Biology

Living organisms in the Environment

Specific Objectives

Students should be able to:

 carry out a simple ecological study using the most appropriate collecting and sampling
methods;
Ecological Sampling
 Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations are taken from a larger population.

 Sampling gives us an idea of the big picture because often it is impossible to get a
measurement from every single plant or animal that we're studying.

 The methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis
being performed, but it may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
Ecological Sampling
 Random sampling
• This is a sampling technique in which each sample has an equal probability of being chosen. A
sample chosen randomly is meant to be an unbiased representation of the total population.

 Systematic sampling
• This is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members from a larger population
are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic interval. This interval,
called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the population size by the desired sample
size.

 For each of these methods of sampling, there are two common choices of sampling unit,

namely, the quadrat and the transect.
Transect Lines
 A transect is a line across a habitat or part of a habitat. It can be as simple as a string or
rope placed in a line on the ground. The number of organisms of each species along
a transect can be observed and recorded at regular intervals.
Transect Lines
 A transect is usually used to investigate a gradual change in a habitat rather than to simply
estimate the number of organisms within it.

 It can also be used together with another sampling method known as the quadrat.
Belt Transect
 A belt transect involves laying two lines at a fixed distance from each other and counting
the organisms within the two lines.

 Sometimes this is done using a quadrat, so that an estimate not only of distribution but also
of relative abundance can be calculated.
Quadrat Sampling
 A quadrat is a frame, traditionally square, used in ecology and geography to isolate a standard unit of
area for study of the distribution of an item over a large area. Most commonly, they are 1mx1m or
0.5mx 0.5 m.

 Quadrat sampling is a method by which organisms in a certain proportion of the habitat (within the
quadrat) are counted directly. It is used to estimate population abundance (number), density,
frequency and distribution

 The quadrat positions are chosen randomly or they are placed along a transect at random or regular
intervals.

 Quadrat sampling is more suitable for small, non-mobile organisms as they have to be counted.
Mobile organisms may make this difficult.

 Multiple quadrat samples are taken to improve accuracy of results

Quadrat Sampling
Quadrat Sampling
 From the data collected from the quadrat throws, several factors can be calculated. These
include:
• Species Density
• Species Frequency
• Percentage Cover
Population Density
 This is expressed as the number of individuals per square meter.

 Consider the following samples made with a 1m x 1m quadrat:

Density = __(5+6+4+2+7)__
5x 1m²
Density = 24/ 5
Density = 4.8 individuals per m²
Frequency
 This refers to the percentage of quadrats within which the species is found.

 Consider the following samples made with a 1m x 1m quadrat:

 Frequency

Frequency = 3/5 or 60%

Percentage Cover
 This measures the percentage of area within a quadrat covered by a single species.
 Consider the following quadrat throw.
 To calculate % cover:
• Count full squares.
• Combine pieces to make full squares.
• Calculate % coverage
Tools for Sampling (mobile organisms)

 When sampling a population, the numbers of organisms are counted within a sample site,
and then the results multiplied to estimate the total number in the entire habitat. Large
animals and plants can often simply be counted. However, many smaller animals like
insects and smaller mammals need to be trapped first so they can be counted and then
released afterwards.

 Collecting organisms
• Organisms can be collected using a variety of methods, including:
• nets
• pooters
• pitfall traps
Nets
 Nets are useful for collecting flying insects such as butterflies and moths. They are swept
through long grass or leaves of trees in a process called sweep netting. The organisms are
caught in the net.
 To catch aquatic organisms, nets are often held downstream of the area to be studied and
then the riverbed is gently disturbed by the person doing the sampling. The small animals
float into the net. This is called kick-sampling.
Pooters
 A pooter is a small jar used for collecting insects. It has two tubes - one goes into your
mouth so you can apply suction, and the other goes over the insect so that it is sucked into
the jar. A fine mesh over the end of the first tube stops you swallowing the insect.
Pitfall Traps
 A pitfall trap is often used to sample small invertebrates living on the ground, such as
beetles, spiders and slugs. The trap consists of a container, such as a yogurt carton, buried
in the ground with the top of the container level with the soil surface.
 The sides are smooth to stop the organisms escaping. The top of the container is covered
by a piece of wood with a slight gap to allow insects to climb in. It is important to check
the trap regularly to avoid the organisms escaping or being eaten before they are counted.
Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
 One way to estimate the population size of an animal species is capture-recapture. Some
animals are trapped, for example, using pitfall traps. They are marked in some harmless
way then released. Traps are used a few days later. The numbers of marked and unmarked
animals caught in the traps are recorded. The population size is estimated using this
formula:

 For example, ten animals were trapped, marked and released. Two days later, 20 animals
were trapped. Of these, five were found to be marked.
Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
 When using capture-recapture data, you have to make assumptions including:
• there is no death, or movement of animals to other habitats
• the sampling methods used each time are identical
• the marking has not affected the survival rate of the animals