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1. BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity
Refers to the variation in ecosystems/ variety of ecosystems, variety of species in
the ecosystem and the relative abundance of each species and genetic variation
within each species.
Therefore, biodiversity can be assessed at three different levels, including:
(i) The number and range of different ecosystems and habitats.
(ii) The number of different species and their relative abundance.
(iii) The genetic variation within each species.

Ecosystem
Is a relatively self- contained, interacting community of organisms, and the
environment in which they live and with which they interact.

Niche
Is the role of an organism in an ecosystem. Is how an organism fits into the
ecosystem. It describes where an organism is, how it obtains energy and how it
interacts with both its environment and with other species.

Species diversity (distribution & abundance)

Refers to the number of different species the ecosystem and the evenness in in
abundance of the different species.
The more species there are, and the more evenly the number of organisms are
distributed among the different species,the greater the species diversity.
High species diversity leads to stable ecosystems as they are more able to resist
changes.

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Ecosystem diversity
Refers to the number and range of different ecosystems and habitats.
Importance
 More different habitats
 More different niches
 Many different species/high species diversity
 High genetic diversity within each species.
 Different conditions/ selection pressures, so organisms become adapted to
such changes.

Genetic diversity
Refers to all the alleles of all the genes in the genome of a species.
Is what proportion of genes have different alleles and how many alleles there are
per genes.
The more proportion of genes have different alleles and many alleles per genes,
the greater the genetic diversity.
Importance of high genetic diversity for a species.
 Causes more variation between individuals within a population.
 Increases the ability of population to adapt to changes in biotic and abiotic
factors so, better chance of survival.
 Increases competition among organisms.
 Increases gene pool.
 Decreases inbreeding depression/ hybrid vigour.
 Less likelihood of harmful recessive alleles coming together leading to
expression of genetic disorder.

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Methods ( Techniques) used to assess the distribution and abundance of
organisms in an area ( species diversity )
Sampling
Is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to
make a statistical conclusion from them and estimate characteristics of the whole
population.

Systematic sampling ( immobile organisms)

Belt transect and line transect
Belt transect

Procedures
The tape measure with specified length is placed along the area of the study. For
example 100m
The tape measure is placed in an area where there is a good distribution and
abundance of organisms
Frame quadrats with specified size( 1m2) are placed along the transect at
specified intervals.
The organisms inside each quadrats are identified, including low growing
species, using either photographs, books, experts, Nature guide or app.
The abundance and distribution of organisms is measured by good methods such
as counting.
The experiment is repeated at different start points and at different times of the
year.
Care is taken during experiment to avoid any injury and allergy by wearing
protective coat, goggles/ masks , medication before, being were with dangerous
animals or plants

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Line transect

Procedures
The tape measure with specified length is placed along the area of the study. For
example 100m
The tape measure is placed in an area where there is a good distribution and
abundance of organisms
The organisms/ plants touching the line at set distances are identified , using
either photographs, books, experts, Nature guide or app.
The abundance and distribution of organisms is measured by good methods such
as counting.
The experiment is repeated at different start points and at different times of the
year.
Care is taken during experiment to avoid any injury and allergy by wearing
protective coat, goggles/ masks , medication before, being were with dangerous
animals or plants
Note: Systematic sampling is used where conditions such as altitudes, soil
moisture content, pH, temperature and exposure to light intensity varies.

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 :Kite diagrams shows the distribution of species by their lengths and
abundance of species by their widths.

Mark – release – recapture ( for mobile organisms)

Procedures
As many individuals as possible are caught from large areas using good methods
such as traps filled with food, bedding materials, sweeping nets/ fishing nets
Each individual is marked using marking technique that is not washed, not toxic
or that do not increase or reduce survival of the organism.
The marked organisms are counted and returned back to their habitat to mix
randomly for a reasonable time that is not too long to avoid migration of
organisms
Again, another sample of organisms from the same area is captured.
The number of marked and unmarked organisms are counted and used to
calculate the estimate of population using Lincoln index.

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Care is taken during experiment to avoid any injury and allergy by wearing
protective coat, goggles/ masks , medication before, being were with dangerous
animals or plants

Random sampling using quadrat.

Procedures
The area where the samples are going to be taken is marked with either tape
measure or string or with marker poles or marking a grid plot.
The measuring tape is placed at right angle to each other.
Random generator number is used to get coordinates of the sampling points in
relation to the two tape measures used to mark the area.
Frame quadrats with specified size( 1m2) are placed at coordinates
Plants inside each quadrats are identified , using either photographs, books,
experts, Nature guide or app.
The abundance and distribution of organisms is measured by good methods such
as counting.
The experiment is repeated at different start points and at different times of the
year.
Care is taken during experiment to avoid any injury and allergy by wearing
protective coat,

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Importance of random sampling
Quick and less time consuming
Avoids biasness
Increase accuracy of estimate

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Analysis [assessment] of the relationship ( correlation ) between two paired sets
of data/ variables.

How biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution and abundance of species.
Two statistical tests are used.
 Spearman’s rank correlation
 Pearson’s linear correlation

Spearman’s rank correlation (rs)

Used when you want to know if there is a correlation between two paired sets of
data/ variables
Criteria for using this rs
You have quantitative data that can be ranked
The samples for each set of data have been made randomly
You have at least five pairs of data between 1 - 10 – 30
The data produce a scatter graph when plotted but not U- shape.

Calculation of rs
Formula

Interpretation and justification

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The value for rs range from -1 to + 1
+1 - total(strongest) positive correlation
-1 - total(strongest) negative correlation
Near +1- strong positive correlation
Near -1- strong negative correlation
0 – no correlation

Use a correlation coefficient table/probability table and the number of pairs of

data or observations to look for the critical value of rs
If calculated value ˃ critical value ( value at 5%), means the correlation is
significant.
If calculated value ˂ critical value, this means the correlation is by chance.
Where there is significance, the calculated value is found at probability of 0.05
(5%) or less than 5% and the Null hypothesis is not supported or it is rejected.

Note
1) Significant at p ˂ 0.05
Significant means that, the correlation is caused by another(outside) factor/is
not by chance.
P ˂ 0.05 means that there is 5% or less than 5% chance/probability that the
correlation is not significant { 5% or ˂ 5% chance /probability that the correlation
occur by chance}
Or
There is 95% or more than 95% chance /probability that the correlation is
significant { 95% or ˂ 95% chance /probability that the correlation is caused by an
outside effects( factors)/ not due to chance}.
2) Not significant at p ˂ 0.05

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Not significant means that, the correlation is due to chance
P ˂ 0.05 means that there is 5% or less than 5% chance/ probability that the
correlation is caused by other factor(s) other than chance
Or
There is a 95% or more than 95% chance/probability/sure/certain that the
correlation is due to chance

Pearson’s linear correlation(r)

Used when you want to know if there is a linear correlation between two paired
sets of data

Criteria
You have two sets of interval data
You have at least 5 pairs of data, preferably 10 or more.
Scatter graph suggests linear correlation
Both sets of data have an approximately normal distribution.

Calculation of r
Formula

Interpretation and justification

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The value for r range between -1 to +1
+1 - total(strongest) positive linear correlation
-1 - total(strongest) negative linear correlation
Near +1- strong positive correlation
Near -1- strong negative correlation
0 – no correlation
Note:
Stating Null hypothesis and drawing scatter graph is important and are the prior
steps before calculation of r.

Null hypothesis
It assumes that there is NO significance difference between two sets of data/
variables
Stated as: There is no difference between two sets or data/variables/samples.

Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D)

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Used to assess the diversity /biodiversity of a species in the area of study.

Calculation for D
Formula

Interpretation and justification

The value of D range from 0 to 1
A value near 0 represents a very low species diversity.
A value near 1 represents a very high species diversity.
The higher the value for D, the greater the diversity. This means that there are
greater number of different species and the abundance of each of those species.

Standard Deviation (S)

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Is a measure of how widely a set of data are spread out on either side of the
mean.
It shows the spread of data/ values from the mean/ around the mean.
Is an estimate of the reliability of data.
Indicates/ measures the reliability of the data.
Small standard deviation indicates more reliability of the data.
Note: Standard deviation is about the reliability of the data.

Standard Errors (SE)

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Is a measure of how likely it is that a mean calculated from a sample ( sample
mean) represents the true (actual) mean for the whole population.
Is an estimate of the reliability of the mean of a population/shows the reliability
of population mean.
It shows the closeness /accuracy of the calculated mean value (sample mean) in
relation to the actual mean.
It shows the spread of sample mean from the actual mean.
Small SE indicates that the sample mean value is close to the actual population
mean/ the mean is more reliable.

Note: Standard Error deals with reliability/ accuracy/ validity of the mean.
Are used to calculate 95% Confidence Intervals/ Confidence Limits and
drawing error bars on a graph.

Error Bars
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Is a bar drawn through the top of the plotted bar/ plot.
They show / indicate the reliability of the results.
Long/wide/big error bars indicates that the results are less/ not reliable.

95% Confidence Interval/ Confidence Limit.

Is a range/ interval in which the true value of the mean ( population mean) lies
with 95% probability/ chance.
Shows that the true mean lies within a range of estimated sample mean +/-2SE
with 95% confidence/probability/chance.
It shows that it is 95% confident/ sure/ certain that the true mean lies within the
two limits/range.
Shows the reliability of the calculated mean.
If the 95 Confidence Limits is small or if do not overlap then the mean is reliable.

Note
95% Confidence Limits can be shown by bars on graphs.

2. CLASSIFICATION
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The species concept.

Biological species
A group of organisms with similar morphology and physiology, which can breed
together to produce fertile offspring and are reproductively isolated from other
species.

Morphological species
A group of organisms that share many physical features that distinguish them
from other species.

Ecological species
Population of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same
time
Population
All of the organisms of the same species present in the same place and at the
same time that can interbreed with one another.

Domains
There are three domains.
Domain bacteria
Domain archaea
Domain eukarya
DOMAIN BACTERIA
Characteristic features of bacteria

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  Cells with no nucleus/ nuclear envelope.
 Smaller circular molecules of DNA/ plasmids often present.
 No histone- like protein associated with DNA.
 No membrane- bound organelles such as mitochondria, ER, golgi body etc.
 Small 70S ribosomes/18nm ribosomes.
 Cell wall always present, made of peptidoglycans ( not cellulose ).
 Cells divides by binary fission not by mitosis.
 Unicellular.
 Size range from 0.5µm to 5µm
 Spherical in shape.
 Exists as single cells or form a small group of cells.

DOMAIN ARCHAEA
Characteristic features of archaeans
 Cells with no nucleus/ nuclear envelope.
 Their DNA exists as a circular chromosome and does have histone proteins
associated with it.
 Smaller circular molecules of DNA/ plasmids often present.
 No membrane- bound organelles eg mitochondria, ER, golgi body etc
 70S ribosomes smaller than in eukaryotic cells but the small subunit has
features that are similar to those in eukaryotic cells but not to bacterial
ribosomes ; the base sequences of rRNA and the primary structure of
ribosomal proteins are more like those in eukaryotes rather than bacteria.
 Cell wall always present but not made of peptidoglycans.
 Cells divides by binary fission not by mitosis.
 Spherical in shape.
 Exist as single cells( unicellular) or small group of cells.
 Some are extremophiles, live in hot springs.
 Their membrane lipids are unique ( ether linked- lipid) – they are not found
in membranes of bacteria or eukarya.
DOMAIN EUKARYA
Characteristic features of eukaryotes

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  Cells with nucleus/ nuclear envelope.
 DNA in nucleus arranged as linear chromosomes with histone proteins.
 Membrane- bound organelles present eg mitochondria, ER, golgi body etc.
 80S ribosomes in the cytosol are larger than in prokaryotes; chloroplasts.
and mitochondria have 70S ribosomes like those in prokaryotes.
 Chloroplasts DNA and mtDNA is circular as in prokaryotes.
 Cells divides by mitosis.
 Exists as single cells ( unicellular), colonial and multicellular.
 Reproduction by asexual and sexual.
 Cell walls present in some eukaryotes.

Classification of organisms in the Eukarya domain

Each kind of organisms is assigned to its own species .Similar species are
grouped into a genus. Similar genera are grouped into a family. Similar families
are grouped into an order. Similar orders are grouped into a class. Similar classes
are grouped into a phylum. Similar phyla are grouped into a kingdom.

KINGDOMS
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Characteristic features of protoctists
 Eukaryotic
 Mostly single- celled or exists as group of similar cells.
 Some have animal- like cells ( no cell wall) and are called protozoa
 Others have plant – like cells ( with cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts) and
are called algae
 Some are autotrophic

KINGDOM FUNGI

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Characteristic features of fungi
 Eukaryotic
 Do not have chlorophyll and do not photosynthesise
 Heterotrophic nutrition/heterotrophs
 Reproduce by means of spores
 Cells have cell walls made of chitin and not cellulose.
 Never have cilia or flagella/ non – motile
 Most multicellular ( have hyphae) and some unicellular( yeast)
 Cells are multinucleate.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
Characteristic features of plants
 Eukaryotic
 Multicellular with cells differentiated to form tissues and organs
 Few types of specialized cells
 Some cells have chloroplasts and photosynthesise
 Cells have large , permanent vacuoles for support
 Autotrophic nutrition/ autotrophs
 Cell walls are always present and are made of cellulose.
 Cells may occasionally have flagella such as male gametes in ferns

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
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Characteristic features of animals
 Eukaryotic
 Multicelullar with cells differentiated to form tissues and organs
 Many different types of specialised cells
 Cells do not have chloroplasts and cannot photosynthesise except for some
coral polyps which have photosynthetic protoctists living within their
tissues.
 Cell vacuoles are small and temporary such as lysosomes and food vacuoles
 Heterotrophic nutrition/heterotrophs
 Cells do not have cell walls
 Communicates by nervous system
 Cells sometimes have cilia and flagella

VIRUSES
Classification
Based on:

 The type of nucleic acid they contain(DNA or RNA)

 Whether the nucleic acid is single -stranded or double- stranded

Characteristic features of viruses

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  Not cellular/ acellular.
 Contain nucleic acid(RNA or DNA) core
 The DNA or RNA may be single- stranded or double – stranded
 The nucleic acid core is surrounded by protein coat/capsid/capsomeres
 May have external envelope/ membrane
 Size range from 50 to 750nm
 Obligate parasites
 Replicated in/ by host cells
 Pathogenic
 No metabolism
 Immobile
 Have proteins/enzymes to help infection
 Highly specific to host cells
 Not thought to be living

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 3. CONSERVATION
Is the care and protection of resources so that they can persist for many
generation.
It seeks the sustainable use of nature by humans for activities.
It restores areas that have been degraded by human activities or natural
disasters.

a) Reasons for population and species extinction

There are five major threats to biodiversity
 Degradation and loss of habitats
 Climatic change
 Competition
 Hunting by humans

1. Habitat loss and the degradation of the environments

 Habitat loss
This is the removal of vegetation to clear the land for agriculture, housing,
transport, leasure facilities and industrial so, plant and animal species are lost
(extinct) in extreme cases. It results to habitat fragmentation and displacement
of organisms.
 Degradation of the environment
Occurs due to erosion resulting from deforestation.
All these reduces biodiversity.

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2. Climatic change
 Due to combustion of fossil fuel containing more sulfur which releases high
concentration of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere. This enhances acidic rain
which destroy vegetation and aquatic ecosystems decreasing biodiversity
remarkably.

 Due to industrialization, extraction of fossil fuel and keeping large number

of cattle, rice farming and anaerobic respiration in landfills sites leads to an
increased conc. of CO2 and CH4 in the atmosphere. These gases enhances
greenhouse effects which leads to global warming which changes the
distribution and number of organisms.
 Competition
 Hunting by humans

b) Reasons for the need to maintain biodiversity

1. Moral and ethical reasons

 Humans have custody of the Earth, so should value and protect the
organisms that share the planet with us, preventing them from extinction.

2. Ecological reasons
 Maintaining food chains and food webs
 Maintaining stability of ecosystems and protecting habitats
 Maintain climatic stability.
3. Aesthetic reasons
 Gives pleasure to people from studying or just appreciating the natural
worlds and give much inspiration for artists, photographers, poets, writers
and other creative people.

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4. Social and commercial reasons
 Provides the genetic resources to widen genetic diversity of different
species
 Source of food for humans and other animals.
 Resource materials such as wood, fibres.
 Medical use
 Some species may have use in the future
 Prevention of natural disaster
 Tourism
 Employment and economies of nations.6
5. Other reasons
 Provides services for humans such as fertlisers from organic wastes,
balancing CO2 and O2.
 Decomposition of organic matter
 Water cycle
 Recycling elements such carbon and nitrogen cycle.

c) Methods for protecting Endangered species

 Zoos
 Botanic garden
 Conserved areas ( National Parks and Marine Parks)
 Frozen zoos
 Seed banks

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1. ZOOS
 Provides protection for endangered species and vulnerable species from
predator/shooting.
 Protected animals are properly fed and given veterinary attention.
 Captive breeding programmes are conducted and reintroducing the
animals to their natural habitats.
 In researching to gain a better understanding of breeding habitat.
requirements and ways to increase genetic diversity.
 Educating the public.
 Maintain genetic diversity by breeding with different males.
 High records maintenance.
 Breeding partners can be transferred between zoos.
 AI/IVF can be conducted and transferred to surrogacy mother.

Disadvantages of Zoos
 Not all attempts are successful.
 Animals may refuse to breed in captivity.
 Difficult to create suitable habitats to grow animals.
 Difficult for animals to adapt to wildlife as they were used to being cared.
for
 Animals does not have skills required to survive in the wild such as avoid.
predator, find food and rear their own.
 May cause stress to animals.
 Transmission of pathogens amongst animals.
 Inbreeding depression increases/decreased genetic diversity.
 Animals have no fear to humans
 Behavioural change such as reproductive cycle
 Animals are not living in natural habitat
 Difficult to interact/socialize with other members of their species in the
wild

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2. BOTANIC GARDENS
 Protects endangered plant species and vulnerable species
 Educating the public/rise awareness in many roles of plants in ecosystems
and their economic values
 Research conservation methods, so plants can be introduced to new
habitats if their original habitat has been destroyed
 Reintroduces species to habitats where they have become very rare or
extinct/restore habitat
 Research methods of preparation and growth so that species cultivated in
botanic gardens can be grown in the appropriate conditions and be
propagated.
 Store seeds in seed banks so that even if the plants become extinct in the
wild, there will be seeds from botanic garden that can be grown/maintain
genetic diversity.

 Stores tissue culture.

 Collects seeds and cuttings/plants from wild and many countries especially
areas at risk from climatic change and use them to build a population of
plants from which one day some plants may be reintroduced to their
natural habitat.
 Raise funds for conservation of nature.

Note: Research are conducted in cooperation with government,

charities/agencies and Universities.

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3. SEED BANKS
 Collection of variety of seeds
 For long- term storage of seeds
 Seeds are dried and frozen or stored at low temperature to prevent
germination
 Seeds are regularly grown to test for viability and getting new seeds for
storage
 Seeds are re- stocked regularly to check if damaged by pests
 Stored seeds so that the genetic diversity in crop plants and wild plants is
not lost/act as gene bank
 Seeds are used in the future for example after environmental disaster/
new diseases/ increase number
 Maintain biodiversity
 Education of public
 Research
 Takes up less space than growing plants and cheaper to store than whole
plants

4. FROZEN ZOOS
 Holds genetic resources in the form of DNA, sperms, eggs and embryos and
live tissues from many endangered species and vulnerable species until
they might be needed.
 Holds more genetic diversity
 Materials are kept at very low temperature for optimal preservation over a
long period such as in San Diego Zoo.
 Increases number of, breeding stock / potential mates ;
 Larger gene pool / increase in genetic variation ;
 Sperm transported to other, zoos / breeding facilities ;
 (frozen / stored), sperm acts as gene bank ;
 Alleles available from animals no longer alive ;

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5. NATIONAL PARKS AND MARINE PARKS ( CONSERVED AREAS)
a) National Parks
 These are large protected areas
 Conserve rare and endangered species and many hugely available species
 Maintain biodiversity
 Teaches how conservation takes place
 Animals are not moved from natural environment

b) Marine parks
 Protects marine ecosystems
 Aquatic organisms increases

d) Methods of assisted reproduction to conserve endangered

species( mammals)
Useful for species where reproduction is difficult as result of habitat
fragmentation or reproductive physiology problems.
Increases the rate of reproduction/ offspring production.

1. In vitro fertilisation
 Hormones are given to an animal to stimulate follicle development and
cause superovulation.
 Many oocytes are harvested.
 Oocytes are kept in a culture medium and mixed with sperm to form
zygotes.
 Zygotes divides to form embryos.
 Embryos are placed into uterus/mother or several females of similar
species or different for further development.

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2. Embryo transfer and surrogacy
 Embryo flushed out of the uterus and transferred to other females that
have had prepared for pregnancy (the surrogacy mother) that is related
but not endangered species.
 Protects the endangered animals from the risk of pregnancy and enable
them to be source of many offspring.

f) Reasons for controlling invasive alien species

Alien/Invasive species are those that have moved from one ecosystem to another
where they were previously unknown. They are moved intentionally or by chance.
Reasons
 May compete effectively with native organisms that occupy the same niche,
pushing them to extinction.
 May introduce diseases that spread to similar organisms that have never
been exposed to the pathogens.
 Alien species may start eating other organisms that are not target
organisms for example rabbits introduced in Australia in 19 thC. have been
responsible for more loss of biodiversity there than any other factor.
 Some invasive plants, such as water hyancith grow so successful that they
cover huge area of land or water and reduce where native species can grow
and also provides habitat for mosqiuito larvae increasing the chance of
contracting malaria.
 Small Indian Mangroove became a predator for other animals when was
introduced to control rats in Jamaica.
 Can toad was introduced to Queensland Australia to control Insect pest of
sugar cane. It has become a pest and breeds so rapidly and produce toxin
that kills animals that eat it, and also competes with others for food.
 Some alien plant species have vigorous root system and grow so strongly
that it can cause damage to building, roads and walls

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g) The roles IUCN and CITES in local and global conservation

1. IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature)

Mission
To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and build a future in
which humans live in harmony with nature.
Roles
 Funds conservation projects such as planting trees, cleaning beaches etc.
 Publicizes environmental issues and raises awareness.
 Educate/campaigns to save ecosystems.
 Influence government.
 Research and reports.
 Promotes coexistence between wildlife and people.
 Holds protests/ take direct action to prevent development/ exploitation
 Conserve biodiversity.
 Reduce hunting or deforestation.

2. CITES ( Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora

and Fauna)
Agreement signed by many countries around the world.
Roles
 Controls trade in endangered species and products from them such as fur,
skin, ivory, wood etc.
 It has appendices which list endangered species according to set criteria,
trading regulations and examples of animals and plants.

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Other International conservation organization are:
Conservation International, World Seed Bank, Greenpeace, Wildlife Conservation
Society, Oceana, Sea Shepherd and Nature Conservancy.

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