An Ecological Study

Objective:
• To carry out a simple ecological study using the most
appropriate collecting and sampling methods

Form 4 Biology
References:
2020-2021: 1st term (online)
Biology for CSEC Exam. – L. Atwaroo-Ali
Dr. S. Ali
Biology for CSEC Exam. – L. Chinnery, et al.
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An Ecological Study
• This involves looking at the environmental factors of an
ecosystem.

• To study the abiotic and biotic elements of an ecosystem to

determine the relationships which plant and animal
populations have with each other and with the abiotic
elements.

• It involves sampling which can estimate the abundance

and distribution of living organisms.
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Recall: What are Environmental factors?

• Environment: the factors which surround and act on an
organism.

• Why are environmental factors important?

• They partly determine organism distribution

• Two kinds of environmental factors:

▫ Abiotic (physical) – make up the non-living part of the
environment
▫ Biotic – results from the activities of other living
organisms in the environment, e.g. Predators, parasites
etc.
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Choosing an ecosystem to study

• A small ecosystem which does not contain too many
species should be chosen.
▫ E.g. small garden, a tree, small pond

• An ecosystem may be aquatic or terrestrial.

• Once an ecosystem is chosen, identify the abiotic and

biotic factors associated with it.

• The results can then be used to relate the distribution and

behaviour of different species to the abiotic factors.
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Identifying Biotic factors

• Make a list of all the animals and plants observed within
the area.

• Done simply by observing – walk around quietly and

slowly

• Describe any interactions observed between organisms

within the ecosystem.
▫ Construct food chains and webs
▫ Evidence of symbiotic relationships (mutualism, commensalism,
parasitism)
▫ Other inter-relationships (competition, pollination, etc.)
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Identifying Biotic factors - Sampling

• Populations and communities are often too large for every
individual to be observed.

• Sampling is done – a representative of the group to which the

individuals belong is observed
▫ Estimates numbers of populations within the community

• Many samples should be taken to ensure a true representative

of the population is obtained.

• Random sampling
▫ Advantage - avoid bias
▫ Disadvantage – important areas might not be sampled

• Systematic sampling
▫ Advantage - gives more representative results.
▫ Disadvantage – more time consuming
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Random vs. Systematic Sampling

Random Systematic
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Sampling Techniques
• Quadrats
▫ a square frame of known area (1 m2 or 2.5 m2)
▫ size dependent on the type of vegetation or species to be sampled
▫ distributed randomly within the ecosystem
▫ the number of each species (plant and animal) is counted within its
boundaries
▫ used mainly in fairly uniform ecosystems
▫ for sampling of sessile or slow moving organisms
▫ sampling may be random or systematic
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Sampling Techniques
• Line Transects
▫ Involves sampling along a straight line placed across parts of an
ecosystem
▫ Species of plants or animals touching the line at fixed intervals are
counted and identified
▫ Used mainly where one habitat is merging into another
▫ Sampling is systematic
• Belt Transects
• used when more accurate information is required
• samples a wider area - between two parallel line transects
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Sampling Techniques
• Nets (Sweep nets)
▫ For sampling small moving animals, e.g. flying insects, butterflies,
etc.
▫ Also used in the water to catch moving animals by sweeping
through water plants
▫ Size of the mesh of the net depends on the animal size to be
captured
▫ Nets are placed randomly within the area and swept through area
a fixed number of times
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Sampling Techniques
• Nets (Sweep nets)
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Sampling Techniques
• Plankton net
▫ a silk/nylon net attached to a metal loop and rope harness,
towed through water. At the end of net, small jar attached to
collect organisms, such as plankton.
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Sampling Techniques
• Pooters
▫ A bottle or jar for collecting small animals and other invertebrates
▫ Have two tubes one for uptake of the particular insect and the
other which air is sucked out from (protected by a gauze)
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Sampling Techniques
• Bottles
▫ A bottle or jar of known volume can be used for obtaining
aquatic or terrestrial species
▫ Sampling is systematic or random
• Pitfall traps
• bottles can be used for trapping of small insects or other species,
usually contain food to attract animals.
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Sampling Techniques
• Sieves (sifter)
▫ Used for separating wanted material from unwanted material
▫ Used to separate particle sizes of a soil sample for
identification of soil type. (particle size distribution)
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Sampling Techniques
• Sieves (sifter)
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Sampling Techniques
• Tullgren funnel
▫ Used for catching soil or leaf litter
organisms that prefer moist
conditions (move away from a heat
source).
▫ Soil sample is placed in a sieve
(which is inside a funnel)
▫ Above this is a bulb with a metal
reflector, which is move closer to
the sample over a period of time.
▫ Small animals (e.g. arthropods)
move downwards and drop
through the wire mesh, into
alcohol below.
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Mark, Release, Recapture

• This method estimates the numbers of organisms; i.e. the
sizes of populations
• Specifically used for animals that move around a lot.
• Also called capture-recapture method.

• Method:
▫ 1. You capture a sample (small insects, beetles etc. – you simply
look for them; small animals – catch by nets)
▫ 2. You mark each individual and release them (small spots on
them using waterproof paint)
▫ 3. Leave the population undisturbed for a period of time (e.g.
a day – give them chance to mix with unmarked ones)
▫ 4. You capture a second sample, as many as possible and count
the total number, and the number of marked ones
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Mark, Release, Recapture

Example:

• Sample = 40 individuals (First capture, marked & released)

• Recaptured Sample = 100 individuals, only 20 marked

Analysis:

• Then you have recaptured 20 of 40 marked ones (½ of them).

• Probability of catch is ½ of the entire population
• Estimate of total size of population 100 x 2 = 200

Formula:

• Estimated population size =

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
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Determining Species Distribution

• The data collected from quadrats and transects can be used to estimate the
number of organisms within a given area. (gives an idea of population size)

• Species Density
▫ The average number of individuals of each species per m2 (area depends on size of quadrat
used, e.g. 1 m2 quadrat).

• Species Frequency
▫ The percentage of quadrats in which a particular species is found.

• Species Cover
▫ The percentage of ground covered by a species such as vegetation. (estimated coverage in a
gridded quadrat)

• Total Population
▫ Total number of individuals of a given species a given area. Obtained by multiplying the
species density by the total area studied.
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Determining Species Distribution

Species No. of organisms or % Total Species Species Species

cover in each quadrat (Q) indiv. density Freq. Cover
(1 m2 (%) (%)
quadrat
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 used)

A 3 5 0 2 0 10 10/5 = 2 (3/5) x
2/1 = 2 100%
= 60%
B 5% 0% 25% 10% 50% 90% 4/5 x (90%/5)
100% =
80% = 18%
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Identifying Abiotic factors

Recall:
• The abiotic factors supply living organisms with some of the
requirements needed for survival.

• Types of abiotic factors (non-living, physical) -

▫ Climatic:
 temperature, rainfall, sunlight, humidity, etc.
▫ Aquatic:
 factors associated with water; amount of dissolved oxygen,
salinity, currents, pH, etc.
▫ Edaphic:
 factors connected to the soil; mineral content, pH, etc.
▫ Physiographic:
 physical features of the Earth’s surface, such as the
topography.
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Identifying Abiotic factors

• Temperature:
▫ using a thermometer, measured over a period of time.

• pH:
▫ measures the acidity/alkalinity using indicator or pH paper.

• Wind speed:
▫ measured by an anemometer; wind direction measured by a
wine vane.

• Water Flow Rate:

▫ measured by the time taken for a floating object to travel a
given distance.
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Identifying Abiotic factors

• Soil type:
▫ sedimentation test, determine different soil types present.

• Air content:
▫ measure air spaces displaced by using fixed volumes of soil and water.

• Water content:
▫ measure percentage of water in soil sample – weigh sample (a), heat to
100 oC, then reweigh (b).
𝑎−𝑏
▫ % water content = ∗ 100%
𝑎

• Humus content:
▫ weigh dry soil sample (c), heat to burn off all humus, reweigh (d).
𝑐−𝑑
▫ % humus content = ∗ 100%
𝑐
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Homework
• Additional Reading:
▫ Biology for CSEC Exams – Chinnery: Chapter 17; also
read the different investigations

• N.B. Atwaroo textbook – Section A (pg.iii of the contents). We have

already completed this section of the syllabus from Form 3 until now. It
would be in your best interest that you read the chapters (1-7). There are
exam-styled questions at the end of those chapters also, feel free to do.