH4+)
 Denitrifying bacteria
Convert nitrates into nitrogen gas
 Nitrifying bacteria
Oxidise ammonia and ammonium compounds into nitrites and then into
nitrates
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Converts nitrogen (N2) into ammonia and ammonium compounds.
Some biological nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen into
ammonia and ammonium compounds then into nitrates.
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Specific objective: Describe the carbon cycle limited to photosynthesis, respiration,
feeding, decomposition, fossilisation and combustion
Photosynthesis
 Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and trap it in organic
compounds (starch and glucose)
Respiration
 Plants and animals break down glucose in the presence of oxygen to release
water and carbon dioxide in the air.
Feeding
 Animals obtain carbon during nutrition of carbohydrates, fats, proteins
Decomposition
 When animal and plants remains are broken down by decomposers and purifying
bacteria to release carbon dioxide in the air
Fossilization
 When coals and oil from dead plants and animal remains are subjected to high
pressure and does not decompose completely, traps in the carbon
Combustion
 Release of carbon dioxide in air when burning fossil fuels
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Specific objective: discuss the effects of the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting
down of forests on the balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide
Effects of combustion of fossil fuels on balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Burning of fossil fuels uses more oxygen and release more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere than which is removed
 This leads to an increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere.
Effects of cutting down of forests on the balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide
 The fewer the forests, the less carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere
by photosynthesis
 This Leads to an increase in carbon dioxide levels
 This leads to a reduction in oxygen levels
 Resulting in desertification and climate changes
Specific objective: discuss the possible effects of a long-term increase in the

percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and on the carbon cycle
An increased carbon dioxide in atmosphere causes global warming leading to:
 Climate change causing unexpected floods

 Heat waves lead to heat-stroke
 Violent storms increases lightning strikes
 Polar ice-caps melting raises the sea level
 Change in sea temperature, sea animal and plants may become extinct
 Changes in world weather patterns cause droughts
 More evaporation of water from fertile areas results in deserts
 An increase in carbon dioxide causes greenhouse effect that leads to:
greenhouse gases absorbing heat energy and cannot be released
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5. 3. Population
Specific objective: Define population as

A group of organisms of one species that live in the same area, at the same time
Examples of populations:
 A group of camel thorn trees.

 All black rhinos in Etosha National park.
 All cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) belong to the same species.
Specific objective: state the factors affecting the rate of population growth for a range
of living organisms
 food supply
 availability of water
 predators.
 diseases.
 size of the ecosystem and population
 weather and climate
 natural disaster/drought/flood
 fertility rate
 mortality (death rate) and natality rate (birth rate)
 immigration and emigration
 those factors above are limiting factors of the population because they control the
size of the population; either speed up or slow down or reduce the size of the
population
Specific objective: Define community and ecosystem as follows:

Community as all of the populations of different species in an ecosystem
Ecosystem as a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment,

interacting together (e.g. decomposing log and lake)
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Specific objective: identify the phases of a sigmoid population growth curve for a
population growing in an environment with limited resources and explain the role of
limiting factors to each phase
Sigmoid curve
 is used when an organism is in an environment where there are no limiting

factors
 the curve will follow a characteristic S-shape known as a sigmoid curve.
 When a limiting factor influences population growth a sigmoid curve is formed.
 even when environmental pressures slow the rate of growth.
 Sigmoid curve is a graph that has a lag phase, exponential phase, and stable
phase.
S-shaped population growth form (sigmoid growth curve).
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Description of three phases of the sigmoid growth curve
Lag phase:
 Population just introduced to the environment.

 Slow growing population
 Individual adapt and acclimatize
 Shortage of reproducing individuals
 Breeding partners do not meet
 Individual seek out a new breeding partner
 Population starts with very low number.
Log (exponential) phase

 Rapid/increase/fast increase population
 Due to availability of food/plenty of food
 All conditions are favourable
 There is little or no predator/few parasites
 Little or no competition
 Plenty of space
 Birth rate exceed death , the faster the population growth
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Stationary/stabilization phase
 Growth slow down/ is constant/stable
 Zero population growth / reached its carrying capacity/maximum population the
environment can support
 Increase in competition for food and space
 Increase of predators/parasites
 Increase in diseases/disease spreads faster
 Birth rate is equal to death rate
 Resources become scare
Specific objective: Describe the increase in human population size in the absence of
limiting factors and the social implications of current human survival rate on the
environment
1. Reduction of infectious diseases causes the population to increase due to the

following reasons:
 Improvement in water supply.

 Sewage treatment decrease diseases like dysentery, cholera, diarrhea etc.
 Hygienic handling of food – fewer cases of food poisoning
 general standard in cleanliness- eliminate diseases like typhoid
 Immunisation against infectious diseases such as polio, meningitis, tetanus, and
chicken pox.
 Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria such as syphilis,
gonorrhea and TB.
2. Increase in food production and supply causes and increase in human population
due to the following reasons:
 More land brought under cultivation because of modern machinery and

equipment.
 More efficient agriculture due to modern technology.
 Fertilisers increase crop yield.
 Pesticides control disease and pests and fewer crop are destroyed.
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3. Natality greater than mortality
4. When natality and mortality are equal; zero population growth (ZPG)
5. Immigration
Social implications of current human survival rate on the environment
 Famine, war and diseases may increase the death rate

 More overcrowding and pollution will occur.
 More unemployment.
 Less land will be available for agriculture.
 Growth in the population has effect on global climate change (global warming).
 Increase in global demand for water for irrigation, household, and industrial use
is higher than supply.
 An increased demand for oil, electricity, gas and fuel will result
 An increased demand for raw materials and minerals will result
Specific objective: Interpret graphs and diagrams of human population growth

Data on human population growth is presented in different ways:
- Graphs
- pyramids.
Population pyramid
Is a graphical representation and give information of the age and gender for a specific
country.
Shape of the pyramid
 Shows the population’s potential for future growth
 Bars represent number of males and females in each group
 Males are on the left and females on right side
Population pyramids can have:

Classic pyramid shape:
 more young people (broader base at bottom)
 narrow at top (few old people)
 Natality is high than mortality
 Mostly in developing countries
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Columnar shape:
Even spread of ages, mostly for developed countries.
Stable shape:
 zero growth or negative population growth
 fewer young people than old people
 low rate of immigration
 same mortality and natality rate
 Very good medical care
 High life expectancy.
The shape of the population pyramid convey more information about a country as it is
influenced by:
 Birth and death rates and life expectancy.

 Medical standard of the country.
 Rate of immigration and emigration.
 Educational status.
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5.4 Human influences on the ecosystem
5.4.1 Food supply, habitat destruction and pollution
 Habitat is an environment or area that is inhabited by a particular species of

animal, plant or another type of organism.
 Habitat destruction is the destruction of natural habitats in which living organisms
live.
Specific objective: describe the negative impacts to an ecosystem of large-scale

monocultures of crop plants and of intensive livestock production
Definitions
Monoculture is the practice of the production of a single crop in a given area year
after year.
Polyculture is where more than one crop is grown in the same space at the same
time, it is the alternative to monoculture.
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Negative impacts of large-scale monoculture of crop plants
 Monoculture increases the difficulty in nutrient recycling. All the plants are
removing the same minerals from the soil and because the crop is removed long
before the plants die and decompose, virtually nothing is returned to the soil.
 Monoculture decreases crop yields, because plants use the same minerals from
the soil each year and the soil becomes depleted of those minerals.
 It increases the use of artificial fertilisers to be added to restore soil fertility.
- But it is very expensive and increases the overhead costs for farmers in the long-
run.
- Artificial fertiliser takes the place of compost, creating an increased risk for
environmental pollution.
 Planting a single type of crop gives pests a chance to destroy the whole crop.
- Monoculture leads to the quicker build-up of pests and diseases.

- If different crops are planted, these pests often die out or move away.
 Monoculture increases pesticide use.

- In monoculture, the farmer is completely dependent on chemical pesticides to
control insects and diseases.
- Pesticides make their way into ground, water or become airborne, creating
pollution.
 Farmers who practice monoculture are more vulnerable to natural disasters and
failed crops.
- A farmer who plants only maize may not be able to overcome a year of drought,
- But a farmer who plants maize, tomatoes, green beans and other vegetables may
be able to save one crop from failing.
 The lack of biodiversity of monoculture makes plants less adaptable to changes in

the environment, so a single threat can destroy an entire crop.
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Specific objective: Discuss the social, environmental and economic implications of
providing sufficient food for an increasing human global population
1. Rapid population growth leads to environmental change.
 Rapid population growth has swelled the ranks of unemployed men and women at
an alarming rate.
 Due to this, a large number of people are being pushed into ecologically sensitive
areas such as hillsides and tropical forests.
 This leads to the cutting of forests for cultivation, causing several environmental
changes.
 The increasing population growth leads to the migration of large numbers to urban
areas with industrialisation.
 This results in polluted air, water, noise and large populations in big cities and
towns.
2. Increased population means more mouths to feed which, in turn, puts pressure on
available stock of food.
 This is the reason why under-developed countries, with rapidly growing
populations, are generally faced with a problem of food shortage.
 Despite all their efforts for raising agricultural production, they are not able to feed
their growing population.
3. Food scarcity affects the economic development of a country in two ways.

 Firstly, the inadequate supply of food leads to undernourishment of the people
which lowers their productivity.
 It further reduces the production capacity of the workers.
 Secondly, the deficiency of food compels the country to import food grains, placing
unnecessary strain on their foreign exchange resources.
Specific objective: state the reasons that lead to habitat destruction
 Clearing land for agriculture

 Irrigation
 Mining
 Urban development and infrastructure development
 Natural disasters
 Fire
 Global warming
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Specific objective: explain the undesirable effects of deforestation on the environment
 More soil erosion, mudslides and silting up of rivers due to a shortage of tree
roots to stabilise the soil.
 Increased risk of flooding due to a shortage of trees and bushes to slow down
water flow.
 Leaching of the soil increases, because minerals are washed down and cause
soils to become infertile.
 Less decomposing of organic material also leads to infertile soils.
 Less photosynthesis occurs, so less carbon dioxide is removed from the air
which results in global warming.
 Less photosynthesis also causes a drop in oxygen levels in the atmosphere.
 Fewer trees cause less transpiration which can result in a reduction in rainfall.
 Reduction and destruction of habitats cause a decrease in animals and plant
numbers and biodiversity.
- Nesting sites for many species are reduced.
- Species are forced to settle in other species which cause food shortages.
 These decreases can cause the extinction of species and a loss of biodiversity.
 Extinction of species means the loss of genes.
 Extinction of species means the loss of sources for medicine and other
substances.
 Disruption of food chains and food webs is a direct result of deforestation.
 More pollution can occur because of burning and smoke (combustion).
 A loss of income can result because fewer tourists will visit the area.
 Removal of rainforests leads to loss of certain cultures, because people who live
there eventually disappear.
Specific objective: Explain the problems that contribute to famine including unequal
distribution of food, drought and flooding, increasing population and poverty
Famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors.

Poverty is the scarcity or the lack of a certain amount of material possessions or
money.
Extreme poverty refers to the complete
 Unequal distributions of food
 Increasing population
 Poverty
 Drought and flooding
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Specific objective: state the sources and effects of pollution of water (rivers, lakes and
the sea) by chemical waste, discarded rubbish, untreated sewage and fertilisers
Pollution is the contamination of air, water or soil by substances that are harmful to
living things.
Main sources water pollution
 Polluted water from kitchens, bathrooms and toilets which contains human
faeces, detergents, bacteria, urine, parasites and other disease-causing
organisms
 Raw sewage can be discharged into lakes and rivers or allowed to soak into the
groundwater, which can cause this and drinking water to become contaminated
threaten the health of humans, wildlife
Specific objective: describe the undesirable effects of water pollution by sewage and
chemical waste (pesticides and herbicides), with reference to eutrophication
 Sewage can be washed away into streams, lakes, rivers and dams.
 Large amounts of this organic matter, e.g. faeces are decomposed by aerobic
bacteria.
 Bacteria respire and reduced the amount of oxygen in the water
 Other aquatic organisms die or move away, which reduces the biodiversity.
 A high content of nitrates, phosphates and ammonia, which are very soluble, are
also released into the water.
 These nitrates, phosphates and ammonia in sewage then cause algae bloom
when algae grow very fast.
 These algae block or reduced light, preventing photosynthesis in submerged
aquatic plants.
 The aquatic plants start to die.
 Decomposers, e.g. bacteria, now increase rapidly to use the dead plants as food
during the process of decomposition.
 The bacteria start using up the available oxygen during respiration.
 Other aquatic organisms like fish and snails start to die or start to migrate.
 This process is known as eutrophication.
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Specific objective: explore how recycling can reduce pollution and improve healthy
living conditions
 Make a compost pile in your backyard.

- Adding scraps of fruits and vegetables to the heap all year round eventually
turns it into nutritious soil.
 Place water bottles and cool drink cans into a recycling bin instead of the
rubbish bin.
 Call your local collection centre to begin a recycling pick- up service.
 Check if your town requires pre-sorted recycling.
 Know the types of paper and cardboard that you can recycle.
- Almost all paper, as long as it is not food-soiled, can be recycled.
- This includes mail, newspapers, magazines, old books, egg cartoons, cereal
boxes and gift-wrap.
 Know the types of plastic that can be recycled.
- If the plastic shows the famous recycling triangle it can be recycled.
 Keep objects intact when recycling them.
- Shredded paper is less useful when recycled, as most of it becomes waste.
- With aluminium cans, crushing them flat can sometimes prevent them from
being recycled at all.
 Collect and take your recycling bin to the curb the night before pick up.
 Save returnable cans and bottles to make some money.
- In Namibia, you can return aluminium cans and glass bottles for a few cents at
your local recycling centre.
 Know the things that you cannot recycle.
Such as: Pyrex glass, drinking glasses, foil-lined bags (such as chips, candy
and coffee packages), diapers, light bulbs, batteries and electronics, paint and
oils.
Specific objective: Describe the overuse and dangers of fertilisers on the land (e.g.
nitrates)
 Nitrates and phosphates in fertilisers are very soluble.

 Any nitrates and phosphates not used by plants can be washed away (leaching)
into streams, lakes, rivers and dams.
 These nitrates and phosphates then cause algae bloom when algae in water
grow very fast
 The abundant algae can block out and reduce light, preventing photosynthesis
in submerged aquatic plants.
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 The aquatic plants start to die.
 Decomposers, e.g. bacteria, now increase rapidly to use the dead plants as
food during the decomposition process.
 The bacteria start using up the available oxygen during respiration
 This process is known as eutrophication.
 Other aquatic organisms like fish and snails start to die or to start migrate.
Specific objective: Discuss alternatives to the use of large amounts of industrially

produced fertilisers.
 Use nitrogen-fixing crops (legumes like beans, peas, clover and Lucerne) to
add nitrates to the soil.
 Use crop rotation by planting different crops, which need different nutrients,
each year.
 Crop rotation will improve yield, soil structure and means fewer diseases and
pests of different plants and animals each year.
 Fewer diseases mean we have to use fewer pesticides.
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes put nitrates directly into the
soil which means no leaching, because the nitrates are directly available to the
plants.
 The use of organic fertilisers like manure, fishmeal, bone meal, seaweed and
compost means less use of artificial inorganic fertilisers.
 This is less expensive and one uses materials already available.
 The use of green manure can also be a solution. Legumes are planted and the
entire plant is worked into the soil.
 Green manure also improves the soil structure.
 Responsible use of fertilisers is very important. Apply only the correct amount,
never apply when rain is forecasted, never spray near water sources and
never apply fertilisers to empty fields
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Specific objective: state the causes and effects of acid rain on the environment and
the measures that might be taken to reduce its incidence
Causes of acid rain
 Caused by emissions of Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NO2 / NO),
which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.
 Most pollution by Sulphur dioxide is caused by large industries that burn coal,
such as power stations.
 The major cause of nitrogen oxides is exhaust fumes from vehicles such as
cars and trucks.
Sources of acid rain gases (vehicles and industries)
Effects of acid rain on humans and human structures
 Acid rain is corrosive, so marble and limestone buildings, statues, monuments

and gravestones lose their shapes and features and even crumble and break.
 It corrodes metals and causes rusting.
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Effects of acid rain on soil and soil organisms
 Soils become acidic which can cause leaching of minerals like magnesium and
calcium out of the soil. It, therefore, decreases soil fertility.
 Acidic soils affect microorganisms, which cause less decomposition.
Effects of acid rain on water
 Acid rain dissolves and washes out poisonous aluminium and mercury from the
soil. It can end up in water sources and poison aquatic organisms.
 Lakes and streams have a neutral pH level between 6 and 8. If the pH becomes
too acidic, it kills organisms like plankton, plant life, invertebrates and frogs,
which affect the entire food chain.
 Damage is caused to groundwater and drinking water.
Effects of acid rain on plants
 Acid rain dissolves nutrients like magnesium, calcium, and potassium from
leaves which cause the leaves to turn brown and fall off.
 Aluminium also damages fine root hairs and they are not able to absorb water
and nutrients.
 This reduces the productivity of farm and forest land, because crops do not
grow well.
 Acid rain impact on trees by causing leaves to fall, damaging bark, stunting
growth and increasing the possibility of diseases.
 It destroys the waxy cuticle on the leaves of plants, which means more water
loss from leaves.
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Measures to reduce acid rain
 Emission (waste gases) from electricity-generating plants and power stations can
be passed through scrubbers to absorb and neutralise Sulfur dioxide.
 Emissions from vehicle exhaust systems can be cleaned up by catalytic
converters, which convert nitrogen oxides into nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide and
water.
 Lime or limestone can be added to neutralise acidic soils
 Limestone or calcium carbonate can be added to paint on walls to neutralise
acids.
 The use of fossil fuels must be limited, e.g. by using alternative fuel in cars or
electric cars.
 Coal can be crushed and washed before it is burned. This can reduce Sulfur by
10%.
 Using low Sulfur petrol and low Sulfur coal must be a priority. Oil can be treated
to remove Sulfur.
Specific objective: Discuss the effects of non-biodegradable plastics in the

environment, in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
Biodegradable waste, e.g. food scraps and paper, will eventually become part of
the earth and soil, because bacteria and other microorganisms will break it down.
Biodegradable substances cause only short-term pollution problems.
Non-biodegradable waste, e.g. plastics, metal, glass, nylon, fibre glass, plastic
grocery bags and polystyrene cannot be broken down by bacteria and other
microorganisms and remain in the environment virtually forever.
- Disposal of non-biodegradable plastics is a problem.

- It can be burned, but will remain in the soil for years.
- It can be burned, but then it will release toxic gases.
 Plastic bags pose a serious danger to marine birds, turtles and mammals that
often mistake them for food.
 Marine organisms like sea turtles, seabirds, shark and dolphins can get strangled
in nylon fishing lines and die.
 Plastic bottles and containers are afloat all over the oceans of the world.
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Effects of non-biodegradable plastics in terrestrials environments
 Herbivores like cows sometimes eat plastic, which results in the blockage of
their guts or them choking to death.
 Plastic bags clog waterways, spoil the landscape, block drains and end up in
landfills,
 The bags become wrapped in branches of trees and in fences, spoiling the
landscape.
 Producing plastic bags requires millions of litres of petroleum, which is a fossil
fuel. Manufacturing plastic bags, therefore, contribute to global warming, which is
the release of polluting gases into the atmosphere.
 Inadequate levels of recycling aggravate the waste problem.
Plastics pose many dangers to living organisms
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5.4.2 Conservation
Specific objective: Define the following terms:
 conservation as maintaining the environment and natural resources in a state

that maintains biodiversity
 Non-renewable resources are resources which cannot be used again and

again such as oil, coal and gas (fossil fuels)
 Sewage is waste matter such as faeces or dirty water from homes and
factories, which is carried away in sewers or drains for dumping or conversion
into a form that is not toxic.
Specific objective: Give reasons for the need to conserve non-renewable resources
with reference to fossil fuels
 It is important to conserve non-renewable sources of energy such as coal and oil

because they are running out.
 The vast majority of resources are exhaustible and non-renewable, which
means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if not managed properly.
 If we burn all the oil to generate electricity, there will be none left for other things
we use oil for.
 Although these things are naturally-occurring resources, they are in limited
supply.
 Conservation efforts ensure these precious resources are not wasted and are
used more efficiently.
 Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum and natural gas) and minerals are non-
renewable and cannot be replaced.
 The over-use of natural resources has caused a serious imbalance in Nature.
 Depletion of oil and gas all contribute to environmental issues such as global
warming and environmental pollution.
Specific objective: define sustainable development as
Development, providing for the needs of increasing human population while

preserving the environment
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Specific objective: state how forests and fish stocks can be sustained using education,
legal quotas and restocking
A forest is a large area of land dominated by trees.
 Forest areas need to be turned into large reserved or protected forests, which
refer to certain forests being granted protection by governments.
 Ecotourism must be implemented in these reserves. An international ban on
trade in endangered forest species is another way of how forests can be
maintained.
 There must be quotas and international regulations on the use of wood from
rainforests.
 Education of consumers is important so that they can choose not to buy wood
from forests as well as goods manufactured from forest wood.
 International aid needs to be provided to countries with tropical rainforests.
 Ways must be found on how to make sustainable use of forests.
 Only selective felling of trees must be allowed.
 There must be a limit on the quantity of timber felled per time period.
How fish stocks can be sustained

Fish stocks are the numbers of fish in an area.
- As the human population has increased, so has the demand for fish.
- If fish are caught at a faster rate than the remaining fish can reproduce, the
numbers of fish (the fish stock) will decline
Prevention of the disappearance of certain fish species in some areas is by:

- Ensuring that fish populations remain at a sustainable level by
doing sustainable fishing.
- Setting fishing quotas can help to sustain fish stocks
- There must be regulations to conserve fish stocks.
- Setting fishing quotas for countries, individuals fishing vessels and
individuals fishermen limits the amount for fish which may be
caught, resulting in fewer fish being caught.
- These regulations and limits include the size of the fish one can
keep, total number of fish one can keep and time period when it is
legal to fish certain species.
- Education can help to sustain fish stocks
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(Better information for fishermen and education about fishing
regulations is of utmost importance in sustaining fish numbers)
- Person, who catches fish for recreational purposes in Namibian
waters, must be in possession of a fishing permit.
- Fishing methods and fishing equipment must also not harm fish
populations.
- Legislation to limit the size of nets and increasing the size of the
holes in nets results that only mature, full sized fish can be caught
- Re-stocking of fish can help to sustain fish stocks (having
hatcheries to keep fish species)
Specific objective: outline how sewage is treated to make water safe for return to the
environment for human use
Sewage water treatment procedures
 Raw sewage and water go into the sewage collecting and pumping area.
 The sewage inlet takes it to the screening area so that large, solid rubbish and
objects like tyres, wood, stones and tins/cans can be removed.
 The rest of the sewage goes to the grit removal area where the grit is
removed and used as landfill.
 Sewage then goes to the primary sedimentation tanks where solid matter
forms sludge, which is allowed to settle and then separated from the liquid
effluent.
 The sludge is digested by anaerobic bacteria in the anaerobic digester. This
produces methane, which can be burned to power the sewage plant. The solid
matter can be dried and used as garden fertiliser.
 The liquid effluent is sprayed onto stones where aerobic bacteria and
Protoctista feed on sewage and remove harmful substances. This aerobic
stage kills anaerobic bacteria.
 Clear effluent is produced which can be returned to the environment. e.g. by
pumping it into a river, or it can be purified and disinfected by chlorination to
be used again as drinking water
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Sewage recycling plant
Reasons for treating sewage
 Sewage is treated to prevent the spreading of diseases as it removes harmful

bacteria and other pathogens.
 Treatment helps to avoid pollution and remove harmful substances.
 Sewage does not smell bad after treatment.
 The water is recycled.
 Eutrophication is prevented.
Specific objective: explain why organisms become endangered or extinct, limited to

climate change, habitat destruction, pollution and hunting with reference to poaching
a. Climate change endangers species
- Climate is usually defined as the average weather in a place. It includes patterns

of temperature, precipitation (rain or snow), humidity, wind and seasons.
- Climate change refers to a change in average weather conditions.
- Animals, cannot adapt very well to climate changes.
- When the rainforest dries up or cool mountains in tropical zones heat up- animals
may simply become extinct.
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- Global warming could cause the extinction of plants and animals. All plants and
animals have a temperature range within which they thrive and outside of which
they suffer
- Climate change has also been found to be a factor in habitat loss and
desertification.
- Sea levels are rising and oceans are becoming warmer. Rising ocean
temperatures because of human-induced climate change could cause extinction
of oxygen – producing ocean phytoplankton, which likely would result in the mass
death of ocean animals.
- Longer, more intense droughts threaten crops, wildlife and freshwater supplies.
b. Habitat destruction endangers species
- Every living organism needs a place to live, but a habitat is not just a residence, it
is also where an animal finds food, raises its young and allows the next generation
to take over.
Different ways in which humans destroy animal habitats:
 Building houses, industrial parks and shopping malls

 Clearing forests to get timber
 Clearing forests to plant crops and keep animals
 Draining rivers to bring water to those crops
 Paving over meadows to make streets and parking lots.
 Pollution destroys natural animals habitats by making the food that animals eat
and the water that they drink unhealthy
 Habitat destruction is the number one reason for animal endangerment and
extinction
 Deforestation has killed off more species than we can identify
C. Pollution endangers species
 Ships pollute saltwater by dumping wastes.

 Oil spills kill large number of animals.
 Many smaller spills and leaks go relatively undetected, but their cumulative
effects over the years also can injure wildlife.
 Water is not the only element that suffers from pollution.
 Factories and cars release chemicals into the air.
 The chemicals are deposited on land by rain, causing pollution, including what is
known as acid rain.
 Pesticides are another source of pollution.
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 Insects also carry pesticides. Pesticides remain in crops and in wild plants eaten
by herbivores (plant eaters).
 Animals that eat herbivores get high concentrations of these chemicals in their
systems.
d. Illegal hunting endangers species
 When hunters ignore rules that regulate the number of animals that may be
hunted, they can reduce populations to the point that species become
endangered.
 This is a practice known as poaching, done by illegal hunters. .
Specific objective: Describe how endangered species can be conserved limited to

monitoring and protecting species, habitats, education and captive breeding programs
and seed banks
How endangered species can be conserved
 Monitoring and protecting species

Africa has over 400 known species of endangered animals and monitoring them
is an essential and critical step in their conservation.
- Wildlife monitoring is essential for keeping track of animal

movement patterns, habitat utilisation, population demographics,
snaring and poaching incidents and breakouts.
 Monitoring and protecting habitats

Habitat conservation is a management practice that seeks to conserve, protect
and restore habitat areas for wild plants and animals and prevent their extinction,
fragmentation or reduction.
 Education
- Many people are unaware of species extinction and do not realise
how their actions might be harming others.
 Captive breeding programs

- Captive breeding is the process of breeding animals in controlled
environments within well-defined settings, such as wildlife reserves,
zoos and other commercial and non-commercial conservation
facilities.
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 Seed banks
- Seed banks serve a similar purpose for farmers and scientists who
work to conserve rare plants.
- Seed banks are where dried seeds are preserved by storing them
at very a low temperature for a long time.
- A seed bank stores seeds as sources for planting in case seed
reserves elsewhere are destroyed.
- Many botanical gardens use seed banks as a method of plant
conservation.
Specific objective: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of tourism for

conservation
Advantages of tourism for conservation
 For many governments and nations, it is the revenue (taxes and visa fees)
generated through tourism that continues to support conservation and its
accompanying activities.
 In many developing countries, protected areas like national parks rely heavily
on tourism fees (foreign exchange).Most of their income comes from tourism
revenue such as entrance fees, restaurants and accommodation fees.
 Local inhabitants too have benefited from tourism. It has increased employment
opportunities (tour guides, hotel, lodge and restaurant workers) and in some
cases empower the entire community.
 Tourism also drives changing attitudes towards conservation. Travelers
themselves might take on volunteer conservation tourism, communities can
help with reduction in poaching and governments can change legislation to
support sustainable tourism.
 Tourism can help to maintain and increase wildlife in Namibia and can help to
prevent extinction of species and protect biodiversity.
 Tourism can raise awareness of poaching and even help in prevention of
poaching.
337
Disadvantages of tourism for conservation
 Globally, tourism currently contributes about 5% of greenhouse gas emissions,

primarily via airplanes or car. The remainder is derived from on-site impacts
associated with accommodation and leisure activities.
 Damage to species habitats by vehicles, roads and camping sites can be a result
of tourists not obeying local laws.
 Wildlife can be disturbed by human noise and movement of tourists.
 Pollution by non-biodegradable materials like plastics, cans, bottles and
chemicals can negatively harm wildlife.
 Conservation can cause animals to interfere with human activities, e.g. animals
can damage crops, homesteads and water supplies and injure and kill livestock.
Specific objective: explain the reasons for having conservation programs

Reason for conservation programs
 Conservation prevents the likelihood of extinction of species.

 Food chains, food webs and entire ecosystems are preserved.
 Conservation maintains the biodiversity (number and variety of organisms found
within an area).
 All organisms remain interdependent.
 Conservation has an aesthetic advantage for future generations and tourism.
 Various species provide sources for medicine, drugs and oils and also serve as
food sources.
 Conservation of species enable controlled breeding.
 It also enables transfer of animals to repopulate new areas where they have
been depleted or exterminated.
Specific objective: investigate the impact of Rhinoceros poaching on the tourism

sector in Namibia
Investigate the impact of rhinoceros poaching on the tourism sector in Namibia
 Tourism forms an integral part of Namibia’s economy, contributing not

only significantly to the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country,
but also providing a means of improving livelihoods in remote areas
where there are few economic opportunities.
338
 The loss of our country’s iconic wildlife directly reduces the number of
wildlife tourists visiting the region and reflects significant potential losses
to the GPD.
 Namibia has prioritised tourism as a major sector for driving economic
growth, employment creation and poverty reduction.
 Therefore, the poaching of rhinoceros robs the country and communities
of their natural assets.
 It undermines sustainable economic development and has serious
economic and social consequences, threatening the livelihoods of
communities that are dependent on wildlife tourism and natural
resources
339

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NSSCO BIOLOGY GRADE 10-11

Topic 1: Scientific processes

Use averages, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios and reciprocals

Finding the median

 Organise (arrange) the data in order, from the smallest to largest.

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

 A decimal refers to the notation of a number in the decimal system, which

 A fraction represents a part of a whole umber.

Mixed number – a whole number and a fraction, e.g. 4 2

 A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100.

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

Use usual mathematical instruments (ruler, compasses, protractor, Set Square)

Ruler – is used to measure length

Compasses - are used to draw circles

Protractor - is used to measure angles (in degrees)

Set square – is used to draw a perpendicular line

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

 Proportion refers to the relationship between variables

Inverse (indirect) proportion

Specific objective: use positive, whole number indices in algebraic expressions

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

1.2 . Scientific skills

1.2.1 Planning and conducting investigations

Specific objective: make observations accurately; use appropriate techniques; handle

Make observations accurately

Use appropriate techniques

 Techniques are ways of carrying out a scientific procedure.

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

Specific objective: distinguish between independent, dependent and constant

 Is the variable that is being measured in an experiment

 Is the variable that remains unchanged (constant/same) throughout an

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

 An educated guess concerning the outcome of an investigation by stating the

1.2.2 Recording data

 Data is any information gathered from experiments, observations, or from

Specific objective: record results of experimental investigations in a logical manner

 After collecting information from your experiments or investigations, it needs to

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

- Data can be presented in the form of tables and graphs where:

 A table must have an appropriate heading/title

Time/min Run cycle

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

 select suitable scale and axes for graphs

Drawing bar graphs / charts

 The independent variable is usually non-numerical and the dependent variable is a

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

Drawing line graphs

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

 Interpreting a chart or a graph means pointing out the trends that

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

 Is a measure of the distance between two points.

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

Specific objective: identify the correct SI unit and derived units

Quantity being measured Name of unit Symbol of unit

amount of substance mole mol

ST BONIFACE COLLEGE BIOLOGY GRADE 10 & 11 @P.K. Sikongo

square decimetre dm2

square centimetre cm2

square millimetre mm2

volume cubic kilometre km3

cubic decimetre (preferred to dm3 litre)

litre dm3 (not l)