It’s November….

Happy Monday
 The Rolex Awards
• The Rolex Awards is a series of biennial
awards "aimed at fostering a spirit of
enterprise around the world", promoted by
the Swiss wristwatch company Rolex.
• The awards recognize outstanding
achievement, particularly in the areas of
science and medicine, technology and
innovation, exploration and discovery,; the
environment, and cultural heritage.
 Neeti Kailas

Francesco Sauro,

Olivier Nsengimana
• Neeti Kailas, India, Develop a unique system to
carry out early and mass screenings of newborns
in resource-poor settings to monitor hearing loss.

• Olivier Nsengimana, Rwanda, Save Rwanda’s Grey

Crowned Crane, which faces increasing threats to
its habitat and a growing illegal trade, in order to
conserve Rwanda’s biodiversity.

• Francesco Sauro, Italy, Lead a multidisciplinary

team of scientists to explore ancient quartzite
caves in table-top mountains between Venezuela
and Brazil.
 It’s January
New month, New beginnings, and new peaks
to scale. January it is!
THE ECO SYSTEM
• 2.1 Structure of Eco System
 What is Organism ?
Organism :
• An organism is a fundamental functional
unit in ecology because it interacts
directly with the environment as well as
with other organism
e.g., Rabbits
 What is Population?
• It refers to the organism of the same
species that are in proximity to one
another
• e.g., A group of rabbit
 What is Community?
• This includes all the populations occupying a
given area.
• The size of the community depends on our
scale of reference
• The community and the non-living
environment together are referred to as an
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM or ECOSYSTEM
• e.g., pond fish and plants
 What is species?

• A species is often defined as a group

of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
•
What is habitat? 
A habitat  is an ecological or environmental area that
is inhabited by particular species of animal, plant or
other type of organism.

• It is the natural environment in which an organism

lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a
species population.
 Biosphere

Ecosystems

Communities

Populations

Organisms
 What is species?

• In biology, a species is one of the basic

units of biological classification .

• A species is often defined as a group

of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
 What is habitat? 
• A habitat  is an ecological or environmental area that is
inhabited by particular species of animal, plant or other
type of organism.

• It is the natural environment in which an organism lives,

or the physical environment that surrounds a
species population.
 RECAP
• What is Organism ?
• What is Population?
• What is Community?
• What is species?
• What is habitat? 
 O F
N T S
O NE E M
M P Y ST
CO C O S
N E
A
• An ecosystem has two basic components

• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

• BIOTIC COMPONENTS
 Biotic Components
• Biotic components is classified into
three categories:
• PRODUCERS-Autotrophic
• CONSUMERS -Heterotrophic
• DECOMPOSERS OR
SAPTROTROPHS
• Producers are things such as plants that are
fed off of but do not eat other producers or
organisms.

• Consumers are organisms (including us

humans) that get their energy from producers,
regarding the flow of energy through an
ecosystem
CONSUMERS
• A decomposer is an organism of decay.
• These are also called saprobes.
• They break down the remains of dead animals
and plants, releasing the substances that can
be used by other members of the ecosystem
DECONSUMERS
PRODUCERS
 What is NICHE?
• In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way
of life of a species.
• Each species is thought to have a separate,
unique niche.
• The ecological niche describes how an organism
or population responds to the distribution of
resources and competitors
 Example for NICHE
• One example is squirrels that collect acorns and bury
them for winter.
• Another is honeybees that gather nectar from flowers to
make honey.
• Other organisms that may exist in the same
environment don't do this.
• For instance, a bird may live in the same tree as a
beehive, but the bird does not make honey the way the
bees do. That is not its niche.
 What is Eco System?
• A dynamic complex of plants, animals and
micro organisms inhabiting a particular area
with their non living environment interacting
as a functional unit
Sir Arthur George Tansley (15 August 1871 - 25 November 1955) was
an English botanist who was a pioneer in the science of ecology
2.1.2 &2.1.3 Identify and explain trophic
levels in food chains and food webs
selected from the local environment.
 What is Trophic levels?
• Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food
chain such as primary producers, herbivore,
primary carnivore, etc.
• Green plants form the first trophic level, the
producers.
• Herbivores form the second trophic level, while
carnivores form the third and even the fourth
trophic levels.
 What is Food chain?
• The feeding of one organism upon another in a
sequence of food transfers is known as a food
chain.
• Food chain is the chain of transfer of energy
from one organism to another. A simple food
chain is like the following:
• rose plant -- aphids -- beetle -- chameleon --
hawk.
 What is food web?

• In an ecosystem there are many different food

chains and many of these are cross-linked to
form a food web.

• Ultimately all plants and animals in an

ecosystem are part of this complex food web.
                                                                                                                                                                
Think this one………
Which is the oldest living organism in the
world?
Bristlecone Pine
 HOME WORK
Write the food chain and food web for the
following ecosystems
1. Grassland Ecosystem
2. Tundra Ecosystem
3. Pond Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
 This week topics
• Principles of pyramids of numbers, pyramids of
biomass, and pyramids of productivity
• ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ALL THE SYSTMES
• Biomagnifications
• Bioaccumulation
• Predation
• Herbivores, Parasitism, Mutualism
• Simpson Diversity Index
Phytoplankton are the autotrophic/producers
of the ocean
"Zooplankton" refers to small aquatic animals of heterotrophic. 
2.1.4 Explain the principles of pyramids of
numbers, pyramids of biomass, and pyramids
of productivity, and construct such pyramids
from given data.
 What is Ecological Pyramids?
 Trophic levels and the energy flow from one
level to the next, can be graphically depicted
using an ecological pyramid.
 Three types of ecological pyramids can
usually be distinguished namely:
1. Pyramids of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramids of productivity
 Pyramids of numbers
• A pyramid of numbers is a graphical
representation of the numbers of
individuals in each population in a food
chain.

• A pyramid of numbers can be used to

examine how the population of a certain
species affects another
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS represents storages
found at each trophic level.

Units vary
 Grassland Temperate Forest
(summer) (summer)

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

A few large producers (the trees) support a much larger number of

Small primary consumers (insects) that feed on the trees.
 Pyramids of Numbers
Advantages
• Overcomes the problems of pyramids of
number in a particular ecosystem

Disadvantages
• Only uses samples from populations, so it is
impossible to measure biomass exactly. also
the time of the year that biomass is measured
affects the result.
 This week topics
• Principles of pyramids of numbers, pyramids of
biomass, and pyramids of productivity
• ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ALL THE SYSTMES
• Biomagnifications
• Bioaccumulation
• Predation
• Herbivores, Parasitism, Mutualism
• Simpson Diversity Index
 Pyramid of biomass
• The total amount of living or organic matter
in an ecosystem at any time is called
'Biomass’.

• Pyramid of biomass is the graphic

representation of biomass present per unit
area of different tropic levels, with producers
at the base and top carnivores at the tip". 
• Represents the standing stock of each trophic
level (in grams of biomass per unit area g / m 2)

• Represent storages along with pyramids of

numbers
 PYRAMID OF BIOMASS represent the
standing stock at each trophic level.

Units:
J m-2
or
g m-2
 Abandoned Field Ocean

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

In open waters of aquatic ecosystems, the biomass primary consumers

(zooplankton) can exceed that of producers. The zooplankton eat the
Producers (phytoplankton) as fast as they reproduce, so their population
is never very large.
How do we get the biomass of a trophic level to
make these pyramids?
• Take quantitative samples – known area or volume
• Measure the whole habitat size
• Dry samples to remove water weight
• Take Dry mass for sample then extrapolate to entire trophic
level

• Evaluation  It is an estimate based on assumption that

– all individuals at that trophic level are the same
– The sample accurately represents the whole habitat
• Analysis of various ecosystems indicates that
those with squat biomass pyramids are less
likely to be disrupted by physical or biotic
changes than those with tall, skinny pyramids
(having conversion efficiencies less than
10%).
Measurement of biomass of different
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Describe one method for the measurement of biomass of
different trophic levels in an ecosytem.

• Representative samples of all living organisms

in the ecosystem are collected, for example
from randomly positioned quadrats.
• The organisms are dried, by being placed in an
oven at 60-80°C.
• The mass of organisms in each trophic level is
measured using an electronic balance.
Multiply the mean height by the stem density
• Biomass can be assessed indirectly and
completely non destructively by counting the
number of individuals of the target species.

• Randomly selecting a sample of individuals.

• Determining mean height within the sample

(height will be an indirect measure of biomass)

• Multiply the mean height by the stem density

(number of individuals)
• A more destructive method involves taking a
sample of individuals of the target species and
cutting them at soil level.

• Tag each individual with a label, dry it to a

stable weight and weigh it.

• Determine the mean mass of the plants in the

area and multiply by the stem density in the
area.
Think this one………
IDENTIFY THE ENDANGERED ANIMAL
Lion Tailed Macaque
 Pyramids of Productivity

• A graphical representation in the shape of

a pyramid showing the distribution of
productivity or flow of energy through
the tropic levels.
 10 J m-2 yr-1

100 J m-2 yr-1

1,000 J m-2 yr-1

producers 10,000 J m-2 yr-1

PYRAMID OF PRODUCTIVITY represents the
flow of energy through each trophic level.

Units:
J m-2 yr-1
or
g m-2 yr-1
 Pyramids of productivity
• Flow of energy through trophic levels
• Energy decreases along the food chain
– Lost as heat
• Productivity pyramids ALWAYS decrease as
they go higher – 1st and 2nd laws of
thermodynamics
• Productivity measured in units of flow (J /
m2 yr or g / m2 yr ) Joule per square metre in
year/
• As you move up each trophic level, only 10%
of the energy is transferred.
• The other 90% is used for everyday life
functions, metabolism.
 Pyramids of productivity
• Advantages
• Most accurate system shows the actual energy
transferred and allows for rate of production.
• Disadvantages
• It is very difficult and complex to collect
energy data.
PYRAMID OF STANDING CROP
• Pyramid diagrams may show the fixed
quantity of number, biomass or energy that
exists at a particular time in a given area or
averaged from many of these measurements.
• This is termed STANDING CROP.
• The unit would be number,dry biomass or
energy kg/m2 or J/m3.
 Figure 54.14 Food energy available to the human population at different trophic levels

Efficiency of trophic levels in relation to the total energy

available decreases with higher numbers

But efficiency of transfer always remains around that 10% rule

2.1.5 Discuss how the pyramid structure
affects the functioning of an ecosystem.
Pyramid structure
affects
the functioning of
an ecosystem.

Bioaccumulation
Biomagnification
 What is Biomagnification?
• Biomagnification is the sequence of processes
in an ecosystem by which higher
concentrations of a particular chemical, such
as the pesticide DDT, are reached in organisms
higher up the food chain, generally through a
series of prey-predator relationships.
 What is bioaccumulation?
• Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of
substances, such as pesticides, or other organic
chemicals in an organism. 

• Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism

absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater.
How does pyramid structure effect ecosystem
function?
1. Limited length of food chains
• Rarely more than 4 or 5 trophic levels
• Not enough energy left after 4-5 transfers to
support organisms feeding high up
• Possible exception marine/aquatic systems b/c
first few levels small and little structure
2. Vulnerability of top carnivores
• Effected by changes at all lower levels
• Small numbers to begin with
• Effected by pollutants & toxins passed through
system
Think this one………
IDENTIFY THE ENDANGERED ANIMAL
Blackbuck
 Akbar Hunting Black Buck-
• According to the Hindu Akbarnama

mythology blackbuck
or Krishna Jinka is
considered as the
vehicle (vahana) of the
Moon-god Chandrama.
2.1.6 Define the terms species, population,
habitat, niche, community and ecosystem
with reference to local examples.
 What is NICHE?
• Niche can be defined as where and how a species lives.
• In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life
of a species.
• Each species is thought to have a separate, unique
niche.
• No two different species can have the same niche
because the niche completely defines a species.

• The ecological niche describes how an organism or

population responds to the distribution of resources
and competitors
 Example for NICHE
• One example is squirrels that collect acorns and bury
them for winter.
• Another is honeybees that gather nectar from flowers to
make honey.
• Other organisms that may exist in the same
environment don't do this.
• For instance, a bird may live in the same tree as a
beehive, but the bird does not make honey the way the
bees do. That is not its niche.
• 2.1.7-Describe and explain
population interactions using
examples of named species.
 Predation
• In ecology, predation describes a biological
interaction where a predator feeds on its prey.

• Examples :Lion killing buffalo, Eagle killing

Rabbit, Mantis eating a bee.
 Herbivore
• Herbivores are organisms that are adapted to
eat plants.
• Herbivory is a form of predation in which an
organism consumes principally autotrophs
such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing
bacteria.
 Parasitism
• Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship
between organisms of different species where
one organism, the parasite, benefits at the
expense of the host.
Example :
• Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the
protein. Male mosquitos ingest plant juices.
• Heartworm of dogs, whose adults reside in the
right side of the heart
Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the protein. Male
mosquitos ingest plant juices
Heartworm of dogs, whose adults reside in the right side of the heart
 Mutualism
• Mutualism is a biological interaction that is beneficial
to both parties.

• Mutualism is the way two organisms biologically

interact where each individual derives a fitness benefit
(i.e. increased survivorship).

• Examples :Clownfish and sea anemones, langur

monkey curing cow's ear
• 2.2 Measuring abiotic components
of the system
• 2.2.1-List the significant abiotic
(physical) factors of an ecosystem.
• Ecosystem can be divided into three
types
1. Marine
2. Freshwater and
3. Terrestrial
• Marine ecosystems include the
sea,estuaries,slat marshes and Mangroves.

• Marine ecosystem all have high

concentration of slat in the water.

• Fresh water ecosystems include rivers ,lakes

and wetlands.
• Terrestrial ecosystems include all land –
based ecosystems
Slat marshes
Mangroves
2.2.2 Abiotic factors in Marine
Ecosystems
Describe and evaluate methods
for measuring at least three
abiotic (physical) factors within an
ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystems
What are Limiting Factors of an
ecosystem?
• Limiting factors are physical or
biological necessities whose
presence or absence in
inappropriate amounts limits the
normal action of the organism.
Limiting factor for Marine Ecosystem

• Light
• Temperature
• Salinity
• Dissolved Gases
• Pressure
 Light is needed for photosynthesis and
vision.
• Blue light penetrates deepest.
Temperature influences
the metabolic rate, the
rate at which reactions
proceed within an
organism.
 What is the Deepest Part of the Ocean?

• The ocean's deepest area is

the CHALLENGER DEEP (also called the
Marianas Trench), which is about 11 km
(almost 7 miles, or almost 36,000 feet) deep.

• The trench is 1,554 miles long and 44 miles

wide, 
• Most marine organisms are
ECTOTHERMIC having an internal
temperature that stays very close to
that of their surroundings.
• A few complex animals (mammals &
birds) are ENDOTHERMIC, meaning
they maintain a stable internal
temperature.
• Ocean temperature varies in both
depth and latitude.
• Ocean temperatures vary less than on
land.
Salinity greatly affect cell membranes and
protein structure.
• Disrupts cells osmotic pressure.
• Varies because of rainfall, evaporation and
runoff from land.
 How deep is the ocean? 
The average depth of the ocean is about 4,267
meters (14,000 feet).
The deepest part of the ocean is called the
Challenger Deep and is located beneath the
western Pacific Ocean in the southern end of the
Mariana Trench, which runs several hundred
kilometers southwest of the U.S. territorial island of
Guam.
Challenger Deep is approximately 11,030 meters
(36,200 feet) deep. 
 GASES
Dissolved Gases are necessary for
photosynthesis and respiration.

• CO2 dissolves more easily in water than O2.

• CO2 is more abundant in deep waters than

surface water.

• O2 decrease dramatically where light

penetration decreases.
How deep can humans go underwater?

• Breathing air, humans can go down around

350 feet without any sort of protection from
pressure

• Utilizing mixed gases, a diver can reach a little

over 300 meters 
Pressure from the layers of water above.
• Increases with increasing depth.
• To counteract the mass of heavy
muscles and bone, many swimming
fishes have gas-filled bladders.
• Deep-sea fish don’t have gas bladders,
but light bones and oily watery flesh.
 Marine Zones
• Areas of homogeneous physical
features.
• Usually based on light, temperature,
salinity, depth, latitude, behavior
and/or water density.
 By light
• Upper zone is called the Euphotic zone
and is where the rate of photosynthesis
is high.

• Lower zone is called Disphotic zone

and is where organisms can see, but
there is sufficient light for
photosynthesis.

Aphotic zone where no light

penetrates.
 By Location
Pelagic zone between water and ocean bottom.
a. Neritic zone = near shore over the
continental shelf
b. Oceanic zone = deep-water beyond the
continental shelf.

i. Epipelagic = photic zone of the ocean.

ii. Mesopelagic = middle ocean waters.
iii. Bathypelagic = ocean floor.
iv. Abyssopelagic = deep-ocean trenches.
Classification
of Organisms
 MEASURING THE ABIOTIC FACTORS

You should be able to describe & evaluate three methods

in details with references to a named ecosystem
1.TEMPERATURE:-Normally measured using
thermometers or temperature probes attached
to data logger.

Seasonal & diurnal variations important ,as is

the influence of aspect
2.LIGHT INTENSITY:
• This measured using a light meter in lux.
• Seasonal,latitide influence incident the
radiation
3.SOIL:
• Soil organic matter is assessed by baking in the
oven at over 100 degrees to evaporate off the water
and given as percentage of original soil mass
4.WIND SPEED:
• This is measured using an anemometer; an
instrument with cuts that spin in the wind
5.SALINITY:
• This measured using refractometer by placing
a droplet of sample water on a lens and
allowing light to enter through the water
6.PH:
• This measured using universal indicator or a pH
probe

7.Turbidity
• Measured in depth(m) using a sechi
disc(black& white decorated disc) lowered on a
measuring rope until it is no longer visible
The Secchi disk measures the transparency of the water. Transparency can be
affected by the color of the water, algae, and suspended sediments. Transparency
decreases as color, suspended sediments, or algal abundance increases. 
• 2.3 Measuring biotic components of the
system
• 2.3.1-Construct simple keys and use
published keys for the identification of
organisms.
 What is Dichotomous Key?
• Dichotomous key, is an identification key
where the sequence and structure of
identification steps is fixed by the author of
the key.

• At each point in the decision process,

multiple alternatives are offered, each
leading to a result or a further choice
 SPECIES IDENTIFICATION
• This is usually done with a published
identification key or published book

• The key asks a question and the answer

determines what step to go to next, either the
name of the species or another question
• Presence/absence of legs;
Number of legs;
Presence/absence of tentacles;
Number of tentacles;
Shape;
Visible eyes;
Vristles
DIRECT METHODS OF ESTIMATING
OF ABUNDANCE IN ANIMALS
• Animals that don’t move quickly, such as
rocky shore limpets or grassland snails, can be
counted in quadrats giving a direct measure of
population density.
• This only suitable for species that don’t run
away
• A variety of direct sampling techniques can be
used to collect invertebrates using nets and
traps
2.3.2 Abundance of organisms.
 Methods for Estimating Population Size
1. Quadrats
2. Capture/Mark/Release/Recapture (Lincoln
Index)
Why we should know the population size of
an ecosystem?

• Knowing population size is important in

making environmental decisions that would
affect the population.
• Making a decision on an estimate that is too
high  extinction.
• Making a decision on an estimate that is too
low  unnecessarily hurt people that
depend on the animals for food & income.
• ESTIMATING THE
POPULATION USING THE
NETS
1.Freshwater nets for lake and stream
invertebrates
2.Sweep nets for grassland and scrub

 Sweep nets are sturdy nets used to collect

insects from long grass.
4.Pit trapping and baited traps for terrestrial
invertebrates
5.Beating trays for invertebrates in trees
• When estimating population size it is
important to collect RANDOM
SAMPLES.
• A sample is a part of a population, part of
an area or part of some other whole thing,
chosen to illustrate what the whole
population, area or other thing is like.
• In a random sample every individual in a
population has an equal chance of being
selected.
2.3.5 APPLY SIMPSON’S DIVERSITY INDEX
AND OUTLINE ITS SIGNIFICANCE

Simpson’s Diversity Index

 Simpson’s Diversity Index
1) Simpson's diversity index (also known as species
diversity index) is one of a number of diversity
indices, used to measure diversity.
2) In ecology, it is often used to quantify the
biodiversity of a habitat.
3) It takes into account the number of species present,
as well as the relative abundance of each species.
4) The Simpson index represents the probability that
two randomly selected individuals in the habitat
will not belong to the same species.
• For plant species the percentage cover in a
square is usually used;
• For animal species, for example in a river, the
number of organisms of a species is used.
• The reason percentage cover is used is because
it is usually very difficult to count all the
individual plants
 Formula for Simpson’s Diversity Index using Quadrat

• Where:
• D = diversity index
N = total number of organisms of all species
found
• n = number of individuals of a particular species
• =Sum of
 Species Number of individuals in Number of individuals in
Ecosystem 1 Ecosystem 2

23 2
A
28 2
B
22 1
C
27 93
D
100 98
Total individuals in
ecosystem
 Simpson’s Diversity Index  =

• [23x(23-1)] + [28x(28-1)] + [22x(22-1)] +[27x(27-1)]

100 x (100 – 1) 
=4.08

• For Ecosystem 2:
• Simpson’s Diversity Index  =
• 2x(2-1)] + [2x(2-1)] + [1x(1-1)] + [93x(93-1)]
98 x (98 – 1) 
= 1.11
 RESULT
• From this it can be seen that ecosystem 1 has
the highest index of diversity.
• The larger then Simpson’s index the more
diverse.
• Increasing diversity tends to suggest more
stable ecosystems with more connections
within them.
• Quadrats METHOD
 Using Quadrats
1. Mark out area to be sampled.
2. Place quadrates ( 1 m2, 10 m2) randomly
within the area.
3. Count how many individuals are inside
each of the quadrates.
4. Calculate the mean number of
individuals per quadrate.
5. Pop. Size = mean x total area
area of each Quadrat
 RANDOM SYSTEMATIC
QUDRATS QUDRATS

Quadrat sampling is suitable for plants

that do not move around and are easy to
find.
Quadrat method can be used to determine:
 POPULATION DENSITY = number of
individuals of each species per area.
 PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY =
percent of each species found within an
area.
 PERCENTAGE COVER = percent of
plant covering a given area.
Which one is easy to calculate the biomass?
Coconut tree

Problems?

Grass

Problems?
• 2.3.2-Describe and evaluate methods for
estimating the biomass of trophic levels in a
community.
• Biomass is calculated to show the amount of
biological material

• Biological molecules are held together by

captured sunlight energy and so the greater
the biomass,the greater the amount of
energy present
What is Dry Weight Biomass?
 Self Assessment Test
• Six Species of invertebrate were found in the
same area of grassland. The numbers of
organism recorded for each were
• 8,9,12,1,4,3
• Calculate the Simpson Diversity Index for
this community
• Comment on the level of diversity in the
community
Lincoln index
 Capture/Mark/ Release/Recapture
Lincoln index
1. Capture as many individuals as possible in the
area occupied by the animal population, using
netting, trapping or careful searching.

2. Mark each individual, without making them

more visible to predators and without harming
them.
3. Release all the marked individuals and allow
them to settle back into their habitat.
4. Recapture as many individuals as possible
and count how many are marked and how
many are unmarked.

10 marked

14 unmarked
Capture and Marking
Calculate the estimated population size by using
the Lincoln Index:

population size = N1 X N2
N3
N1 = number caught and marked initially
N2 = total number caught in 2nd sample
N3 = number of marked individuals recaptured

Most suitable for animals that move around and

are difficult to find.
 Assumptions:
1. The population of organisms must be closed, with
no immigration or emigration.
2. The time between samples must be very small
compared to the life span of the organism being
sampled.
3. The marked organisms must mix completely with
the rest of the population during the time between
the two samples.
4. Organisms are not hurt or disadvantaged by being
caught and marked and therefore all organisms have
an equal opportunity of being recaptured
EVALUATION
2.3.4 Define the term diversity.
DIVERSITY is a generic term for the following
points
1. Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic
characteristics of a specific species.
2. Habitat diversity is the diversity of habitats in a given
unit area.
3. Species diversity
a. Species richness – total number of species.
b. Species evenness – relative abundance of each
species.
c. Species dominance – the most abundant species.
 A

Figure A and B have

the same species
richness, but different
species evenness.

B
Change in the relative abundance of a species
over an area or a distance is referred to as an
ECOLOGIAL GRADIENT
Also known as Zonation.
What is Environmental gradient?
• An environmental gradient is a gradual
change in abiotic factors through space (or
time). Environmental gradients can be related
to factors such as latitude, temperature, depth,
ocean proximity and soil humidity.
Changes in the distribution of animals with elevation on
a typical mountain in Kenya. Another example of
Zonation
2.4.1-Biomes
BIOME is the collection of ecosystems
sharing similar climatic conditions.
Uneven Solar Heating and Latitude

Earth as a whole is in thermal equilibrium, but different latitudes are not.

Moving masses of air and ocean currents transport energy from
locations with a surplus to those with a deficit.
 Cold, Cell 3 North
dry air
falls Moist air rises — rain
Polar cap
Arctic tundra Cell 2 North
Model of global air Evergreen
circulation and 60°
coniferous forest
Cool, dry
Temperate deciduous
biomes. forest and grassland
air falls

Cell 1 North
The direction of air 30°
Desert

flow and the ascent Tropical deciduous forest Moist

air rises,
and descent of air 0° Equator
Tropical cools, and
masses in rain forest releases
moisture
convection cells Tropical deciduous forest as rain

determine the 30°

Desert Cell 1 South
earth’s climatic Temperate deciduous
forest and grassland Cool, dry
zones. 60° air falls

Cell 2 South
Polar cap

Cold, Moist air rises — rain

dry air
falls Cell 3 South
Generalized effects of altitude and latitude on climate and biomes.
Parallel changes in vegetation occur when moving from the
Equator to the poles or from the lowlands to mountaintops.

Altitude Mountain
Ice and snow

Tundra (herbs,
lichens,
mosses)
Coniferous
Forest

Deciduous Latitude
Forest

Tropical
Forest
Tropical Deciduous Coniferous Tundra (herbs, Polar ice
Forest Forest Forest lichens, mosses) and snow
 DESERT BIOMES

Polar desert
(northwest China)
Tropical desert
(Saudi Arabia)
 GRASSLAND BIOMES

Polar grassland (arctic tundra) Tropical grassland (savanna)

(Fort Yukon, Alaska) (Harare, Zimbabwe)
 FOREST BIOMES

Tropical rain forest

(Manaus, Brazil) Temperate deciduous forest
(Nashville, Tennessee)
AQUATIC BIOMES

Ocean Coral reefs

Rivers
Lakes Mangroves
 High tide Depth in
Low tide Sun meters
Coastal Zone Open Sea
Sea level
0

Photosynthesis
50
Euphotic Zone
Estuarine 100
Zone
Continental 200
shelf

500

Twilight
Bathyal Zone

1,000

1,500

2,000
Abyssal Zone

3,000

Darkness
4,000

5,000

10,000
 What is Biome?
 A biome is a specific area characterized by
the animals and plants that live within it,
the climate conditions, the amount of water
available, the soil conditions, and the
location of the area.
• The seven main biomes that can be found
all over the world.

• The Desert, Grasslands, Temperate

Deciduous Forests, Rainforests, Taiga, and
the Tundra
 CLASSIFICATION OF
BIOMES
A fundamental classification of biomes is into:

• Terrestrial (land) biomes

• Freshwater biomes

• Marine biomes
 Freshwater biomes

Marine biomes

Terrestrial (land) biomes

 What is tropical rainforest ?
 A tropical rainforest is an ecosystem usually
found around the equator.

 They are common in Asia, Australia, Africa,

South America, Central America, Mexico and
on many of the Pacific Islands.
DISTRIBUTION
 Tropical rainforest are found in areas with high
levels of rainfall and sunlight with warm
temperatures throughout the year.

 Rainfall is on average over 2500mmyr.

 Tropical rainforest are found between the

tropic of cancer and Capricorn
Major Tropical rain Forest Area
 CENTRAL AMERICA

 THE AMAZON

 AFRICA

 SOUTHERN ASIA

 AUSTRALASIA
 The photograph below shows a particular ecosystem.

1.State and briefly describe the ecosystem shown in the photograph

2. State whether you would expect ecosystems of the type shown in the
photograph to have a low, medium or high level of abiotic factors.
 THE AMAZON

 The Amazon is the world's largest and most famous

rainforest.

 The Amazon is home to more species of plants and

animals than any other ecosystem on the planet and
perhaps 30% of the world's species are found there.

 American rainforests are most threatened today with

large-scale agriculture (especially soybeans), clearing for
cattle pasture, subsistence agriculture by poor farmers,
and logging.
 SOUTHERN ASIA
• The rainforests of Asia stretch from India and
Burma in the west to Malaysia and the islands
of Java and Borneo in the east. 

• In Southeast Asia the climate is hot and humid

all year round. In the mainland Asia it has a
subtropical climate with torrential monsoon
rains followed by a drier period.
 Productivity in TRF
• Productivity in tropical rainforest is very
high
• This is because of the high levels of rainfall
and sunlight and year-round warm
temperatures.
• They are multi-layered and provide many
different niches allowing for an enormous
variety of different organisms
 What is Freshwater Biome?
 The freshwater biome is a low-saline, or sweet
water, aquatic biome that covers one fifth of
the earth's surface.

 Streams, rivers, swamps, bogs, ponds, lakes,

ditches, puddles, and canals comprise the
tributaries of the freshwater biome.
 TYPES OF FRESHWATER
• There are 3 different types of freshwater
regions:

 Ponds and Lakes

 Streams and Rivers

 Wetlands
PONDS & LAKES
For the organism you have chosen, describe and evaluate a method for estimating
its abundance.
STREAMS & RIVERS
 Numerous aquatic green plants and algae can
be found in these bodies.

 Since there is less light, there is less diversity

of flora, and because of the lower oxygen
levels, fish that require less oxygen, such as
catfish and carp, can be found.
1.Name an organism in an ecosystem that you have studied and state one
abiotic factor that might affect this organism.

Organism: .....................................................................................................
....
Factor: ...........................................................................................................
....
WETLANDS
MARINE BIOMES
Marine Biomes are classified into three types.

• Coral reefs

• Estuaries

• Oceans
 Oceans

 The largest of all the ecosystems, oceans are

very large bodies of water that dominate the
Earth's surface.

 The ocean regions are separated into separate

zones: intertidal, Pelagic, Abyssal, and Benthic.

 All four zones have a great diversity of species.

 The intertidal zone is where the ocean meets the
land — sometimes it is submerged and at other
times exposed, as waves and tides come in and out.

 The pelagic zone includes those waters further from

the land, basically the open ocean.

 The pelagic zone is generally cold though it is hard

to give a general temperature range since, just like
ponds and lakes
 The benthic zone is the area below the pelagic
zone, but does not include the very deepest parts of
the ocean

 The bottom of the zone consists of sand, slit,

and/or dead organisms.

 The deep ocean is the abyssal zone. The water in

this region is very cold (around 3° C), highly
pressured, high in oxygen content, but low in
nutritional content.
 Any Special……
Related to Environment…..
 The Time magazine has come out with its list of
Heroes of the Environment that includes two Indians
Mike Pandey Dr.Bandeshwar Pathak
Scientists and Innovators
Wild life Documentary Maker
TUNDRA BIOME
 Distribution
• The tundra is the simplest biome in terms of
species composition and food chains.
• The tundra biome is restricted to the high
latitudes of the northern hemisphere in a
belt around the Arctic Ocean.
• Tundra is found in area with low
temperature throughout most of the year.
• Other condition in tundra are low rainfall,
seasonal highlight and short day length.
 Characteristics of tundra include:
• Extremely cold climate
• Low biotic diversity
• Simple vegetation structure
• Short season of growth and reproduction
• Energy and nutrients in the form of dead
organic material
• Tundra is separated into two types:

• Arctic tundra

• Alpine tundra
Biomes of the World
1. The Tundra
1. Extremely cold climate
2. Low biotic diversity
3. Simple vegetation structure
4. Permafrost
5. Short growing season
6. Energy and nutrients in the form
of dead organic material
7. Large population oscillations

Alpine vs Arctic tundra

ARTIC TUNDRA
 Arctic tundra
• Arctic tundra is located in the northern
hemisphere, encircling the north pole and
extending south to the coniferous forests of the
taiga.

• The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.

• There are no deep root systems in the
vegetation of the arctic tundra, however, there
are still a wide variety of plants that are able
to resist the cold climate.

• There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the

arctic and subarctic, and these include:
• Low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses,
liverworts, and grasses
• Animals are adapted to handle long, cold
winters and to breed and raise young quickly
in the summer.
• Animals such as mammals and birds also
have additional insulation from fat.
• Many animals hibernate during the winter
because food is not abundant.
 Alpine tundra
• Alpine tundra is located on mountains
throughout the world at high altitude where
trees cannot grow.
• The growing season is approximately 180
days.
• The nighttime temperature is usually below
freezing. Unlike the arctic tundra, the soil in
the alpine is well drained.
• The plants are very similar to those of the arctic ones and
include:
• tussock grasses, dwarf trees, small-leafed shrubs, and
heaths

• Animals living in the alpine tundra are also well adapted:

• Mammals: Pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk

• Birds: grouselike birds

• Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies
 Productivity of tundra
• Productivity in tundra is low
• This is because tundra has frozen permafrost
and soil that limits productivity.
• Low temperature as ice,aslo limits productivity
.
• Short day length year-round also leads to low
productivity although productivity can be
higher for short periods in the summer
DESERT BIOME
 Distribution

• Desert is found in areas of very low rainfall,

strong sunlight and temperature that vary
from very hot in the daytime to cold at
night.

• Most deserts have a considerable amount of

specialized vegetation, as well as specialized
vertebrate and invertebrate animals
• Desert biomes can be classified according to
several characteristics.
There are four major types of deserts:

• Hot and dry Desert

• Semiarid Desert
• Coastal Desert
• Cold Desert
 Hot and dry desert
• Hot and dry desert present in North American
countries.

• The seasons are generally warm throughout

the year and very hot in the summer.

• The winters usually bring little rainfall.

• Desert surfaces receive a little more than twice
the solar radiation received by humid regions .

• The animals include small nocturnal (active at

night) carnivores.

• The dominant animals are burrowers and

kangaroo rats. There are also insects,
arachnids, reptiles and birds.
 Semiarid Desert

• The major deserts of this type include the

• Sagebrush of Utah,
• Montana and Great Basin.
• They also include the North America,
Newfoundland, Greenland, Russia, Europe and
northern Asia.
 Coastal desert
• These deserts occur in moderately cool to
warm areas is the coastal desert. A good
example is the Atacama of Chile.

• The soil is fine-textured with a moderate salt

content.
 Buckwheat bush
Salt bush

Little leaf horse brush

 Cold desert
• These deserts are characterized by cold winters
with snowfall and high overall rainfall
throughout the winter and occasionally over
the summer.
• They occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the
Nearctic realm. They have short, moist, and
moderately warm summers with fairly long,
cold winters.
The 10 largest deserts
Rank   Desert   Area (km²)   Area (mi²)  
Antarctic Desert
1 13,829,430 5,339,573
(Antarctica)
2 Arctic 13,700,000+ 5,300,000+
3 Sahara (Africa) 9,100,000+ 3,320,000+
Arabian Desert (Middle
4 2,330,000 900,000
East)
5 Gobi Desert (Asia) 1,300,000 500,000

6 Kalahari Desert (Africa) 900,000 360,000

Patagonian Desert
7 670,000 260,000
(South America)
Great Victoria Desert
8 647,000 250,000
(Australia)
Syrian Desert (Middle
9 520,000 200,000
East)
Great Basin Desert
10 492,000 190,000
(North America)
The Atacama desert in South America is, according to NASA, National Geographic
and many other publications, the driest desert in the world
• The heaviest rainfall of the spring is usually in
April or May. In some areas, rainfall can be
heavy in autumn.

• The burrowing habit also applies to carnivores

like the badger, kit fox, and coyote.
Which is the biggest cold desert in India
siachen glacier
The Sahara is the world's largest hot desert
The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a
large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent.
The region surrounding Aravalli hills near
Ranthambore, Rajasthan
Biomes of the World
5. Grasslands
1. Composed of a rich mix of
grasses and forbs and some of
the world's most fertile soils

2. Summers tend to be dry

3. Most precipitation falls at start of
growing season
 Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Biotic Abiotic
1. Food – both quantity and quality
1. of food are important.
Temperature – higher
2. Predators – refer back to predator temperatures speed up
prey relationships.
3. Competitors – other organisms may enzyme-catalyzed
require the samereactions
resources from an environment. and increase growth.
4. Parasites – may cause disease 2.
andOxygen
slow
the rate
Availability
down
of the
energy
– affect
growth of
an organism. production by respiration.
3. Light Availability – for
photosynthesis and
breeding cycles in animals
and plants.
4. Toxins and pollutants –
tissue growth may be
reduced.
2.2 Measuring Abiotic Components of the
System

2.3 Measuring Biotic

Components of the System
Setting up stage quadrats of 100m2 in the
meadow area of the ecological gradient
Setting up group quadrats of 1m2
Setting up sampling quadrats of 0.1m2 in the
meadow
Using the light meter in the forest group
quadrat of 1m2
Soil Temperature
Taking a soil sample with a soil borer (auger)
in the forest section of the gradient
 Results of soil borer sample,
Chemical analysis of the soil can be seen in the background
 Testing the meadow area for pH,
phosphates, nitrates and potassium
Collecting samples in Ziploc bags for analysis
back in the lab
 Taking observations in the forest
Notice the absence of plant growth on the forest floor
Chemical testing in the forest
Insect sampling with net in the meadow
Setting up 0.1m2 sampling quadrats for
biomass analysis
Next Chapter…..
 2.5.1-Explain the role of producers,
consumers and decomposers in the
ecosystem.
• ENERGY FLOW THROUGH
• PRODUCERS

• CONSUMERS

• DECOMPOSERS
 Energy Flow through Producers
• Producers convert light energy into chemical
energy of organic molecules
• Energy lost as cell respiration in producers
then as heat elsewhere
• When consumers eat producers energy passes
on to them
• In death organic matter passes to saprophytes
& detritivores
 Energy Flow through Consumers
• Obtain energy by eating producers or other
consumers
• Energy transfer never above 20% efficient,
usually between 10 – 20%
• Food ingested has multiple fates
1. Large portion used in cell respiration for meeting
energy requirements (LOSS)
2. Smaller portion is assimilated used for growth,
repair, reproduction
3. Smallest portion, undigested material excreted as
waste (LOSS)
Figure 54.10 Energy partitioning within a link of the food chain
 Energy flow through Decomposers
• Some food is not digested by consumers so
lost as feces to detritivores & saprophytes

• Energy eventually released by process of cell

respiration or lost as heat
Chapter : 2.5.2

• Topic : Describe photosynthesis and

respiration in terms of inputs, outputs and
energy transformations
Figure 10.1 Photoautotrophs
 What is Photosynthesis?
• Conversion by plants of light energy into chemical
energy, which is then used to support the plants'
biological processes.

• Process by which cells containing chlorophyll in

green plants convert incident light to chemical energy
and synthesize organic compounds from inorganic
compounds, especially carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide and water, accompanied by the simultaneous
release of oxygen
 Photosynthesis
Inputs, Output & Transformation
• Inputs – sunlight, carbon dioxide, water

• Outputs – sugars, oxygen

• Transformations – radiant energy into chemical

energy, inorganic carbon into organic carbon
 What is Respiration ?
• The process by which oxygen is taken in and
used by tissues in the body and carbon
dioxide is released.

• The energy producing process of breathing, by

which an organism supplies its cells with
oxygen and relieves itself of carbon dioxide.
Figure 10.2 Focusing in on the location of photosynthesis in a plant
 What is ATP
• ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate, which
is a compound that a cell uses to store energy.
• ATP plays a role in making the proper
conversion so the plant can use the energy.
 Energy Processes
• Photosynthesis (Green Plants)
sunlight +water + carbon dioxide  oxygen + sugars(Glucose)

• Respiration (All living things)

oxygen + sugars  ATP +water + carbon dioxide

• ATP is molecular energy storage

 Respiration
Inputs, Output & Transformation
• Inputs - sugars, oxygen

• Outputs - carbon dioxide, water

• Transformations – chemical energy in carbon

compounds into chemical energy as ATP,
organic carbon compounds into inorganic
carbon compounds
• The fundamental energy source for most of the environment is
the sun.

• Photoautotrophs capture the sun’s energy and use it to make

organic compounds through photosynthesis.

• Photoautotrophs are often also called primary producers

because they establish the basis for most other production; they
create organic material from inorganic, or non-living, sources.

• The process of photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and

water into simple carbohydrates.
 RECAP
• What is photosynthesis?

• What is RESPIRATION?

• Output of Photosynthesis

• Output of Respiration
 Self Assessment Question
• Explain two difference between producers
and consumers
• Outline in three points of transfer and
transformation of energy as its flows in an
ecosystem
• What are the transfer and transformation in
named cycle which you have studied
• 2.5.3 Describe and explain the transfer
and transformation of energy as it flows
through an ecosystem.
 What are transfer process
• A transfer is a process where there is a
change in location within the system, but
there is no change in state.
Example:
• Water is falling from clouds to the ground as
rain.
CLOUDS
IN THE FORM
OF
WATER
STATE

CHANGE IN LOCATION

OCEAN
What are transformation process?
• Transformation are process that leads to the
formation of new products or change in
state
Example:
• Evaporation of water from a lake into the
atmosphere
• Transfer are process that lead to a change in
location but not a change in state

• Transformation are process that leads to the

formation of new products or c change in
state
 TRANSFER IN PRODUCERS
• The flow of energy into producers
• A lot of the sunlight is not absorbed by the
producers because it is the wrong wavelength
• Other energy is not absorbed because it is used
to evaporate water to is reflected off the
producers.
• Other sunlight energy does not hit chloroplasts
and so is transmitted through the leaf
 TRANSFORMATION IN PRODUCERS
• The producers transform sunlight energy into
chemical energy as biomass
• Little of the available sunlight energy is
converted into new biomass because
producers are inefficient at converting
sunlight energy into stored chemical energy
through the photosynthesis
• Only 1 % of the sunlight reaching the
producers is turned into new biomass
 TRANSFER IN CONSUMERS
• Consumers eat producers and then further
on in the food chain, consumers eat
consumers
 TRANSFORAMTION IN CONSUMERS

• In a food chain there is loss of chemical

energy from on one trophic level to another
through respiration and heat loss
• Only a very small part of the light from the
sun that does reach green plants is
eventually converted to plant biomass.
Reasons
• Reflection
• Wavelength
• Efficiency
• Not absorbed
• Reflection: Some light is reflected from the
surface of leaves or passes through them
without being captured
• Wavelengths: Chlorophyll only captures
certain wavelength of light for use
photosynthesis
• For example, green light is reflected and not
absorbed. Red and blue wavelengths are the
most effective for photosynthesis
• Efficiency :Photosynthesis has built
inefficiencies and is limited by factors such
as temperature and carbon di oxide.

• Not absorbed: Even light which does enter

leaves and not strike the chloroplast
• 2.5.4 Describe and explain the transfer and
transformation of materials as they cycle
within an ecosystem
 What is Biogeochemical cycle?
• The cyclic transformation of chemicals through
interacting biological, geological and chemical
processes.
• Natural processes that recycle nutrients in
various chemical forms from the environment,
to organisms, and then back to the environment
• Ex: Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
hydrologic cycles.
• The biogeochemical cycles of all elements
used by life have both an organic and an
inorganic phase.

• This cycling involves the decomposition of

organic matter back into inorganic nutrients
 What is Carbon Cycle?

• The process by which carbon is taken up by

plants and animals and returned to the
environment in a continuous cycle.

• The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by

which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the
Earth.
 Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major
sinks
1. As organic molecules in living and dead organisms
found in the biosphere;
2. As the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere;
3. As organic matter in soils;
4. In the lithosphere as fossil fuels and sedimentary
rock deposits such as limestone,
5. In the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon
dioxide and as calcium carbonate shells in marine
organisms.
 Transfers in the carbon cycle

• One example of a transfer process in the carbon

cycle is a herbivore feeding on a producer.
• Another example is a carnivore feeding on a
herbivore.
• Further examples of transfer processes in the
carbon cycle are decomposers feeding on dead
organic matter, and carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere dissolving in rainwater and oceans.
• Biomineralization the change of carbon
dioxide into calcium carbonate in shellfish
and coral
 Transformations in the carbon cycle
• Photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide
and water into glucose using sunlight
energy trapped by chlorophyll.
• The process of respiration converts organic
storage into inorganic matter in the carbon
cycle.
• Respiration transforms organic matter such
as glucose into carbon dioxide and water.
• Another transformation processes in the carbon
cycle is combustion.
• Combustion transforms biomass into carbon
dioxide and water.
• Biomineralization is also a transformation
process.
• Biomineralization transforms carbon dioxide
into calcium carbonate in shellfish and coral.
• The creation of fossil fuels is also a
transformation process.
• Fossil fuels are made from the sedimentation of
organic matter, incomplete decay, and pressure.
 CARBON CYCLE
Transfers Transformation
• Feeding on plants material • Photosynthesis(co2 into
by herbivores glucose)
• Feeding on herbivores by • Respiration(organic
carnivores matter into co2)
• Feeding on dead organism
• Combustion-Organic
by decomposers
matter in to co2
• Co2 from atmosphere
dissolves in rainwater
• Co2 from atmosphere
dissolves in oceans
 What is Nitrogen cycle ?
• A process in which atmospheric nitrogen enters
the soil and becomes part of living organisms,
and then returns to the atmosphere.

• Cyclic movement of nitrogen in different

chemical forms from the environment, to
organisms, and then back to the environment.
• Earth's atmosphere is approximately 78-80%
nitrogen making it the largest pool of
nitrogen.
• Most plants can only take up nitrogen in two
solid forms: ammonium ion and the nitrate
ion .
• Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as
inorganic nitrate from the soil solution.
• Animals receive the required nitrogen they
need for metabolism, growth, and
reproduction
 3 PROCESS OF NITROGEN IN THE
EARTH
• Nitrogen fixation----nitorgen+O2+CO2+H2
• Nitrification---- conversion of ammonia to nitrate
• Denitrification-- nitrate becomes
molecular(GAS) nitrogen with the
help of Bacteria
 NITROGEN CYCLE PROCESS
Nitrogen fixing
• Nitrogen from atmosphere converted into ammonium
ions
Nitrifying
• Ammonium ions converted into nitrite and then nitrate
Denitrifying
• Nitrates converted into nitrogen
Decomposers
• Break down organic nitrogen into ammonia-
DEAMINATION
 NITROGEN CYCLE PROCESS
Nitrogen fixing
• Nitrogen from atmosphere converted into ammonium
ions
Nitrifying
• Ammonium ions converted into nitrite and ten nitrate
Denitrifying
• Nitrates converted into nitrogen
Decomposers
• Break down organic nitrogen into ammonia-
DEAMINATION
 NITROGEN CYCLE
Transfers Transformation

• Feeding on plants • Nitrogen fixation

material by herbivores • Nitrification
• Feeding on herbivores • Denitrification
by carnivores
• Feeding on dead
organism by
decomposers
• Absorption of nitrates
by plants
 Denitrification Nitrogen
fixation

Ammonium Nitrate
Nitrite bacteria (present in the soil)
Nitrogen dioxide Nitrate bacteria

Convert into
gas with help
of bacteria

Directly-
Bacteria present Nitrate
in plant roots
starts active on
lightening
 What is Symbiotic bacteria
• Symbiotic bacteria are bacteria living
in symbiosis with another organism
or each other.
actinomycetes
cyanobacteria
 What is Nitrogen fixation?
• The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into
compounds, such as ammonia, by natural agencies .
This is known as nitrogen fixation
• Some fixation occurs in lightning strikes, but most
fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria.
• These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that
combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce
ammonia.
 What is Nitrification?
• The conversion of ammonia (NH3) to nitrate
(NO3-) is called NITRIFICATION
•
• Nitrification is an important step in the nitrogen
cycle in soil
 What is Denitrification?
• The process by which a nitrate becomes
molecular nitrogen, especially by the action of
bacteria.
• The process by which nitrogen, is converted to
a gaseous form and lost from the soil or water
column.
• The reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen
gas is called denitrification
 Nitrogen

Nitrate

Nitrogen dioxide

Ammonium ions
 NITROGEN CYCLE
Transfers Transformation

• Feeding on plants • Nitrogen fixation

material by herbivores • Nitrification
• Feeding on herbivores • Denitrification
by carnivores
• Feeding on dead
organism by
decomposers
• Absorption of nitrates
by plants
 Transfers in the nitrogen cycle

• One example of a transfer process in the

nitrogen cycle is a herbivore feeding on a
producer.
• Another example is a carnivore feeding on a
herbivore.
• Further examples of transfer processes in the
nitrogen cycle are decomposers feeding on
dead organic matter, and plants absorbing
nitrates through their roots.
 Transformations in the nitrogen cycle
 
• The transformation processes in the nitrogen
cycle involve four different types of bacteria.
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria transform nitrogen
gas in the atmosphere into ammonium ions.
• Nitrifying bacteria transform ammonium
ions into nitrite and then nitrate.
• Denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into
nitrogen.
• Decomposers break down organic nitrogen
into ammonia. The breakdown of organic
nitrogen into ammonia is called deamination.
• Producers convert inorganic materials into
organic matter in the nitrogen cycle.
• Producers use nitrogen from nitrates to
make amino acids and then protein.
• Decomposers convert organic storage into
inorganic matter in the nitrogen cycle.
• Decomposers transform protein and amino
acids into ammonium ions.
 What is Water Cycle ?
• The cycle of water movement from the atmosphere to the earth
and back to the atmosphere through condensation, precipitation,
evaporation, and transpiration is called WATER CYCLE

• The continual cycle of water between the land, the ocean and
the atmosphere.

• The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes

the continuous movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the Earth.
• The four stages in this process are:
Evaporation
Condensation
Precipitation
Collection

.
Evaporation
• This is the first stage of the water cycle.
• The Sun's rays heat the water on the surface of
the earth in rivers, oceans and lakes.
• This makes the water change into water
vapour.
Condensation :
After evaporation, condensation occurs.
 Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes
back into liquid, forming clouds
 The process that causes these changes is called
condensation.
• Precipitation :
Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the air
cannot hold it anymore.  The clouds get heavy and water falls back to
the earth in the form of rain
• Collection
After precipitation comes the stage of collection. The raindrops fall
back into the lakes, rivers and oceans or are absorbed by the land.
This process by which rainwater gathers on earth is called collection.
 WATER CYCLE
Transfers Transformation

• Precipitation • Evaporation

• Runoff • Transpiration

• Absorption by plants • Condensation

 Transfers in the water cycle

• Precipitation is a transfer process where

water falls from clouds to the ground as
rain.
• Run-off is a transfer process where water
flows overland into rivers, lakes, and seas.
Another transfer process in the water cycle
is the absorption of water by plants through
their roots.
 Transformations in the water cycle
• Evaporation is a transformation process
where water moves from the land, rivers,
and oceans into the atmosphere.
• Condensation is a transformation process
where water condenses from the
atmosphere into clouds.
• Transpiration is a transformation process
where water moves from leaves into the
atmosphere.
2.5.5-- Define the terms gross productivity, net
productivity, primary productivity and
secondary productivity.
• Gross productivity (GP)
• Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
• Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP)
• Net productivity
• Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
• Net Secondary Productivity (NSP)
• Primary productivity
• Secondary productivity
 2.5.5-.7 Productivity

http://www.nature.com/scit
able/knowledge/library/seco
ndary-production-13234142
 Gross Productivity
• A definition of gross productivity is the
total gain in biomass in a specific area in
a specific amount of time, which could be
through photosynthesis in primary
producers or absorption in consumers.
 Gaining energy

With the help of photosynthesis

Gaining biomass

Per unit area or time

 Net Productivity
• A definition of net productivity is the
gain in energy or biomass per unit area
per unit time remaining after the
respiratory losses
 What is Net Productivity ?

Respiratory losses

Energy remaining after respiratory losses

Net
Productivity

Biomass remaining after respiratory losses

Per unit area or time

 Primary Productivity
• Primary productivity is the gain by
producers in energy or biomass per unit
area per unit time
• Primary productivity is usually expressed in units of
energy (e.g., joules m -2 day -1) or in units of dry organic
matter (e.g., kg m -2 year -1). 

Amount of energy or biomass

With the help of photosynthesis

 What is Heterotrophic?
• An organism that cannot synthesize its own
food and is dependent on complex organic
substances for nutrition.

• Most bacteria and all animal,human and fungal

species are heterotrophic.
What is Secondary Productivity ?

Gaining biomass & absorption

Measuring
 SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY (SP)

• Biomass gained by
heterotrophic
organisms through
feeding and
absorption.
• Not all food eaten is
absorbed (assimilated)
into an animals body.
• Unassimilated food =
feces or droppings

SP = food eaten – fecal loss

 Secondary Productivity
• A definition of secondary productivity is the
biomass gained by consumers through
feeding and absorption. Secondary
productivity is measured in units of mass in a
specific area in a specific amount of time.
•  
• All definitions of productivity could also use
energy as a measure of productivity, as well
as biomass.
• 2.5.6 Define the terms and calculate the
values of both gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP)
from given
 What is Gross Productivity?

Gaining energy

With the help of photosynthesis

How much energy?

Gaining biomass

Per unit area or time

 Gross primary productivity

• Gross primary productivity can be defined

as the total gain in energy or biomass per
unit area per time fixed by photosynthesis
in green plants.

.
 
 Gross Productivity
 Gross productivity is the total gain energy per unit time in
plants.
 It is the biomass that could be gained by an organism
before any deduction.
 But all organism have to respire to stay alive so some of
this energy is used up in staying alive instead of being
used to grow
Photosynthesis 2.2%

Reflection 3.0

Evaporation 94.8
(including transpiration and
heating of the surroundings
Total 100.0%
• Energy enters an ecosystem through
sunlight.(100%) Gross Productivity (GP)

• Only 2% of the light energy falling on a

tree is captured and turned into chemical
energy (glucose) by photosynthesis.
• The rest is reflected, or just warms up the
tree as it is absorbed.
 What is Gross Secondary Productivity ?

Gaining energy

Gaining biomass

Per unit area or time

GSP=FOOD EATEN –FAECAL LOSS
 Gross Productivity on the Earth
• Generally greatest productivity
– In shallow waters near continents
– Along coral reefs – abundant light, heat, nutrients
– Where upwelling currents bring nitrogen & phosphorous to the
surface
• Generally lowest
– In deserts & arid regions with lack of water but high
temperatures
– Open ocean lacking nutrients and sun only near the surface
 Net primary productivity

• Net primary productivity is the gain by

producers in energy or biomass per
unit area per time after allowing for
respiratory losses
 What is Net Primary Productivity ?

After Respiratory losses

Gaining energy

Per unit area or time

 Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
• The quantity of biomass potentially
available to consumers in an ecosystem.
• It is measured in unit of mass or energy per
unit area per unit time.

NPP = GP – respiration
(for both producers and consumers)
 Net Primary Productivity on Earth
• Most NPP
– Estuaries, swamps, tropical rainforests
• Least NPP
– Open ocean, tundra, desert
• Open ocean has low NPP but its large area
gives it more NPP total than anywhere else
 Average annual Net Primary Productivity of the Earth's major biomes.

 Net Primary Productivity

 Ecosystem Type
(kilocalories/meter -2 /year)

 Tropical Rain Forest  9000

 Estuary  9000
 Swamps and Marshes  9000
 Savanna  3000
 Deciduous Temperate Forest  6000
 Boreal Forest  3500
 Temperate Grassland  2000
 Polar Tundra  600
 Desert  < 200
• Gross primary productivity
 How to Calculate GPP &NPP
• Calculate the values of both gross primary
• Productivity (GPP) and net primary
• Productivity (NPP) from given data.
NPP = GPP – R
where R = respiratory loss
 How to Calculate GSP &NSP
• Calculate the values of both gross secondary
• Productivity (GSP) and net secondary
• Productivity (NSP) from given data.
• NSP = GSP – R
• GSP = food eaten – fecal loss
• where R = respiratory loss
 What is Dissolved Oxygen?
• Dissolved Oxygen is the amount of gaseous
oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water.
• Oxygen enters the water by direct
absorption from the atmosphere, by rapid
movement, or as a waste product of plant
photosynthesis. 
• How to calculate gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity (NPP)

• The easiest way to measure gross primary

productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity
(NPP) is by using aquatic plants.
• To calculate GPP and NPP, measurements of
photosynthesis and respiration need to be taken.
• Measuring dissolved oxygen will therefore give a
measurement of the amounts of photosynthesis
and respiration in aquatic plants.
• Net primary productivity can be calculated
by measuring the increase in dissolved
oxygen when aquatic plants are put in the
light.
• In the light, both photosynthesis and
respiration will be occurring but
photosynthesis will be the bigger process,
and therefore it produces more oxygen than
the plant uses in respiration
• Gross primary productivity can be
calculated using the equation:

• NPP = GPP − R, where R = respiratory loss.

 
• Respiration can be calculated by measuring
the decrease in dissolved oxygen when
aquatic plants are put in the dark.

• In the dark, only respiration will occur and

not photosynthesis.
• The equation can be rearranged to calculate
GPP:
• GPP = NPP + R
Example of how to calculate GPP and NPP from given
data
• Productivity was measured using an aquatic plant.
• The plant was put in light and dark conditions.
• Dissolved oxygen was measured before and after
the plant was put in light and dark conditions.
• In this experiment gross primary productivity
(GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP) were
measured by using changes in dissolved oxygen in
milligrams of oxygen per litre per hour. The results
were:
 Calculating NPP 
• Plant in the light:
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the start of the
experiment = 10 mg of oxygen per litre
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the end of the
experiment = 12 mg of oxygen per litre
• Increase in dissolved oxygen = 2 mg of oxygen per
litre
• The increase in dissolved oxygen is a measure of NPP.
• The experiment lasted one hour and so the NPP = 2
mg of oxygen per litre per hour.
 Calculating GPP
• Plant in the dark:
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the start of the
experiment = 10 mg of oxygen per litre
• Amount of dissolved oxygen at the end of the
experiment = 7 mg of oxygen per litre
• Loss of dissolved oxygen = 3 mg of oxygen per litre per
hour.
• The loss of dissolved oxygen is a measure of respiration
(R).
• NPP = GPP − R, so GPP = NPP + R
• Therefore GPP = 2 + 3 = 5 mg of oxygen per litre per
hour.
• 2.5.7 Define the terms and calculate the
values of both gross secondary productivity
(GSP) and net secondary productivity (NSP)
from given data
• Gross secondary productivity
• Gross secondary productivity can be defined as the
total gain by consumers in biomass through
absorption.
• Gross secondary productivity is measured in units of
mass in a specific area in a specific amount of time. 
• Gross secondary productivity = food eaten – faecal
loss
 Net secondary productivity
• Net secondary productivity can be defined
as the gain by consumers in energy or
biomass per unit area per time after the
respiratory losses
 What is Net Secondary Productivity ?

After Respiratory losses

Gaining energy

Available energy goes to consumers

Per unit area or time

MEASURING PRIMARY
PRODUCTION
NOT REQUIRED-------Different methods of Measuring
Primary Production
1. Measuring the aspects of photosynthesis
2. In marine we can use closed container measure O2
production, CO2 uptake over time
3. Must measure starting amount in environment then
amount added by producers
4. Use dissolved oxygen probe or carbon dioxide
sensor
5. Measure indirectly as biomass of plant material
produced over time (only accurate over long timer
periods)  this gives NPP
 May 2012
• How to Measure Aquatic Primary Production
using the Light and Dark Bottle Method
TRANSPARENT BOTTLE(LIGHT BOTTLE)

OPAQUE BOTTLE(DARK BOTTLE)

Light and Dark Bottle Method – for Aquatic
Primary Production
• Changes in dissolved oxygen used to measure
GPP and NPP
• Measures respiration and photosynthesis
• Measure oxygen change in light and opaque
bottles
• Incubation period should range from 30
minutes to 24 hours
• Use B.O.D. bottles
• Take two sets of samples measure the initial
oxygen content in each (I)
• Light (L) and Dark (D) bottles are incubated in
sunlight for desired time period
• NPP = L – I
• GPP = L – D
• R= D–I
 Sample Data

1. Write the equation for and calculate the GPP

2.Write the equation for and calculate the NPP
3. Write the equation for and calculate the Respiration
 Evaluation
• Tough in unproductive waters or for short
incubation times
• Accuracy in these cases can be increased by
using radioactive isotopes C14 of carbon
MEASURING SECONDARY
PRODUCTION
 Measuring Secondary Productivity
• Gross Secondary Production
– Measure the mass of food intake (I) by an organism
(best if controlled diet in lab)
– Measure mass of waste (W) (excrement, shedding,
etc.) produced
– GSP = I – W
• Net Secondary Production
– Measure organism’s starting mass (S) and ending
mass (E) for experiment duration
– NSP = E-S
 Method evaluation
• GSP method difficult in natural conditions
• Even in lab hard to get exact masses for waste

• NSP method hard to document mass change in

organism unless it is over a long time period
 What types of things effect productivity?

• What can we measure for an experiment?

– Effects of light exposure – strength, time, color, …
– Effects of temperature
– Differences between types of plants
– Differences between types of producers
– Effects of nutrient additions
– Effects of salinity
 Other parameters to change
• Terrestrial vs. aquatic
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide
• Biomass
• B.O.D. bottles
 • How to calculate gross secondary productivity
(GSP) and net secondary productivity (NSP) from
given data

A total of ten stick insects were used. They were fed privet leaves.
The experiment lasted five days.
 
Net secondary productivity (NSP), respiration (R), and gross
secondary productivity (GSP) are calculated from this data.
 Calculating NSP
• NSP can be calculated by measuring the increase in
biomass in stick insects over a specific amount of time.
• The increase in biomass in stick insects (NSP) is equal
to the mass of food eaten minus biomass lost through
respiration and faeces.
• In this experiment NSP = mass of stick insects at end of
experiment – mass of stick insects at start of
experiment
• Over a five-day period: NSP = 9.2 – 8.9 = 0.3 g

• Therefore, NSP = 0.3/5 = 0.06 g per day.

 Calculating GSP
• GSP can be calculated using the following equation: GSP =
food eaten – faecal loss
• Food eaten = mass of leaves at start of the experiment –
mass of leaves at end of the experiment
• Food eaten = 29.2 – 26.3 = 2.9 g
• Also, faecal loss = mass of faeces at end of experiment = 0.5 g
• Therefore, over a five-day period:
• GSP = 2.9 – 0.5 = 2.4 g
• Therefore, GSP = 2.4/5 = 0.48 g per day.
• GSP represents the amount of food absorbed by the
consumer.
• Calculating respiration
• Respiration (the loss of glucose as
respiration breaks it down) can be
calculated from the equation:
• NSP = GSP – R, where R = respiratory loss.
• The equation can be rearranged to calculate
R: R =GSP – NSP
• Therefore, R = 0.48 – 0.06 = 0.42 g per day.
What affects productivity?
1. Solar radiation
2. Temperature
3. CO2
4. H2O
5. Nutrients
6. Herbivory
 Measuring Plant Productivity
The primary productivity
of an ecosystem depends on
a number of interrelated
factors, such as light
intensity, temperature,
nutrient availability,
water, and
mineral supply.
The most productive
ecosystems are
systems with high
temperatures, plenty of
water, and non-limiting
supplies of soil nitrogen.
 Measuring Primary Productivity
1. Harvest method - measure biomass and
express as biomass per unit area per unit
time.

2. CO2 assimilation - measure CO2 uptake

in photosynthesis and release by
respiration.

3. O2 production - Measure O2 production

and consumption.
Measuring Primary Productivity
4. Radioisotope method - use C14 tracer in
photosynthesis.

5. Chlorophyll measurement - assumes a

correlation between amount of chlorophyll and
rate of photosynthesis.
 Therefore…
• The least productive ecosystems are
those with limited heat and light
energy, limited water and limited
nutrients.
• The most productive ecosystems are
those with high temperatures, lots of
water, light and nutrients.
 Biome Productivity
Estuaries
Swamps and marshes
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
Northern coniferous forest (taiga)
Savanna
Agricultural land
Woodland and shrubland
Temperate grassland
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf
Open ocean
Tundra (arctic and alpine)
Desert scrub
Extreme desert

800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 5,600 6,400 7,200 8,000 8,800 9,600
Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)
Three years of satellite data on the earth’s GP.
LAND: high = dark green low = yellow
OCEAN: high = red low = blue
 73%
Not used by humans

Human use of
biomass
produced by
photosynthesis
(NPP).

3%
Used directly

8% 16%
Lost or degraded land Altered by human activity
 Ecosystem Productivity
The primary productivity of oceans is lower than
that of terrestrial ecosystems because the water
reflects (or absorbs) much of the light energy
before it reaches and is utilized by the plant.
65000
kcal m-2y-1
Although the open ocean’s
kJ m y -2 -1
productivity is low, the ocean
48750
contributes a lot to the Earth’s total
production because of its large size.
32500
Tropical rainforest also contributes a
lot because of its high productivity.
16250

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•  In this way the plant accumulates energy and
this energy is called primary production.

• The rate at which this energy accumulates is

called primary productivity
NET PRODUCTIVITY
 Net Productivity
• Net productivity is the remaining energy per unit time after
deductions due to respiration

• Net productivity is the amount of energy trapped in organic

matter during a specified interval at a given tropic level less
that lost by the respiration of the organisms at that level.
 NET PRODUCTIVITY (NP)
• NP is the gain in energy or biomass per
unit time remaining after allowing for
respiratory loss.
• Organisms use some of the energy they
capture to keep themselves growing
and alive (metabolism).
• The energy used by organisms for
essential tasks is called RESPIRATORY
ENERGY, and eventually it is released
to the environment as heat.
SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
 Secondary Production
Secondary production is the
amount of biomass at higher
trophic levels (the consumer
production).

It represents the amount of

chemical energy in
consumers’ food that is
converted to their own new Herbivores (1° consumers)...

biomass.

Energy transfers between

producers and herbivores, and
between herbivores and
higher level consumers is
inefficient. Eaten by 2° consumers
In a food web you can
usually assume that:
• The energy input into
an organism = GP.
• The energy output to
the next trophic level =
NP.
• The difference between
GP and NP = R and/or
loss to decomposers.
Ocean Area vs Productivity
Effects of Depth
 Agricultural Land

• Highly modified, maintained ecosystems

• Goal is increasing NPP and biomass of crop
plants
• Add in water (irrigation), nutrients (fertilizer)
• Nitrogen and phosphorous are most often
limiting to crop growth
 RECAP
• What is Productivity?
• What is GPP?
• What is NPP?
• How to measure the GROSS PRIMARY
PRODUCTIVITY
• How to measure the primary productivity
• What is Net Productivity?
 Ecological Efficiency
The percentage of energy
transferred from one trophic
level to the next varies
between 5% and 20% and is
called the ecological Plant material
efficiency. consumed by
caterpillar
200 J
An average figure of 10%
is often used. This ten
percent law states that the
total energy content of a
trophic level in an
ecosystem is only about 100 J 33 J 67 J
one-tenth that of the
preceding level.
Cellular
Feces Growth
respiration
PRODUCTIVITY CALCULATIONS
 Productivity Calculations
Total Primary Production = (NPP)
Gross Primary Production
• Amount of light energy converted into chemical energy
by photosynthesis per unit time
– Joules / Meter2 / year

• Net Primary Production  GPP – R, or GPP – some

energy used for cell respiration in the primary producers.

• Standing crop = Total living material at a trophic level

Producers
• NPP = GPP – R

Consumers
• GSP = Food eaten – fecal losses

• NSP = change in mass over time

• NSP = GSP – R
Can use satellite imaging: Nutrient rich
waters of the north Atlantic
GPP estimates
 NOVEMBER FORMATIVE
• Date :28th November,2013-Thursday
• Time:9:00am-10.10am
• Total Marks -40
• Format-IB FORMAT
• Syllabus
• 2.4-Biomes
• 2.5 Function
• 2.6 Changes
• 2.7 Measuring changes in the system
 NOVEMBER SUMMATIVE
• Date :29th November,2013-Friday
• Time:9:00am-10.10am
• Total Marks -45
• Format-IB FORMAT

• Syllabus :
• 2.4-Biomes
• 2.5 Function
• 2.6 Changes
• 2.7 Measuring changes in the system
2.6.1 Explain the concepts of limiting factors and
carrying capacity in the context of population
growth
Topic -2.6

CHANGES
What are limiting factors?

• Limiting factors restrict the growth of a

population or prevent it from increasing further.
• Limiting factors in this context include
temperature, water, and nutrient availability.
• The main limiting climatic features are
temperature and water availability.
• Limiting factors in plants include light, nutrients,
water, carbon dioxide, and temperature.
• Limiting factors in animals include space, food,
mates, and water
 What is POPULATION CURVE?
• The curve which is used to describe the
population of an particular animals in an
ecosystem is called POPULATION
CURVE
 What are the main factors that affect
the growth of a population?

 The main factors that make

populations grow are births and
immigration.(The action of coming to
live permanently)

 The main factors that make

populations decrease are deaths and
emigration.(moving from one place) 
 What is Exponential growth?
• Exponential population growth is when
the birth rate is constant over a period of
time and isn't limited by food or disease
• Two types of population curve
• S Population Curve
• J Population Curve
 TYPES OF POPULATION CURVE
.
• J-Shape curve is also known as- Exponential
curve occurs when there is no limit to
population size.
• S-Shape curve is also known as - Logistic
curve  shows the effect of a limiting factor
• S-Sigmoid
S SHAPE POPULATION CURVE
 What is S-Shaped Curve?
• In S - shaped or sigmoid growth the population
show an initial gradual increase in population
size in an ecosystem, followed by an
exponential increase and then a gradual decline
to near constant level.
• In population of an ecosystem which
factors determining the S shape curve?
The curve obtained by plotting growth and
time is called a growth curve. It is a typical
sigmoid or S- shaped curve.
 ‘S’ Curves
• This is the type of graph that is almost always
seen in nature.

• As the energy resources become more scarce

the population size levels will decrease
The S population curve has four stages:

1.The lag phase, where population numbers are low leading to low birth
rates. 

2. The exponential growth phase, where the population grows at an

increasingly rapid rate.
 
3. The transitional phase, when the population growth slows down
considerably although continuing to grow.
 
4. The stationary phase, where the number of individuals stabilizes and
population growth stabilizes (the graph ’flattens’).

In the stationary phase the population fluctuates around a set point that
represents the carrying capacity
 What is J shaped?
• A curve on a graph that records the situation in which the
population density of an organism increases rapidly but
then stops abruptly as environmental resistance(food
,Disease or natural phenomenon)
• The growth of population is measured as increase in
its size over a period of time and populations show
characteristic patterns of growth with time.

• These patterns are known as population growth

forms.
 Changes in a J population curve
• The population is not controlled by limiting
factors in the exponential growth phase.
• The population will suddenly decrease after
reaching its peak value.
• Populations showing J-shaped curves are
controlled by abiotic but not biotic components.
• Abiotic components cause the sudden decrease
in the population. The sudden decrease in the
population is called a population crash
‘J’ Curves
 ‘J’ Curves
• In a ‘J’ curve shape, a population establishing
themselves in a new area will undergo rapid
exponential growth.

• This type of growth produces a J shaped growth

curve.

• If the resources of the new habitat were endless then

the population would continue to increase at this rate.
 ‘J’ Curves
• This type of population growth is rarely seen
in nature.

• Initially exponential growth will occur but

eventually the increase in numbers will not be
supported by the environment.

• .
 RECAP
• What is POPULATION CURVE?
• What are the main factors that affect
the growth of a population?
• What are the types of population curve?
• What is S shaped?
• What is J shaped?
• What are the different stages of S shaped
curve?
CARRYING CAPACITY
300

Can hold 500

Carrying Capacity
• Area: 430 square kilometers 
• Population :2500 rhinoceros
• It can hold up to 4000 Rhinoceros
 CARRYING CAPACITY?

• Carrying capacity can be defined as the

number of organisms in a population that an
area or ecosystem can support sustainably over
a long period of time.
• The symbol of CC is K
• The carrying capacity (K) is the maximum
number of a species that the habitat can
hold.

• Carrying capacity will be change by the effect

of new disease, food resources & Water
 Population Growth
Change in the size of a population
over time.
• POPULATION = a group of interbreeding
organisms (same species) that live in the same
place at the same time and compete for the same
resources.
• Resources = food, water, shelter, mates, and so
on . . .

• resources  pop. size

• resources  pop. size

Populations change in response to environmental stress
or changes in environmental conditions.
1. In size = # of individuals
2. Density = # of individual / specific space
3. Age distribution = proportions / age group
4. Dispersion

Clumped Uniform Random

(elephants) (creosote bush) (dandelions)
Every environment has a CARRYING
CAPACITY = the maximum number of
individuals of a given species that
can be sustained in
a given space.
2.0

Number of sheep (millions) 1.5

1.0

.5

1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925

Year
Factors that affect carrying capacity:

1. Competition with/in and between species.

2. Natural and human caused catastrophes.
3. Immigration and emigration.
4. Seasonal fluctuations in food, water, shelter,
and nesting sites.
10 Rhino Emigration

5 rhino moving

5 rhino –Competition for the food

10 Rhino Immigration

10 rhinos

5 R
hi n
os
ad d
in g
th e
p op
u la
tion
 Bacteria population

24 hours
later

8 1024
LOGISTIC GROWTH involves initial exponential
growth and then there is a steady decrease in
growth as the population encounters environmental
resistance and approaches carrying capacity and
levels off.

“S or sigmoid”
Population size (N)
population growth
curve

Time (t)
 Plateau phase
K
Transitional phase
Population size (N)

Exponential phase

Time (t)
Kaibab Plateau
 2,000
Number of reindeer

1,500

1,000

500

1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

Year
Kaibab Plateau
• REAL
• 2.6.3 Describe the role of density-dependent
and density-independent factors, and
internal and external factors, in the
regulation of populations
What is Density-Dependent Factors?
• A factor that affects the birth rate or
death rate of a population in a
different ways of limiting factor
with the population density.
• Density-dependent factors can be defined as
limiting factors that depend on – are related to
– population density.
• They are biotic components that limit
population growth.
• Density-dependent factors lower the birth rate
or raise the death rate as a population grows in
size.
• Density-dependent factors operate as negative
feedback mechanisms leading to stability or
regulation of the population
 Density Dependent Factors
• Increasing in population size reduces the
available resources of the limiting population
growth.
• A density-dependent factor intensifies as the
population size increases, affecting each
individual more strongly.
• Population growth declines because of death
rate increase, birth rate decrease or both. 
• Density-dependent limiting factors include:
1.  Competition
2. Predation
3. Disease
• Predator–prey relationships are a good
example of density-dependent control. The
following figure shows how predator–prey
interactions regulate populations through
negative feedback
Example for Density-dependent factors

• When predators are low in number, the prey

population begins to increase in size.
• As the availability of prey increases, predator
numbers increase following a time-lag.
• As the number of predators increases, the
population size of the prey begins to decrease.
• With fewer prey, the number of predators
decreases.
• With fewer predators the number of prey may
begin to increase again and the cycle continues
WHAT IS DENSITY INDEPENDENT FACTORS?
• Any factor that limiting the entire size of a
population is called Density Independent Factors.

• An example of such a factor is an earthquake,

which will kill all members of the population
regardless of whether the population is small or
large.
DENSITY INDEPENDENT FACTORS = affect a populations’
size regardless of its population density.
1. Weather
2. Earthquakes
3. Floods
4. Fires
DENSITY DEPENDENT FACTORS = affect a populations’ size
depending on its population density.

1. Predation
2. Disease
3. Availability of food and water
4. Space

Negative Feedback!!
2.6.4 Describe the principles associated
with survivorship curves including K-
and r-strategists
 TWO TYPES OF SPECIES
• r-selected species
• K-selected species
K-strategists can be defined as species that
usually concentrate their reproductive investment
in a small number of offspring.

r-strategists can be defined as species that tend to

spread their reproductive investment among a
large number of offspring.
 What is r-strategists?
• The letter ’r ’ stands for reproduction.
• These species are called r-strategists
because they have high reproductive rates.
• r-strategists are controlled by density-
independent factors.
• Examples of r-strategists include
cockroaches, mice, and mosquitoes
 Examples of r-selected species
• Examples of r-selected species include pest organisms,
such as rodents, insects, Mosquitoes and Weeds(kind
of a plant).

• r-selected species thrive in disturbed habitats,

• Such as freshly burned grasslands 
• Forest affected by natural calamities(flood or heavy rain)
 What is K strategists?
• The letter ’K’ stands for carrying capacity.
• These species are called K-strategists
because their population growth is
determined by limiting factors and then
eventually reaches a carrying capacity.
• K-strategists are controlled by density-
dependent factors.
• Examples of K-strategists include large
mammals such as rhino, whales, and
humans.
 Examples of K-selected species
• Examples of K-selected species
include birds, larger mammals (such
as elephants, horses, and primates), and
larger plants.
STABLE & UNSTABLE ENVIRONMENTS

• Organisms that live in stable environments

tend to make few, "expensive" offspring.

• Organisms that live in unstable

environments tend to make many, "cheap"
offspring.
STABLE ENVIRONMENTS
UNSTABLE ENVIRONMENTS
 How r/K is related to Ecology?
In ecology, r/K selection theory relates to the
selection of combinations of traits that trade off
the quantity and quality of offspring to promote
success in particular environments.

The terminology of r/K-selection was coined by

the ecologists Robert MacArthur and E. O.
Wilson based on their work on island
biogeography.
 EXAMPLE
• Imagine that you are one of the many invertebrate
organisms which existed during the Cambrian or one
of their descendents living today.
• Maybe you live in a tide pool which is washed by
waves.
• A storm appears on the horizon.
• The waves increase in height.
• You feel yourself being dashed upon the rocks or into
the mouth of a much larger and predatory animal.
• Finally, you begin to see your brothers and sisters die,
one by one, as the forces of nature change your
unpredictable environment.
• If you could design a "strategy" to overcome
the problems created by an unpredictable
environment, you would have two choices - go
with the flow or cut and run to a more
stable environment.
• Suppose you stayed. Then, one thing you could do would be
to increase the number of offspring.
• Make lots of cheap (requiring little energy investment)
offspring instead of a few expensive, complicated ones
(requiring a lot of energy investment).

• If you lose a lot of offspring to the unpredictable forces of

nature, you still have some left to live to reproductive age
and pass on your genes to future generations.

• Many invertebrates follow this strategy - lots of eggs are

produced and larvae are formed but only a few survive to
produce mature, reproductive adults. Many insects and
spiders also follow this strategy.
• Alternatively, you could adapt to a more stable
environment.
• If you could do that, you would find that it
would be worthwhile to make fewer, more
expensive offspring.
• These offspring would have all the bells and
whistles necessary to ensure a comfortable,
maximally productive life.
• Since the environment is relatively stable, your
risk of losing offspring to random environmental
factors is small. Large animals, such as
ourselves, follow this strategy.
 POPULATION SIZE

Growth factors Decrease factors

(biotic potential) (environmental resistance)
Abiotic Abiotic
Too much or too little light
Favorable light Temperature too high or too low
Favorable temperature Unfavorable chemical environment
Favorable chemical environment (too much or too little of critical
(optimal level of critical nutrients) nutrients)
Biotic Biotic
High reproductive rate Low reproductive rate
Generalized niche Specialized niche
Adequate food supply Inadequate food supply
Suitable habitat Unsuitable or destroyed habitat
Ability to compete for resources Too many competitors
Ability to hide from or defend Insufficient ability to hide from or defend
against predators against predators
Ability to resist diseases and parasites Inability to resist diseases and parasites
Ability to migrate and live in other Inability to migrate and live in other
habitats habitats
Ability to adapt to environmental Inability to adapt to environmental
change change
Four variables change population size:
1. NATALITY = birth rate
2. MORTALITY = death rate
3. IMMIGRATION = rate of organisms moving in
4. EMIGRATION = rate of organisms moving out
 REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Carrying capacity
K

K species;
experience
K selection
Number of individuals

r species;
experience
r selection

Time
 Population Size
• In r-selected species, population size tends to
vary in time and recolonization occur into
unpopulated area frequently (pioneer species)

• In K-selected species, population size is

usually or near the carrying capacity and
colonization is infrequent
 r Species Selection Factors
• Rapid Development
• High reproductive
• Early Reproduction
• Small Body Size
• Single Reproduction
• Many Small Offspring
• Short Life Span
 K Species Selection Factors
• Slow Development
• Competitive Ability
• Delayed Reproduction
• Large Body Size
• Repeated Reproduction
• Few Large Offspring
• Long Life Span
 What is difference between r &K?
K

1. Growth Pattern - large body, long juvenile period; Population grows

exponentially and then stabilizes around a max value

2. Population Size - smaller, but stable

3. Environment - stable, diverse ecology

4. Reproductive strategy - mate choice, pair bonds, large investment, parental

care, few offspring

5. Characteristics of offspring -They're born more dependent on the parents and

stay that way longer; later onset of repro maturity

• Examples - Elephants, humans, oak trees.

1. r
Growth Pattern - small body, rapid maturation; population
grows exponentially then crashes

2. Population Size - large, but rapid fluctuation

3. Environment - unstable, recently disrupted, low diversity,

low resources

4. Reproductive strategy - maximize number of offspring, low

parental investment, random mating

5. Characteristics of offspring - independent right away,

early reproductive maturity, large numbers

6. Examples - weeds, mosquitoes, mice

• In the scientific literature, r-selected
species are occasionally referred to as
"opportunistic", while K-selected species
are described as "equilibrium
 RECAP
• What is r selected species? Example
• What is K selected species? Example
• How r/K species related to Ecology?
• What is Stable &unstable Environment
• r Species Selection Factors
• K Species Selection Factors
 Opportunistic or r-Selected Species

cockroach dandelion

1. Many small offspring

2. Little or no parental care and protection of offspring
3. Early reproductive age
4. Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age
5. Small adults
6. Adapted to unstable climate and environmental
7. conditions
8. High population growth rate (r)
9. Population size fluctuates wildly above and below
10. carrying capacity (K)
11. Generalist niche
12. Low ability to compete
13. Early successional species
 Competitor or K-Selected Species

elephant saguaro

1. Fewer, larger offspring

2. High parental care and protection of offspring
3. Later reproductive age
4. Most offspring survive to reproductive age
5. Larger adults
6. Adapted to stable climate and environmental
7. conditions
8. Lower population growth rate (r)
9. Population size fairly stable and usually close
10. to carrying capacity (K)
11. Specialist niche
12. High ability to compete
13. Late successional species
Population density affects population growth.
Survivorship curves
 Survivorship curves
• A survivorship curve is a graph showing the
number or proportion of individuals surviving
at each age for a given species or group (e.g.
males/females). 
• Survivorship curves for r-strategists show
most individuals dying at a young age but
that those surviving are likely to survive for
a long time.

• Survivorship curves for K-strategists show

almost all individuals surviving for their
potential life span and then dying almost at
the same time.
SURVIVORSHIP CURVES
• There are three generalized types of
survivorship curve, which are simply
referred to as 
• Type I, Type II and Type III curves.
 TYPE 1
• Type I survivorship curves are characterized
by high survival in early and middle life,
followed by a rapid decline in survivorship in
later life. 

• Humans,Red deers &Elephants are one of the

species that show this pattern of survivorship.
 TYPE II
• Type II curves are an intermediate between Type
I and III, where roughly constant mortality rate is
experienced regardless of age.

• Some birds & reptiles follow this pattern of

survival.
 Type III
• In Type III curves, the greatest mortality is
experienced early on in life, with relatively
low rates of death for those surviving this
bottleneck.

• This type of curve is characteristic of species

that produce a large number of offspring
• Ex: Oysters, Rat & Turtles
Mortality, Survivorship, & Competition
• In r-selected species mortality is often catastrophic
and subject to density independent limiting factors.
• Survivorship is low early in life but increases for
those individuals surviving (Type III). Competition
lax.
• In K-selected species mortality is subject to density
dependent limiting factors Survivorship is high
throughout life until late in life (Type I). Competition
keen.
2.6.5 Describe the concept and
processes of succession in a named
habitat
SUCCESSION
The series of changes
in an ecological
community
 What are Lichens?
• Lichens are composite organisms
consisting of a fungus  and
a photosynthetic partner growing together
in a symbiotic relationship.
 What are Mosses?
• Mosses are a botanical division (phylum) of
small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm
(0.4–4 in) tall
 What is SUCCESSION?
• A definition of succession is the orderly
process of change over time in a community.
• Changes in the community of organisms
cause changes in the environment they live
in.
• These changes in the environment allow
another community to become established
and replace the one before through
competition.
 In ecology what is succession?
• Succession is the process by which a habitat changes
over time as different plants get established.
• This process can occur from bare rock up to an old-
growth forest, and can get reset by a disturbance
such as fire.
• The path of succession varies from one habitat type
to another, but the general idea goes like this:

Bare rock ---> Lichens --> Mosses --> Grasses &

Forbs --> Brush --> Deciduous hardwood forest -->
Mixed deciduous-coniferous forest --> Coniferous
forest --> Old growth coniferous forest
 What is Ecological succession?
• Ecological succession, a fundamental concept
in ecology, refers to more or less predictable
and orderly changes in the composition or
structure of an ecological community.
 Types of succession

Two types of Succession

• Primary succession
• Secondary succession
 Primary Succession
• Primary succession is the series of community
changes which occur on an entirely new habitat
which has never been colonized before.
• Examples of such habitats would include newly
exposed or deposited surfaces, such as
landslips, elevated sand banks and dunes,
quarried rock faces.
• Stages will take place in which an initial or
'pioneer' community will gradually develop
through a number of different communities into
a 'climax' community, which is the final stage
the succession of a pond ecosystem to a meadow over 250
years.
 Coastal Sand Dunes
An Example of Primary Succession
• Primary succession is the gradual growth of
organisms in an area that was previously bare,
such as rock.
• For example lichens, mosses, and ferns will
first appear on bare rock.
• In primary succession pioneer species like
mosses, lichen, algae and fungus as well as
other abiotic factors like wind and water start
to "normalize" the habitat.
 What is Secondary succession?

• Secondary succession is the series of

community changes which take place on a
previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged
habitat.
• Examples include areas which have been
cleared of existing vegetation (such as after
tree-felling in a woodland) and destructive
events such as forest fires.
• Secondary succession can proceed much
faster because the soil has already been
prepared by the previous community
• Secondary succession is usually much quicker
than primary succession for the following
reasons:
• There is already an existing seed bank of suitable
plants in the soil.
• Root systems undisturbed in the soil, stumps and
other plant parts from previously existing plants
can rapidly regenerate.
• The fertility and structure of the soil has also
already been substantially modified by previous
organisms to make it more suitable for growth
and colonization.
CLIMAX COMMUNITY
• The mature stage of succession in a particular area, in which
all organisms and non living factors are in balance.

• Terrestrial communities of organisms move through a series

of stages from bare earth or rock to forests of mature trees.

• This last stage is described as the "climax" because it is

thought that, if left undisturbed, communities can remain in
this stage in perpetuity.

• However, more recent studies suggest that climax may be

only one part of a continuous cycle of successional stages in
these communities.
 Differences between pioneer and climax
communities
Pioneer Community Climax Community

Unfavorable environment favorable environment

biomass increases quickly biomass is generally stable

energy consumption inefficient energy consumption efficient

some nutrient loss Nutrient cycling and recycling

r - strategists K - strategists
low species diversity, habitat high species diversity, habitat
diversity, genetic diversity diversity, genetic diversity
Example of a succession in a named habitat
REFFER NOTES-Page 51
 RECAP
• What is Succession?
• What is Ecological Succession?
• How many types of Succession?
• What is Primary Succession?
• What is secondary Succession?
 RECAP
• Which succession is important to an ecosystem
and Why?
• Which succession is important to animals?
• What happen if there is no succession in an
ecosystem?
 ESS EOST SYALLABUS
• Paper :ESS
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ZONATION
School Director

Principal

Coordinator

Teacher
 What is ZONATION?
• Zonation can be defined as the arrangement of
ecosystems into bands of different communities. The
bands of different communities are formed in response
to change over distance in an environmental factor

• The main biomes display zonation in relation to

latitude and climate.

• Plant communities may also display zonation with

altitude on a mountain, or around the edge of a pond in
relation to soil moisture.
Heating of solids, sunlight and shade in different altitudinal zones
(North hemisphere)
What is Environmental gradient?
• An environmental gradient is a gradual
change in abiotic factors through space (or
time). Environmental gradients can be related
to factors such as altitude, temperature, depth,
ocean proximity and soil humidity.
Changes in the distribution of animals with elevation on
a typical mountain in Kenya. Another example of
Zonation
 Comparing succession and zonation
• Succession refers to changes over time,
whereas zonation refers to spatial patterns.
• An example of succession is the change over
time in a forest community from a pioneer
community of lichens and mosses to a climax
community of mature trees and shrubs.
• An example of zonation is the arrangement of
communities in bands on a mountain from
tropical rainforest at the bottom to alpine
communities at the top.
2.6.6 Explain the changes in energy flow, gross
and net productivity, diversity and mineral
cycling in different stages of succession
• Density of producers in the early stages of
succession is low because of the lack of soil,
water, and nutrients.
• In the early stages of a succession, the
proportion of energy lost through
community respiration is relatively low and
so net productivity is high.
• When net productivity is high, the ecosystem
is growing and biomass is accumulating
• In later stages of a succession, the gross
productivity will be high in a climax
community as there is an increased
consumer community.

• The gross productivity is balanced by

respiration in later stages of a succession,
and so the net productivity will approach
zero: the ratio of production to respiration
therefore approaches one
 The following charts summarize the major trends
as the ecosystem undergoes succession.
Ecosystem Trends in ecological succession
characteristic
Food chains Simple food chains becoming more complex food webs

Relative Species Changes rapidly first, changes slower in the later stages.
abundance

Total biomass Increasing

Humus (non- Increasing
living organic
matter)
Species Low diversity in the early stages, then increasing in the
diversity intermediate stages and then stabilizing in the final stages
as an equilibrium is approached
 Productivity

Ecosystem characteristic Trends in ecological

succession
Gross productivity (GP) Increasing during early
stages of primary succession
then little or no increase
during final stages of
secondary succession

Net productivity (NP) Decreasing

Respiration (R) Increasing

 Mineral and Nutrient cycles
Ecosystem characteristic Trends in ecological succession

  Mineral cycles Becomes more self-contained in

later stages

Nutrient recycling Increases in later stages

• 2.6.7 Describe factors affecting the nature of
climax communities
 Factor 1: Soil

• Soils less rich in nutrients cannot support a

climax community with high biomass and
diversity.

• In Africa, tropical savannah grasslands

grow in areas poor in soil nutrients rather
than forests.
 Factor 2: Climate

• Rainforests are an example of climax

communities with high habitat diversity,
species diversity, and biomass.
• This is because rainforests are found near the
equator where the climate is warm, there is
significant rainfall, and there are high levels of
sunlight throughout the year.
• Where conditions are cold with low levels of
sunlight and low rainfall, or where water is
locked away as ice, productivity is low.
 Factor 3: Human disturbance

• Human factors can affect the process of

succession through disturbance.
• The interference stops the process of succession
so that the climax community is not reached.
• Interrupted succession is known as
plagioclimax.
• Human activity can affect the climax community
through agriculture, hunting, clearance,
burning, and grazing
 ESS EOST SYALLABUS
• Paper :ESS
• Syllabus :
• Systems & Model & The Ecosystem
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• 2.7.1 Describe and evaluate methods for
measuring changes in abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem along an
environmental gradient
• 2.7.2 Describe and evaluate methods for
measuring changes in abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem due to a
specific human activity
• Human impacts include the release of toxins
from mining activity, landfills, eutrophication,
effluent, oil spills, and overexploitation.

• Changes in the ecosystem will depend on the

human activity involved.

• Methods used for measuring abiotic and biotic

components of an ecosystem must be
appropriate to the human activity being
studied.
Pristine Forest
logged forest
 Method 1: Ground sampling

• Both pristine and logged forest areas must be

studied so comparisons can be made.
• Stratified random sampling is used in two
areas because the pristine and logged forest
areas are different in habitat quality.
• Sampling grids are established in both pristine
and logged forest sites.
• Samples are collected from the grids using
random sampling methods.
• For example, if the grid were 10 m by 10 m a
random number generator could be used to
choose random points to sample within the
grid.
• Numbers generated between 0 and 1000
would provide the sample points;
• For example 580 would represent a point 5
m 80 cm along the bottom of the grid, and
740 a point 7 m 40 cm along the side of the
grid opposite.
• Abiotic and biotic measurements can be made at each
sample point.
• Abiotic measurements can include wind, temperature, and
light intensity.

• Quadrats can be used to sample biotic measurements.

• Biotic factors can include the species of plants and animals
present, and the population size of selected indicator
species.
• Mobile animals can be sampled using capture-mark-
release-recapture methods.
• Evaluation of ground sampling
• Abiotic and biotic components must be
measured over a long period of time to take
into account daily and seasonal variations
so as to ensure data is valid.
• Repeating samples from both within and
between sampling grids improves the
reliability of the data.
 Method 2:

Satellite images

• Satellites orbit the Earth and can be used to

take photos of the Earth’s surface. These
images can show the effects of human
disturbance on ecosystems
Evaluation of satellite images 
• An advantage of satellite images is that they
are very reliable, as they can cover a large
area and monitor change over time.
• Another advantage is that the visible nature
of the photos is useful for motivating action
against logging.
 disadvantage
• A disadvantage is that they can be
expensive to obtain and may not be
available for the area being studied.
• Another disadvantage is that although some
biotic measurements can be taken, such as
plant productivity, other biotic and abiotic
components cannot be measured.
• 2.7.3 Describe and evaluate the use of
environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
What is Environmental impact
assessment?
• Environmental impact assessment is the
formal process used to predict the
environmental consequences (positive or
negative) of a plan, policy, program, or
project prior to the decision to move
forward with the proposed action.
 What is the purpose of an EIA?

• An environmental impact assessment (EIA)

must be carried out before any development
project gets permission to begin.
• Development projects that need an EIA
include airports, new housing, river dams,
mines, and so on.
• The purpose of an EIA is to
• Establish the impact of the project on the
environment predict possible impacts on
habitats, species, and ecosystems.

• Help decision makers decide if the

development should go ahead or not
Model sentence: The first stage of an EIA is to
carry out a baseline study.

• The baseline study is undertaken because

it is important to know what the
environmental and biological environment
is like before the project starts so that it can
be monitored during and after the
development.
• The baseline studies includes the following
steps
1.Habitat type and abundance
2.The number of species (animals and plants)
present estimation of the species diversity

Mining Area
3.The number of endangered species assessment of
land-use type and use coverage
4.Assessment of hydrological conditions in terms of
volume, discharge, flows, and water quality
• 5.Assessment of the present human
population in the area assessment of soil
quality, fertility, and pH
 Evaluation of EIAs

• Strengths
• EIAs can lead to changes in the development
plans and avoid negative environmental
impacts.

• It can be argued that any improvement to a

development outweighs any negative
aspects.
 Limitations

• It is often difficult to put together a

complete baseline study due to lack of data.
Sometimes not all of the impacts of the
development are identified.
• The value of EIAs in the environmental decision-
1. making process can be compromised in other ways.

Some countries include EIAs within their legal

framework, with penalties and measures that can
be taken if the conditions of the EIA are broken.
2. Other countries, however, simply use the
assessment to inform policy decisions and do not
incorporate them into their legal framework.
3. Some countries ignore the information and
suggestions of an EIA, or put the conclusions of
EIAs second place to economic concerns.
• Environmental impact prediction is
speculative due to the complexity of natural
systems and the uncertainty of feedback
mechanisms.

• The complexity of natural systems and the

uncertainty of feedback mechanisms may
mean that EIA predictions may be inaccurate
in the long term.
THE END
 APRIL FORMATIVE
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following criteria:
1. Creativity and presentation (10%),
2. Originality (10%) and
3. Relevance to the theme (10%).
 Rules & Regulations
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should include a statement of the problem,
• A brief explanation about the poster (100
words)
• It should have one slogan
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 APRIL FORMATIVE
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 APRIL SUMMATIVE
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• Total Marks:30
Chapter :

Topic : Transfer and Transformation of

Materials in Cycle in Eco system
Change in the relative abundance of a species
over an area or a distance is referred to as an
ECOLOGIAL GRADIENT
Also known as Zonation.
 What is ZONATION?
• Zonation – The arrangement or patterning of plant
communities or ecosystems into bands in response to
change, over a distance, in some environmental
factor.
• The main biomes display zonation in relation to
latitude and climate. Plant communities may also
display zonation with altitude on a mountain, or
around the edge of a pond in relation to soil moisture.
 MAY FORMATIVE
• ESS Note book & ESS file
• Total marks:30
• ESS note:15 marks
• ESS file :15 marks
• All summative & formative papers
• Practice papers
• News articles
• Revision papers
What is Environmental gradient?
• An environmental gradient is a gradual
change in abiotic factors through space (or
time). Environmental gradients can be related
to factors such as altitude, temperature, depth,
ocean proximity and soil humidity.
Changes in the distribution of animals with elevation on
a typical mountain in Kenya. Another example of
Zonation
THE END
• In population of an ecosystem which factors
determining the J shape curve?
 Estimated Net Productivity of Certain Ecosystems (in
kilocalories/m2/year)

Temperate deciduous forest 5,000

Tropical rain forest 15,000

Tall-grass prairie 2,000
Desert 500
Coastal marsh 12,000
Ocean close to shore 2,500
Open ocean 800
Clear (oligotrophic) lake 800

Lake in advanced state of

2,400
eutrophication

Silver Springs, Florida 8,800

Field of alfalfa (lucerne) 15,000

Corn (maize) field, U.S. 4,500

Rice paddies, Japan 5,500

Lawn, Washington, D.C. 6,800

Sugar cane, Hawaii 25,000

 RECAP
• What is r selected species? Example
• What is K selected species? Example
• What is Density-Dependent Factors?
• Factors which includes Density-dependent
limiting are…
• How r/K species related to Ecology?
• What is Stable &unstable Environment
• r Species Selection Factors
• K Species Selection Factors
2.6 CHANGES
 APRIL FORMATIVE
• POSTER MAKING

• TOPIC :ECO SYSTEM

• THEME:SELECT YOUR OWN THEME

• MARKS :30
• The posters will be judged according to the
following criteria:
1. Creativity and presentation (10%),
2. Originality (10%) and
3. Relevance to the theme (10%).
 Rules & Regulations
• A poster should tell a story. In general posters
should include a statement of the problem,
• A brief explanation about the poster (100
words)
• It should have one slogan
• It should be in color print out
• One page
• Clear images
 APRIL SUMMATIVE
• Date :22.04.2013
• Syllabus: The Ecosystem
• Format: Paper 2
• Pattern: Resource booklet
• Total Marks:30
ENVIRONMENTAL QUIZ
1.World Environment Day is observed
on which date :
2.In which year Project Tiger was
introduced in India
3.Which State in India having the
highest percentage of forests?
4.Earth day is observed on which
date
 5.Branch of Biology which is concerned
with the inter-relationship between plants
and animals is called :
6.Which is the first state to implement the
path-breaking proposal that environment
should be included as a separate subject in
schools?
7.Name the National Marine
animal of India?
8.Which popular brand takes its name
from a particular species of deer native
to South Africa?
9.Which comic character cannot
stand trees being cut down?
• 10.Which ancient Indian text contains
rules and regulations on how to run a
protected forest or a ‘abhayaranya’?
ANSWERS
1.World Environment Day is observed
on which date :

June 5
2.In which year Project Tiger was
introduced in India

1973
3.Which State in India having the
highest percentage of forests?

Mizoram
4. Earth day is observed on which
date

April 22
 5.Branch of Biology which is concerned
with the inter-relationship between plants
and animals is called :

Ecology
6.Which is the first state to implement the
path-breaking proposal that environment
should be included as a separate subject in
schools?

Maharashtra
7.Name the National Marine
animal of India?

Gangetic Dolphin
8.Which popular brand takes its name
from a particular species of deer native
to South Africa?
Reebok
9.Which comic character cannot
stand trees being cut down?

Dogmatix of Asterix
• 10.Which ancient Indian text contains
rules and regulations on how to run a
protected forest or a ‘abhayaranya’?

Kautilya’s Arthashastra
• This tree was supposedly brought to India
from Sri Lanka by Hanuman when he was
carrying messages from Sita. He felt so
delighted by it that he threw the seeds on
what is presently Maharashtra. Which tree?

• The Mango