— BIOLOGY ———————————————————

~ Module 4 : Ecosystem Dynamics ~

TOPIC 1 : POPULATION DYNAMICS

IMPORTANT TERMS ~
Biotic —Living features - All living things
Abiotic — Non-living features - physical and chemical factors
Organism — A living thing
Habitat — Place where an organism lives
Environment — Both the biotic and abiotic surroundings of an organism
Population — Group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at a particular time
Community — Groups of different populations in an area or habitat
Ecosystem — Any environment containing organisms interacting with each other and the non-living
parts of the environment
Ecology — Study of the relationships living organisms have with each other and their environment
Biome —Large regional system characterised by a major vegetation type. Region with similar
ecosystems grouped together
Allelopathy — When one organism produces chemicals or other means that can affect growth,
reproduction and development of target organisms
Species — Groups of similar individuals that can reproduce fertile offspring
Niche —The place of a species within an community involving relationships with other species

ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC FACTORS ~

ABIOTIC FACTORS BIOTIC FACTORS

• Amount of light • Seasonal availability and abundance of food

• Amount and strength of wind and rainfall • Number of competitors (same or different species)

• Daily temperature and seasonal variation • Number of mates available (species to survive)

• Strength of tides, currents and waves • Number of predators

• Water: amount, salinity pH • Number of variety of disease causing organisms

• Availability of space and shelter

• Availability of gases such as O2 and CO2

DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE ~

DISTRIBUTION ABUNDANCE

• Distribution — where it is found • Abundance — how many members of the species

live throughout the ecosystem

• Not spread evenly in ecosystems • Differs throughout the area and changes over time

• Occupy an area where abiotic/biotic factors suit • Increase in abundance due to births, or
them germination exceeds death rate

• Chances of survival are high • Increase due to resources and decrease in

predation and disease

• Areas to avoid predators • Increase due to immigration

BIOTIC FACTORS ON AN ECOSYSTEM ~
Two types of interactions between organisms:
- Detrimental interactions: One or more organisms are harmed or disadvantaged from the relationship;
Predation (predator-prey), factors affecting numbers of predators/prey population
- Beneficial interactions: One or more organisms benefit from the relationship

PREDATION (PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIP)

- Feeding relationship where the predator (consumer) obtains its food by killing an animal (prey)
- For e.g, spider eating a fly
- Predators affect the abundance of their prey.
- If the prey species reproduces as fast as it is predated, the population will stay at a large/constant size
- Rabbits reproduce faster than foxes, so the rabbit population will continue at a constant size

- In natural communities, the numbers of a predator + its prey can fluctuate through time, with the predator
numbers copying those of the prey
- Large number of prey available = predators have more food to consume + a higher chance of catching
prey
- As prey are consumed, their numbers decrease leading to a shortage of food for predators, whose numbers
also decline

Factors that may affect the number of predators and prey populations:
- Number of predators competing / Competition
- Availability of prey’s food
- Birth rate / Reproductive cycles
- Death rate
- Number of males or females
- Size of ecosystem
- Shelter
- Diseases
- Seasonal migrations
SHORT AND LONG TERM CONSEQUENCES OF COMPETITION ~
Short-term consequence: Decrease in population numbers
- One species is more successful than the other, causing the other species’ numbers to drop significantly

Long-term consequence: Extinction

- The long period if decreased reproduction rates + increased deaths will eventually lead to extinction

SYMBIOSIS ~
Interactions in which two organisms live together in a close relationship that is beneficial to at least one
of them

PARASITISM
- Relationship where one species benefits + the other is harmed
- Parasite obtains food + shelter from the host
- They feed on the tissue/fluid of the host, but do not usually kill it as this would destroy the parasite + its
food supply
- Ectoparasites — Live on the surface of the host. E.g tick or flea
- Endoparasites — Live internally. E.g hookworms or roundworms

MUTUALISM
- Relationship where both species benefit
- E.g, Sea anemone + anemone fish
- The anemone fish (clown fish) is protected from predators by hiding in the anemone’s tentacles unharmed.
It feeds on the anemone food scraps. The anemone benefits as the anemone fish cleans its host and lures
other animals into the anemone’s tentacles

COMMENSALISM
- Relationship where one species benefits + other is unaffected
- E.g, Barnacle
- The barnacle is a frustration that normally adheres to a fixed surface. Some barnacles adhere to the surface
of whales + turtles (or other surface). This does not affect the animals but benefits the barnacles as they are
transported to diverse areas rich in food (plankton)

COMPETITION ~
- Intraspecific competition — Competition between members of the SAME species
More intense due to members of the same species having more resources in common which they need to
compete for
- Interspecific competition — Competition between members of DIFFERENT species

Animals may compete for:

- Food
- Mates
- Shelter for: nesting sites, avoiding predators, hiding places of territory or young

Animals possess various defence mechanisms:

- Attack intruders using teeth, claws, stingers and/or chemical means
- Hide from predators; camouflage (e.g flower spider)
- Mimicry to resemble dangerous or unpalatable species
- Noxious or unpalatable species, for e.g, some frogs + butterflies advertise that fact with warning
coloration such as spots, strips or bright colours
NICHE~
Ecological niche — An organism’s role in its environment
- Includes how the organism uses its resources + interacts with other species and its environment +
adaptation + tropic interactions

ADAPTATIONS ~
In Australian ecosystems, there are three main abiotic features that organisms need to adapt to:
- Lack of water
- High temperatures
- High exposure

TROPHIC INTERACTIONS ~
Trophic level: An organism’s position in a food chain, the sequence of feeding + energy transfer through the
environment
Autotrophic: Organisms that make their own food by converting inorganic molecules to organic compounds
(Producers)
Heterotrophic: Must consume other organisms in order to gain the organic molecules they need for life
(Consumers)

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES~
TRANSECT
- A narrow straight line that is commonly used to measure the entire arc of a species in an ecosystem
- It is also used to sample + describe different abiotic factors
There are two types of transects:
- Plan sketch — An aerial/surface view of a representative area within an ecosystem
- Profile sketch — Side-on view of an area showing to scale the distribution of organisms along a line

QUADRAT SAMPLING
- Percentage cover method
- Uses quadrants (1m x 1m) to cover randomly selected representative areas for estimating the percentage
cover/abundance of an area

MARK-CAPTURE RECAPTURE
- Animals are captured + sample animals are tagged then released
- These animals are given time to mix again, recaptured + the number tagged in the sample are counted

Number captured x number recaptured

Number tagged in recapture

Sampling technique Equipment + method Advantages Disadvantages

Transects: plan • Rope or measuring • Provides a quick, easy • Only suitable for plants
sketches + profile tape marks the line + inexpensive method or slow moving
sketches that is drawn to scale
for measuring species animals

• The area is selected at occurrence

• Species occurring in
random across the • Minimal disturbance to low numbers may be
ecosystem
the environment missed
• Species are plotted
along the line, in
surface view of a plan
sketch or in side-on
view for a profile
sketch
 Sampling technique Equipment + method Advantages Disadvantages

Quadrat sampling • Measuring tape, metre • Easy + inexpensive • Only suitable for slow
rulers or quadrants are method for measuring moving animals or
used to randomly abundance in large plants
place the 1m x 1m populations

square areas
• Minimal disturbance to
• The occurrence of the environment

organisms in the • Used to determine

quadrat is recorded + distribution of species
repeated a number of along the transect
times

• Individual species can

be counted if in small
numbers or
percentage cover can
be calculated for each
quadrat + finding an
average of the
quadrants taken

Mark-capture- • Animals are captured • A simple method that • Only suitable for
recapture (e.g. traps, nets, pits), provides an estimate mobile animals

tagged or marked (e.g. of abundance for • Can be time

limb bands) + then animals in large consuming depending
released
populations that are on type of species

• After a suitable time to difficult to count • Can be disturbing to

mix with others, a the environment
sample is recaptured

• The number of animals

recaptured is counted

• Numbers are then

entered into the
formula

CHAPTER 2 : PAST ECOSYSTEMS

Palaeontology — study of fossils
Geology — study of rock structure
- Palaeontology + geological evidence can be used to provide evidence for past changes

ROCK STRUCTURE AND FORMATION~

BIOTIC INFORMATION IN ROCKS
- Fossil — any preserved remains impression or trace of any once living thing from the past geological age
- Fossil record — Totality of fossils
- The fossil record is a window into ecosystems of the past
- It can tell us about kinds of organisms that once lived, their adaptation, diet + behaviour, as well as how
abundant they were through the time + the habitats they occupied

ABIOTIC INFORMATION IN ROCKS

- Rocks not only preserve information about the biotic components of past ecosystems but also record the
conditions of the environment thought out time
- Rocks contain evidence of changes in climate, volcanic activity, atmospheric oxygen levels, shifting land
masses, etc.
- For e.g, areas that contain igneous rock indicate that there once was a volcano in that area that has
erupted
- Other types of rock that give information about past environments are ‘sedimentary rocks’
- These rocks form when small particles of weathered rock compact + cement together
- During this process, fossils are preserved in the layers of sedimentary rock
- Law of Superposition — Layers in sedimentary rock with oldest layer at the bottom + youngest layer at
the top

ABORIGINAL ROCK PAINTING~

- Significant part of the history + culture of Indigenous people and is an important record of the people +
the places they lived
- Depict species that are now extinct. E.g, Thylacine + megafauna

ICE-CORE DRILLING~
- An ice-core is a cylinder shaped sample of ice that has drilled out a glacier or ice-sheet
- It is like a timeline as it provides us with information about abiotic + biotic factors in past ecosystems
- Evidence about past air temperature, precipitation rates + atmospheric gases are trapped within layers of
ice
- Small particles such as pollen, microbes, dissolved chemicals + air bubbles that were captured at the time
of the snowball can be extracted + used as if they were samples taken at that time

PAST TECHNOLOGIES~
Technology Evidence of past changes

Hand lens Used to determine structural features of fossils preserved in rocks

Light microscrope Used to study small, simple particles such as pollen + microbes extracted
from ice cores

PRESENT TECHNOLOGIES~
Technology Description Evidence of past changes

Radiometric Dating Technique used to calculate the Determines the age of a mineral,
age of rocks + minerals using rock or fossil to assign dates for
radioisotopes certain events + environmental
conditions

Carbon Dating Type of radiometric dating that is
used to identify the age of
something that was once living
Determines the age of fossils +
estimates when the organism was
last alive. After compiling large
amounts of data scientists can learn
more about changes in communities
over time + space, extinction and
expansion

Atomic Mass: Spectrometer Uses a mass spectrometer to
identify the type of quantity of
certain types of gases
Determine the changing amounts of
gases (e.g. carbon dioxide + oxygen)
in the atmosphere. Gas analysis has
allowed scientists to conclude that
there is a recent increase in CO2

CONTINENTAL DRIFT~
- Evidence of continental drift helps us understand how environments on different continents would have
changed in the past.
- The distribution of fossils also supports the idea of continental drift, as fossils of some organisms are found
on continents that now are very far apart and have different habitats.
- For example, fossils of the now-extinct Glossopteris plant are found across all of the continents
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS~
- In the past, Australia was temperate, moist and dominated by rainforests, which is indicated by fossils of
the plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris.
- As Australia became warmer and drier, rainforests became less abundant, and grasslands and sclerophyll
communities expanded.
- Sclerophyllous vegetation (e.g. eucalypts and acacias) + grasses have adapted to withstand these drier
conditions, and therefore thrived when rainforest plants could not.
- Modern day Kangaroos evolved from their megafauna relative (Procoptodoan Goliah) due to climate
change

CHANGES IN BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS OVER SHORT PERIODS OF TIME~

- Predation
- Urbanisation
- Fur trading
- Separation due to land clearing
- Deforestation
- Disease
- Climate change

CHANGES IN BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS OVER LONG PERIODS OF TIME~

Biotic factor: changing environment from rainforest to open grass + shrub land
Abiotic factor: decrease in available water + an increase in temperature to create an arid environment

HYPOTHESIS THAT ACCOUNT FOR ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC FACTORS

Continental drift
Human arrival

HUMAN ARRIVAL (45,000 years ago)~

- Used fire to burn back the bush
- Increasing population numbers of animals meant that there would be more availability for hunting
- Evidence of this can be found through carbon deposits in fossils
- Humans hunted the megafauna because the larger animals were slower. Smaller, faster animals escaped,
survived + passed on their genes —> population evolved over time

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
There are four pieces of evidence that supports the theory of continental drift:
MATCHING CONTINENTAL MARGINS + MATCHING FOSSILS + MATCHING PRESENT DAY ORGANISMS + DISTRIBUTION OF MARSUPIALS

MATCHING CONTINENTAL MARGINS~

- Continents fitted like a jigsaw puzzle to form one land mass

MATCHING FOSSILS~
- Fossils of animals such as Lystosaurus, a sheep sized reptile that existed 200 mya, have been found in
South Africa, India + Antarctica
- Fossils of plants such as Glossopteris are found on all continents that are thought to make up Gondwana
- It is impossible for these species to spread/cross over other continents
MATCHING PRESENT DAY ORGANISMS~
- Ratites — Ancient group of flightless birds that are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor on
Gondwana
- Examples of matching present day organisms include, the Cassowary (Australia + New Guinea), the Emu
(Australia), Kiwi (New Zealand), Rhea (South America) + Ostrich (Africa)
- Evolved from common ancestor and adapted to different environments

DISTRIBUTION OF MARSUPIALS~
- Marsupial mammals are widespread in Australia
- Only one marsupial, the opossum, is still found in South America
- An explanation for the similarity of marsupial South American Opossums + Australian possums is that
these areas were one part of the same continent

CHAPTER 3: FUTURE ECOSYSTEMS

HUMAN INDUCED SELECTIVE PRESSURES~
The primary threat to biodiversity + causes of extinction are:
- Habitat destruction
- Invasive species
- Pollution
- Overexploitation
- Climate change

HABITAT DESTRUCTION:
- Occurs when human activities alter or remove a natural habitat + the organisms previously existing in the
habitat can no longer survive
- The main reason humans change natural habitats is to sustain our ever-increasing human population

REASONS FOR HABITAT DESTRUCTION:

- Agriculture — converts complex habitats to sustain only a few species of crops or livestock
- Mining + oil + gas exploration/development
- Logging — Involves clearing areas of forest for timber
- Urbanisation — Creates urban areas + roads
- Water body restricting diverts natural water flow — for irrigation of crops, livestock + drinking
water for towns
- Trawling + degrading — fishing practices that alter the ocean floor
- Waste disposal areas — Used as landfills or dumping groups for toxins + nuclear waste
- Outdoor recreation — humans access more remote areas for activities. E.g, skiing, off-road
driving + hiking

INVASIVE SPECIES:
- Species that have been introduced to new areas by humans either accidentally or deliberately
- Invasive species include pests, weeds, disease + parasites
- Invasive species can cause declines in native populations in several ways;
- Introduction of new predators or herbivores:
When a species has evolved in the absence of another, it is unlikely to have a defence
mechanisms to combat predation or herbivory by the new species.
Example:
Introduced cats + foxes have contributed to the extinction of at least 20 mammals + still pose
threats to small mammals such as bandicoots, wallabies + native rodents
Rabbits can cause significant land degradation —> less food for native herbivores + fewer places
to shelter and hide, making predation easier for carnivores

- Habitat modification:
The presence of an invasive species can cause modification of an entire habitat + threaten the
existence of native species that require a particular environment for survival
Example:
In Argentina, beavers from North America were introduced in the 1940’s to begin a fur trade. The
introduced beavers are now causing modification of forests + stream habitats by rapidly chewing
down trees to create dams. Native species of the forests + streams have been displaced

- Competition:
Invasive species compete with native species for food + space
An invasive species might occupy a similar niche (role in the ecosystem) to a native species
requiring the same habitat + resources
Invasive species may be strong competitors against natives + cause native extinction
Example:
In the UK introduced grey squirrels from North America have a competitive advantage over the native
red squirrels of Europe

- Pollution
Chemicals + physical changes caused by pollutants can affect nutrient cycles + cause changes in
environments and ecosystems
Pollutants released by human activities are present in terrestrial + aquatic environment as well as
the atmosphere
Example:
Plastic particles pollute water + cause mortality among many aquatic species. Around 300 million
tonnes of plastic is produced each year, and about 10-20 million tonnes of plastic end up in the ocean.
Most plastics take hundreds of years to decompose.

- Overexploitation
Involves harvesting species for food or products at a faster rate then they can reproduce
Example: (Bluefin Tuna- 96% decline)
Commercial fishing — occur on a global scale + exploit over 400 species. Ann estimated 90% of
all fish stocks are overexploited, depleted, fully exploited or in recovery from exploitation
Some fishing techniques lead to a decline in non-target marine species

- Climate change
Burning fossil fuels + some agricultural practices produce greenhouse gases that are released
into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gas emissions cause an overall surface warming effect on the planet which in turn
changes water systems + patterns of extreme weather. Most species are adapted to a particular
temperature range.
Some species may be able to migrate, however other species may be threatened with extinction.
Warm temperatures are causing sea ice to melt, meaning there is more water on the ocean + sea
levels are rising
Example:
The Bramble Cay Melomys was a small rodent endemic to a small cay in the Great Barrier Reef.
Due to sea levels rising (between 1993-2010), habitat became lost and the species became extinct

MODELS USED TO PREDICT FUTURE IMPACTS~

WHY DO WE USE MODELS?
- Reflecting on past extinction events in the environment + ecosystem changes
- Helps to inform us about the ways we might expect future changes in the environment to affect
biodiversity
- Predicting these changes + their effects allows us to take actions to prevent population declines +
extinction before they occur

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF MODELS:

MONITORING, CLIMATE CHANGE MODELS, SPECIES DISTRIBUTION MODELS

MONITORING
- Process of researching + gathering information on some sort of variable
- Monitoring is used to assess the state of a system or population + record changes overtime allowing us to
infer + understand reasons for the changes
- Example: Looking at species like the red spider

BIOINDICATORS
- Useful species for monitoring changes within an ecosystem as they reflect a particular environmental
condition.
- The presence, absence or abundance of a bioindicator demonstrates a distinctive aspect of the
environment
- A change in the indicator species can reflect a change in the environment
- Good indicator species are sensitive to change + react consistently to environmental changes
- Examples: Lichens
• Lichens are sensitive to air pollution
• They are made up of algae or photosynthetic bacteria + fungi
• They are useful in assessing; air pollution, ozone depletion + metal contamination
• The types of lichen species found in an ecosystem indicate levels of air pollution
• Abundant leafy, hairy lichens on trees indicate clean, non-polluted air

MODELLING CLIMATE CHANGE

- Climate models are used to predict average climate conditions over time rather than the exact weather
given at the time
- In a global climate model (GCM) the Earth is divided up into a 3D grid of cells about 15,000 km3
- A grid cell is the smallest unit of model + holds climate variable information about the land ocean +
atmosphere in that cell
- There are 50 Essential Climate Variables (ECV’s) for global climate modelling
• This include; Air temperature, wind speed, atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, precipitation, seal-surface
temperatures + vegetation cover
- Equations are used to stimulate change + calculate climate-variable data over time
- Climate models are used to generate simulations of a range of different scenarios + help us to answer
questions about what might happen if we do or do not modify our behaviour about the way we use the
Earth (how the future might look from natural disasters)

Horizontal grid = Latitude-Longitude

Vertical grid = Height or Pressure
SPECIES DISTRIBUTION MODELS
- Record of the location of where a species is found
- Data is taken to understand the ecological niche requirements of a species.
- For e.g, temperature, rainfall, vegetation, elevation, weather events + the presence/abundance of other
species
- Once we understand the niche requirements of a species we can determine the conditions that allow a
species to survive, grow + reproduce + the limits to the conditions it can tolerate
- This knowledge can be used along with equations to construct the ‘species distribution models’, which
predict a species’ geographic distribution based on environmental data from locations where it it known to
occur

Species distribution models allow us to:

- Determine locations where a species may be able to live outside its existing geographical range
- Look for where rare species or species whose distribution is poorly understood, with more accuracy;
models help us predict where to look for these kinds of species
- Predict where shifts in species distribution in response to climate change; this is useful for anticipating how
climate change factors might affect a species in its current distribution
Example; In 1990, species distribution modelling was used to predict the possible spread of the invasive cane toad

MINING SITES~
- The general effects mining operations have on the environment include erosion, biodiversity loss +
contamination of soil and water. It also results in major habitat modification + destruction
- (Mine) Rehabilitation — process of repairing the damage done by mining activities.
- The aim of rehabilitation is returning land + water to productive use + recreating sustainable ecosystems
that integrate with the surrounding area

5 Stages of rehabilitation for mining sites include:

1. Clean up of contaminants
2. Land form reconstruction
3. Soil restoration
4. Revegetation
5. Fauna recolonisation

LAND DEGRADATION~
1. Overgrazing
2. Removal of vegetation
3. Over-irrigation
4. Unbalanced fertiliser use