MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

P. BAG 9055 Tel. (263) 54 260450/260417

Gweru. 260409/2604972/260632/260596
Zimbabwe FAX: (263) 54 260753 / 54 260233

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

APPLIED BIOSCIENCES AND

BIOTECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

ECOLOGY PRACTICAL HABB 103

PRACTICAL 1
VARIATIONS AMONG INDIVIDUALS IN A POPULATION

Introduction
Much of ecology consists of measuring or counting plants, animals or other organisms. This
is not as simple as it seems because living things do not exist in orderly groupings. They are
generally distributed in a highly variable manner, differing in size, composition, density and
so on. Special sampling methods are often required and animals will often find ways of
avoiding traps and other devices to capture them. Researchers may also be biased, perharps
by collecting samples from areas that are easily reached. All of these factors introduce a
degree of variability to the data and this variability is assessed by statistics.
It is rarely possible to count all the individuals in a population and therefore samples
have to be taken. A sample removes a sampling unit from a population, since it is seldom
possible to remove all the sampling units; a group of units is selected from the whole
population. This group of sampling units is called a sample. The units in a sample are of
equal size, taken over a short space of time and usually selected at random from the whole
population of sampling units.
Most kinds of sapling give us a mean (or average) value but a mean does not tell us
very much about a population. For example, if we measured the length of 5 insects from two
populations and got following result:

Sample A: 2, 8, 10, 25, and 55, mean(x) =20mm

Sample B: 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24, mean(x) =20mm

We might conclude that the insects in both populations are similar in size. It is true that they
both have the same mean length but the individuals in population vary much more in size
than those in population B. This kind of variability is typical of almost all living organisms.
Variation can be introduced by the inadequacies of the sampling method, differences between
observers, and so on and it is necessary for to employ various statistical techniques to
quantify the variability. The practical will start with a lecture on basic statistics in science.
You will be introduced to some basic descriptive statistics (mean, variance, standard
deviation and confidence limits) and how these are calculated.

A. VARIATION IN LEAFLETS AND LEAF LENGTH IN THE AMERICAN ASH

You are provided with a number of leaves from the American Ash trees (Fraxinus
americanus) that grow in the college campus. These are dioecious, i.e males and females are
separate, and their leaves differ in length but you will be required to look only at those of one
sex. You should measure the of 32 leaves.

Calculate the mean values for 2, 4,8,16 and leaves and enter them in a table.

The first measure of variability is called variance and is calculated by the equation

S2=variance
Σ (x2) = the sum of each value squared
-
X =the mean
Σx = the sum of all values
(n- 1) =the number in the sample minus one

Calculate the variance for the samples of 2, 4, 16, and 32 leaves for which you already have
the mean values and add them to the table.

The next measure of variability is the standard deviation of the sample which is the square
root of the variance (s). Calculate the standard deviation of your samples and enter them on
the table.

It is most unlikely that the mean values that you obtained are exactly those of the population
but they are likely to be somewhere around them. We determine where this is by calculating
the confidence limits within which there is a 95% probability that the mean will be found.
The 95% confidence limits are generally± twice the standard error, which is the square root
of the variance divided by the number of samples (√ (s2/n).

Calculate the standard error and the 95% confidence limits of your samples and add them to
the table.

Finally, draw a graph in which the values ± their confidence limits are plotted against sample
size and write up your conclusions.

PRACTICAL 2
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS

Introduction
The individuals of a population can follow three basic types of spatial distribution: random,
regular, and clumped distribution.

A random distribution is one in which the location of one individual is not affecting in any
way by the presence or absence of other individuals of the same species. In other words, the
distribution of the individuals in the population is dependent of one other.

A regular distribution that if the site is already occupied by one individual there is a lower
probability of finding another individual of the same species nearby than if the individuals
were randomly distributed .A regular distributed implies some negative interactions between
individuals Foe animals this could be territorial interactions .For plants ,regular distributions
could be caused ,perhaps ,by shading ,root competition, or allelopathy (the release of
chemicals which inhibit the growth of potential competitors).

A clumped distribution, on the other hand , means that there is a higher probability of
finding two or more individuals together at the same site than would occur if their
distributions were random .Clumped distribution in plants can result from the restricted
dispersal of seeds from adult plants ,so that the offspring grow near their parents ,or because
of clonal growth ( through rhizomes or stolons).A clumped distribution may also result from
heterogeneity in the micro environment .
For plants, distribution is therefore likely to depend on:
a) The suitability of the site in terms of temperature, pH, the availability of moisture,
nutrients, and light
b) The presence or absence of other individuals (of the same or other species) with similar
ecological requirements
c) The frequency and intensity of disturbance
d) The ability of propagates (seed, spores) or vegetative units such as stolons, to reach,
occupy and hold a newly vacant site

A. THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF A SELECTED WEED GROWING ON

ONE OF THE LAWNS IN THE COLLEGE CAMPUS

The lawn will be divided into squares measuring 1m ×1m. Working in groups, you will select
a strip of squares and count and record the numbers of the selected weed in each square .You
will then return to the lab and use the combined data to determine the spatial distribution of
this species.

From the data, calculate the mean numbers of the weed per square and the variance .The
dissension of the population determines the relationship between the variance and the mean
so that

(a) Random distribution –variance is equal to mean

(b) Regular distribution –variance is less than mean
(c ) clumped distribution –variance is grayer than mean

This will give you a quick method of determining spatial distribution.

This should then be followed by a χ2 test (variance to mean ratio) for agreement with a Poison
series (which proposes random distribution, i.e variance equal to mean). The value of χ 2 is
determined from the equation:
-
2 2
χ = [s (n-1)/ x ]
Determine the degrees of freedom and read off the χ2 value from statistical tables against the
degrees of freedom to determine the spatial distribution of plants in your sample.

Repeat the exercise with the entire data set which will have been put on the board
Write up the practical in the standard format

PRACTICAL 3
HOW MANY SAMPLES SHOULD WE TAKE
INTRODUCTION
This is a fundamental question in ecology. We need to take enough samples to get an accurate
representation of the population but we do not want to take so many samples so that we are
not wasting much effort. The purpose of this practical is to examine the relationship between
the number of samples and the predicted composition of s population consist of a population.
The population in this case consist of a black and white and red bean seeds. You will be given
bags containing these in varying proportions. Without looking into the bag, you should take
one bean note its color and return it to the bag. Do the same with 2,5,10,15 and 20 bean
seeds; having done this, count the total number of beans in the bag and the number of beans
of each colour.
In writing up this practical you should answer the question “how many beans I need to
sample in order to get an accurate representation of the population?” illustrate your answer
with tables or graphs where necessary.

PRACTICAL 4
ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE

INTRODUCTION
Methods of estimating the size and distribution of plant populations usually involve marking
the area covered by the plant population in grid and the counting the entire individual in
particular plant species in a sample of quadrates. While it is possible, but not always
practical, to count every single plant in a population this is rarely possible in animal
population. A variety of techniques have therefore been developed for estimating the animal
numbers. The practical will deal with a simulation of the mark-capture method.
In this method a sample of individuals is captured from an animal population marked
in some way and released. After giving these animals some time to mix back into the
population a second sample is taken. By assuming that the ratio of the marked to unmarked
animals in the sample is the same as the ratio in the population. It is possible to calculate the
total number of animals in the population. The method assumes that (1) all individuals are
equally catchable and (2) there are no births, deaths, immigration or emigration amongst the
population in the time between the first and the second samples. The first assumption is not
always true as different age-classes or sexes may have different behavior patterns. To satisfy
the second assumption, the second sampling must be done within a reasonably short time of
the first.

A. ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF AN ARTIFICIAL POPULATION (BEAN SEED)

In this exercise you will estimate the size of an artificial population. You will be given a bag
containing a number of seeds. Remove some of the seeds, mark them and return them into the
bag. Shake it to allow the marked seeds to mix well back into the population. Then take the
second sample and count the number of the marked and unmarked seeds. From these data you
should be able to estimate the number of seeds in the bag and calculate the confidence limits
(as you did in practical 2) for the estimate. The second population of the seeds can be
estimated from the formula.

n= (mc)/r
Where
n= total number in the population
m= the number of the marked seeds in the population
c= the number of seeds in the sample
r= the number of the marked seeds in the sample c

The variance of the estimate is determined by

v = [n2 (n-m) (n-c)]/ [mc (n-1)]

Where,
n= total number in the population
m= the number of the marked seeds in the population
 c= the number of seeds in the sample
r= the number of the marked seeds in the sample c

You can then compare the estimate by counting the seeds in the bag afterwards.
How well did the method work? If your results were very different from the real answer,
suggest some reasons why the experiment may not have worked very well.

B. METHOD OF ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE.

Materials:
· 50 beans (30 white and 20 brown)
· Jar with lid
· Nail polish

Background Information:
A researcher visits a study area and uses traps to capture a group of individuals alive. Each of
these individuals is marked with a unique identifier (e.g., a numbered tag or band), and then
is released unharmed back into the environment. The researcher then uses the Lincoln index
to estimate the size of the population.

Procedure:

1. Take 30 white beans and 20 brown beans and put them in the jar.
2. Shake the jar; without looking, remove 10 beans.
3. Count the number of brown beans left in the jar and record in Data Table 1.
4. Repeat step 3 until the data table is complete (10 times).
5. Use the Lincoln index to estimate the population size for each trial. (Multiply the total
number of brown beans in the jar (20) by the number of beans you removed each time (10);
then, divide this number by the number of brown beans you “caught” for that trial.)
6. Add up the population estimate column and then divide the total by 10 (the number of
trials) to get your average population estimate.

Formula:

Lincoln Index

P = (N1 x N2)/ R
P = total size of population
N1 = size of first sample (all brown beans in jar)
N2 = size of second sample (recapture: some will be brown and some won’t)
R = number of brown individuals recaptured or “caught” each time
Data and calculations:
Data Table 1

Trial number Number of Population

marked beans estimate
in sample

1
 2

10

Average

Analysis:
1. How close was the average value compared to the actual population size?
2. What things do animals in the wild do that beans do not? Why does this behavior make a
researcher’s job more difficult?

C. ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF A CAPTIVE POPULATION OF (E.G. LIONS).

A population of locusts, Locusta migratoria, kept in the large cages will be used in this
exercise you will take a sample of 20 locusts from the cage and mark them with quick drying
enamel paint. Once the paint has dried you will return them to the cage and they will be left
for 30 minutes. You will then take another sample of 20 locusts and count how many will be
marked.

Calculate the size of the population (mean ± confidence limits) and put the results on the
board for comparison with others.

PRACTICAL 5
SPECIES - AREA RELATIONSHIPS

Introduction

The number of species recorded in any area is partly determined by the size of the area; small
islands, for example, will have fewer species than large ones. This has practical importance
because, if you are carrying out a biological survey, the number of species you find will be
related to the size of the area surveyed.

SPECIES – AREA RELATIONSHIP FOR PLANT SPECIES

You will work in groups for this practical. A series of squares of different sizes will be laid
out the lawns in the college campus. You will first prepare a collection of the different species
to be found. These will be stuck onto a large piece of paper and each species will be given a
number (it will not be possible to name them all) to form an inventory of all the species
present on the marked area. This can be consulted during the main survey.

During the main survey you will count the number of species present in each different – sized
square. Once you have done this, put the results on the board. The species – area relationship
can be examined by plotting the number of species against the area of the square.

Write up the practical in the standard format