Ecosystems and ecology

Chapter 2
Sub-topic 2.1: Species and populations
 What is Organism ?
Organism is fundamental functional
unit in ecology because it interacts
directly with the environment as well as
with another organism.
e.g., Rabbits
 What is Population?
•Refers to organism of same species
are in proximity to one another
e.g., A group of rabbit
 What is Community?
•Includes all populations occupying given area.
Size of community depends our scale of
reference.

•Community & non-living environment

together referred as ECOLOGICAL
SYSTEM or ECOSYSTEM
•e.g., pond fish and plants
 What is species?

•Species defined as group

of organisms capable of
interbreeding & producing
fertile offspring.
 What is habitat?
•A habitat is ecological or environmental
area inhabited species of animal, plant or
other type of organism.
 Biosphere

Ecosystems

Communities

Populations

Organisms
 What is species?

•In biology, a species is one of basic

units of biological classification .

•Species defined as group

of organisms capable interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
 What is species?

•In biology, a species is one of basic

units of biological classification .

•Species defined as group

of organisms capable interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
 What is NICHE?
•Niche is particular place or role occupied
organism within ecological community.
•Similar species will occupy similar niches.

•For example, red squirrels and grey squirrels are

two different species.

•They occupy similar but slightly different niches.

 Example for NICHE
• Honeybees that gather nectar from flowers to make honey.
• Other organisms that exist in same environment don't do this.
• For instance, a bird may live in the same tree as a beehive, but
the bird does not make honey the way the bees do. That is not its
niche.
• An ecosystem has two basic components

• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

• BIOTIC COMPONENTS
 Biotic Components
• Biotic components is classified into three
categories:
• PRODUCERS-Autotrophic
• CONSUMERS -Heterotrophic
• DECOMPOSERS OR SAPTROTROPHS
Producers :
•Producers ecosystem provide food &
nourishment for other species.

•Autotrophs are a producer because

they too create their own food
CONSUMERS:

•Consumers receive all their

energy by consuming other
types of organisms.
Decomposer

•Decomposers - organisms
such bacteria & fungi that break
down organic matter in dead
bodies of plants and animals.
DECONSUMERS
Describe and explain population
interactions using examples of named
species.
Competition: Two Types

•Intraspecific competition

•Interspecific Competition
Intraspecific competition
•Intraspecific competition, members
of same species compete for food,
shelter, water, & mates.

•Means population no longer

increase in size.
 Interspecific Competition
• Interspecific competition occurs
members of different species
compete for shared resource.

•Resulting intraspecific competition

stronger force than interspecific
competition
• Interspecific Competition-Examples
Conclusion :
•Interspecific competition, happens between
individuals of different species.

•Intraspecific competition, happens

between individuals of same species.

•Intraspecific competition often more

significant than interspecific competition.
Competition terms :
 Predation
•In ecology, predation describes biological
interaction where a predator feeds on its
prey.

•Examples :Lion killing buffalo, Eagle

killing Rabbit, Mantis eating a bee.
 Herbivore
•Herbivores - organisms adapted to eat
plants.

•Herbivory form of predation an organism

consumes principally autotrophs such as
plants, algae and photosynthesizing
bacteria.
What is Symbiotic relationships ?

•Symbiotic
relationships which
each species benefits
are mutualistic
 Parasitism
• Parasitism type of symbiotic relationship between
organisms different species -where one organism,
the parasite, benefits at the expense of the host.
Example :
• Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the protein.
Male mosquitos ingest plant juices.
• Heartworm of dogs, whose adults reside in the right
side of the heart.
Mosquito: Females ingest blood for the protein. Male
mosquitos ingest plant juices
Heartworm of dogs, whose adults reside in
the right side of the heart
 Mutualism
• Mutualism - biological interaction beneficial both
parties.

• Mutualism way two organisms biologically interact

where each individual derives a fitness benefit (i.e.
increased survivorship).

• Examples :Clownfish and sea anemones, langur

monkey curing cow's ear
Mutualism or Parasitism
 ESS EOSA –DECEMBER
•Time : 1 hr 45 mins
•Total Marks :60
•Syllabus : Topic 1 : Unit 1.1 to 2.3
•Source-Subject PPT & ESS Website
•Practice Session 1st Week December
•Mode of Exam – Physical
ESS November Formative
• Format –Video
• Due Date : 8th November
• Instructions:
• 2 things you have learned from each video. Answer
should be two lines.
• Marks will be given based on the content and ESS
Terms
• Late submission will not be accepted
S and J population curves
Limiting factors
What are limiting factors in the Ecology?

•Limiting factors restrict growth of

population or prevent increasing further.
•Includes temperature, water, and nutrient
availability.
•Plants –
•light, nutrients, water, carbon dioxide, and
temperature.
•Animals- space, food, mates, and water
What is POPULATION CURVE?
• The curve which is used to describe the population
of an particular animals in an ecosystem is called
POPULATION CURVE
 What is Exponential growth?
• Exponential population growth is when the birth rate is
constant over a period of time and isn't limited by food or
disease
•Two types of population curve
•S Population Curve
•J Population Curve
. TYPES OF POPULATION CURVE
• J-Shape curve is also known as- Exponential
curve occurs when there is no limit to population
size.
 What is S-Shaped Curve?
• In S - shaped or sigmoid growth population show initial
gradual increase in population size in an ecosystem,
followed by an exponential increase and then a gradual
decline to near constant level.
• S-Shape curve is also known as - Logistic
curve shows the effect of a limiting factor
• S-Sigmoid
Which curve is common in nature?
‘S’ Curves

•Graph is almost always seen in

nature.

•As energy resources become more

scarce population size levels will
decrease
 Changes in a J population curve
•Population not controlled limiting
factors in exponential growth phase.
•Populations showing J-shaped curves
controlled by abiotic but not biotic.
•Abiotic components cause sudden
decrease in population.
 RECAP
• What is POPULATION CURVE?
• What are the main factors that affect the growth of a
population?
• What are the types of population curve?
• What is S shaped?
• What is J shaped?
• What are the different stages of S shaped curve?
CARRYING CAPACITY
• Area: 430 square kilometers
• Population :2500 rhinoceros
• It can hold up to 4000 Rhinoceros
CARRYING CAPACITY

•The population that can be supported

indefinitely by an ecosystem without
destroying that ecosystem
 What is Carrying Capacity?
•Carrying capacity (K) is maximum
number of species that habitat can hold.

•Once carrying capacity reached, unless

environmental resistance changed, e.g. by
new disease, size of population will only
fluctuate slightly.
Population Growth
Change in the size of a population over
time.
 No population can grow indefinitely!

Every environment has a CARRYING

CAPACITY = the maximum number of
individuals of a given species that can be
sustained indefinitely in a given space. 2.0

Number of sheep (millions)

1.5

1.0

.5

1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925

Year
Factors that affect carrying capacity:

1.Competition with/in and between

species.
2.Natural and human caused catastrophes.
3.Immigration and emigration.
4.Seasonal fluctuations in food, water,
shelter, and nesting sites.
Sub-topic 2.2: Communities and ecosystems
Topic : Photosynthesis & Respiration in
Energy Transformation
What is photosynthesis?
• Photosynthesis chemical process through which
plants, bacteria & algae, produce glucose &
oxygen from carbon dioxide & water, using only light as
a source of energy.

• It is the driving force behind most of the life on earth

 Photosynthesis Process
•Conversion plants of light energy into
chemical energy, used to support plants'
biological processes.

•Chlorophyll in green plants convert incident

light to chemical energy, carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide & water, accompanied
release of oxygen.
• carbon dioxide + water+ chlorophyll
→→→→→→→→sugar (glucose) + oxygen
Input & Output
What is Respiration ?

•Oxygen taken and used tissues

in body and carbon dioxide is
released.
 What is ATP ?
•Adenosine triphosphate
•ATP transports chemical energy within
cells for metabolism
•ATP is the output of the respiration
process
 Energy Processes
• Photosynthesis (Green Plants)
sunlight +water + carbon dioxide → oxygen + sugars

• Respiration (All living things)

oxygen + sugars → ATP +water + carbon dioxide

• ATP is molecular energy storage

 Photosynthesis
• Inputs –
• sunlight, carbon dioxide, water

• Outputs –
• sugars, oxygen

• Transformations –
• Radiant energy into chemical energy,
• Inorganic carbon into organic carbon
Respiration
• Inputs –
• sugars, oxygen

• Outputs –
• ATP, carbon dioxide, water

• Transformations –
• Chemical energy into carbon compounds as ATP,
• Organic carbon compounds into inorganic carbon compounds
 Identify and explain trophic levels in
food chains and food webs selected
from the local environment.
What is Ecosystem?
•Ecosystem is community interdependent
organisms (the biotic component) & physical
environment (the abiotic component) they
inhabit.

•Ecosystems divided three types: terrestrial,

marine, and freshwater.
 What is Trophic levels?
•Trophic levels are feeding position in food chain
such primary producers, herbivore, primary
carnivore, etc.
•Green plants form first trophic level, the
producers.
•Herbivores form second trophic level, while
carnivores form third & even the fourth trophic
levels.
 What is Food chain?
•Feeding of one organism upon another in
sequence of food transfers is known food
chain.

•Food chain is chain of transfer of energy one

organism to another.
 What is food web?
•In ecosystem many different food
chains & many of these cross-linked
form food web.

•Ultimately all plants & animals in

ecosystem part of complex food web.
Phytoplankton
"Zooplankton" refers to small aquatic animals.
Explain the principles of pyramids of numbers,
pyramids of biomass, and pyramids of
productivity, and construct such pyramids from
given data.
What is Ecological Pyramids?
 What is Ecological Pyramids?
❖ Trophic levels & energy flow one level to next, be
graphically depicted using ecological pyramid.

❖ Three types of ecological pyramids

1. Pyramids of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramids of productivity
Pyramids of numbers
 Pyramids of numbers
•Graphical representation of
numbers of individuals in
population in food chain.

•Used -examine how population of

certain species affects another
Blue Birds
woodland ecosystem
Second law of thermodynamics-Pyramid of Numbers
• Second law of thermodynamics– they are narrower
towards apex.

• However, pyramids of numbers are not always pyramid

shaped.

• Example, Woodland ecosystem many insect herbivores

feeding on trees, fewer trees than insects. This means
pyramid is inverted (upside-down) .
 Pyramids of Numbers
Advantages
•Easy method giving overview & good at
comparing changes population numbers.

Disadvantages
•Only uses samples from populations, -
impossible measure biomass exactly.
Pyramid of biomass
 What is organic matter in an ecosystem?
• Matter composed organic compounds come remains of
organisms - plants & animals & waste products
environment.

• Living organisms secrete or excrete organic materials

composed organic compounds.

• In environment, shed body parts such leaves & roots dies,

its body broken down bacterial & fungal action
 Pyramid of biomass
•Total amount of living or organic matter in
ecosystem at any time 'Biomass’.

•Present per unit area of different tropic levels.

•Biomass measured in grams of biomass per

metre squared (gm–2) or units of energy.
• http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_gateway_pr
e_2011/greenworld/energyflowrev2.shtml
 Grassland Ecosystem Ocean

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

In open waters of aquatic ecosystems, the biomass primary consumers

(zooplankton) can exceed that of producers.

The zooplankton eat the Producers (phytoplankton) as fast as they reproduce, so their
population is never very large.
Measurement of biomass of different
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Describe one method for the measurement of biomass
of different trophic levels in an ecosytem.

• Representative samples of living organisms in

ecosystem collected, for example from randomly
positioned quadrats.

• Organisms dried, being placed in oven- 60-80°C to

remove the water.

• Mass of organisms each trophic level measured

using electronic balance.
 November Formative –Rules for ESS Class
•Asking Questions in the ESS class
•Interaction during the class
•Regular Attendance of the class
•Camera switch off/on
•Coming on time for the zoom class
•Class HW
Pyramids of Productivity
 10 J m-2 yr-1

100 J m-2 yr-1

1,000 J m-2 yr-1

producers 10,000 J m-2 yr-1

 Pyramids of Productivity
•Shows energy going through each level
food chain
•Unit is grams per meter2 per year or
calories per meter2 per year.

•Energy transferred from one trophic

level to another, only 10% build new
biomass.
PYRAMID OF PRODUCTIVITY represents the flow of
energy through each trophic level.

Units:
J m-2 yr-1
or
g m-2 yr-1
 Pyramids of productivity
•Advantages
•Shows actual energy transferred

•Disadvantages
•Difficult & complex to collect energy data.
Pyramid structure affects the functioning
of an ecosystem.
Pyramid structure affects
the functioning of an
ecosystem.

Bioaccumulation
 PYRAMID OF STANDING CROP
•Pyramid diagram fixed quantity of number,
biomass or energy exists particular time
given area or averaged from many of these
measurements.

•This is termed STANDING CROP.

 Figure 54.14 Food energy available to the human population at different trophic levels

Efficiency of trophic levels in relation to the total energy available decreases

with higher numbers
But efficiency of transfer always remains around that 10% rule
• ENERGY FLOW THROUGH
• PRODUCERS

• CONSUMERS

• DECOMPOSERS
 Energy Flow through Producers
•Producers convert light into chemical
energy of organic molecules
•Energy lost cell respiration then heat
elsewhere
•In death organic matter passes to
saprophytes & detritivores
Figure 54.10 Energy partitioning within a link of the food chain
Energy Flow through Consumers

• Obtain energy eating producers or other

consumers
• Energy transfer never above 20% efficient,
usually between 10 – 20%
• Large portion used in cell respiration

• Smaller portion is assimilated used for growth, repair,

reproduction, and undigested material excreted as
waste (LOSS)
 Energy flow through Decomposers

•Some food not digested consumers lost

feces to detritivores & saprophytes

•Energy released process cell respiration

or lost as heat
 Discuss how the pyramid
structure affects the
functioning of an ecosystem.
Biomagnification:
Increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another
Sub-topic 2.3: Flows of energy and matter
Define the terms gross productivity, net
productivity, primary productivity and
secondary productivity.
 Productivity

http://www.nature.com/scitable/kn
owledge/library/secondary-
production-13234142
 Productivity

Gross Productivity Net Productivity Primary Productivity Secondary Productivity

Gross Primary Productivity Net Primary Productivity

Gross Secondary Productivity Net Secondary Productivity

BIOMASS
Define biomass in ecological terms.

• Biomass refers sum total mass(weight) of living

organisms like plants, animals, accumulated in a specific
unit of area.

How do ecologists measure biomass?

• By collecting the dry weight of an organism and
multiplying it with the total number of organisms in a
particular area, is one way to measure biomass.
Gross Productivity
Gross Productivity
Gross productivity - Total gain in
biomass in specific area
in specific amount of time,
through photosynthesis in
primary producers or absorption
in consumers.
 Gaining energy

With the help of photosynthesis

Gaining biomass

Per unit area or time

Net Productivity
Net Productivity

• Net productivity is gain

in energy or biomass per
unit area per unit time
remaining after
respiratory losses
 What is Net Productivity ?

Respiratory losses

Energy remaining after respiratory losses

Net
Productivity

Biomass remaining after respiratory losses

Per unit area or time

Primary Productivity
Primary Productivity

• Primary productivity is
energy or biomass per unit
area gain by producers per
unit time
• Primary productivity usually expressed in units of energy
(e.g., joules m -2 day -1) or in units of dry organic matter
(e.g., kg m -2 year -1).

Amount of energy or biomass

With the help of photosynthesis

 What is Heterotrophic?
•Organism cannot synthesize its own food
and dependent on complex organic
substances for nutrition.

•Most bacteria and all animal, human and

fungal species are heterotrophic.
Secondary Productivity
What is Secondary Productivity ?

Gaining biomass & absorption

Measuring
 SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY (SP)
• Biomass gained by
heterotrophic organisms
through feeding &
absorption.
• Not all food eaten is
absorbed (assimilated)
into an animal's body.
• Unassimilated food =
feces or droppings

SP = food eaten – fecal loss

RECAP
•Gross Productivity
•Net Productivity
•Primary Productivity
•Secondary Productivity
What affects productivity?
1.Solar radiation
2.Temperature
3.CO2
4.H2O
5.Nutrients
6.Herbivory
Therefore…
•Least productive ecosystems those with
limited heat & light energy, limited
water and limited nutrients.

•Most productive ecosystems those with

high temperatures, lots of water, light &
nutrients.
Biome Productivity
Estuaries
Swamps and marshes
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
Northern coniferous forest (taiga)
Savanna
Agricultural land
Woodland and shrubland
Temperate grassland
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf
Open ocean
Tundra (arctic and alpine)
Desert scrub
Extreme desert

800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 5,600 6,400 7,200 8,000 8,800 9,600
Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)
 Why do Estuaries have high productivity ?
•Estuary, nutrient-rich river waters combine
with warmer, light infused shallow coastal
waters & upwelling of nutrient-rich deep ocean
waters to generate primary productivity.

•Mixing of lighter fresh water and heavier salt

water trap and circulate nutrients makes high
productivity.
Low Productivity Ecosystem
 ESS EOSA Exam-DECEMBER 2021
• Date :6th Dec 2021 (Monday)
• Time : 8:45am - 10:30am
• Time :1hrs 45 mins
• Paper -2
• Format : Data Based Questions(summative format)
• Total Marks : 60

Syllabus :
• Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
• Topic 2: Ecosystems and ecology (till 2.3)
• Book Page no :- 3-100
 Don’t miss
Don’t miss any ESS class
for the next one month

Read Read each unit PPT

5 Important Do
Do everyday Revision after
Rules the class

Start using practice sheets

Start
from each unit

Do
Do regular homework for
the ESS class
Define the terms and calculate the
values of both
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
Gross Primary productivity
Gross Primary productivity

•GSP is equivalent to the mass

of glucose created by
photosynthesis per unit area
per unit time in primary
producers
What is Gross Productivity?

Gaining energy

With the help of photosynthesis

How much energy
is fixed?

Gaining biomass

Per unit area or time

• Energy enters an ecosystem through
sunlight.(100%) GPP

• Only 2% of the light energy falling on a tree

is captured and turned into chemical energy
(glucose) by photosynthesis.
• The rest is reflected, or just warms up the tree
as it is absorbed.
 Gross primary Productivity
❖Gross productivity is total gain energy per unit time in plants.
❖It is biomass gained by an organism before any deduction.

Photosynthesis 2.2%

Reflection 3.0

Evaporation 94.8
(including transpiration and
heating of the surroundings

Total 100.0%
 Gross Productivity on the Earth
• Generally greatest productivity
• In shallow waters near continents
• Along coral reefs – abundant light, heat, nutrients
• Where upwelling currents bring nitrogen & phosphorous to the
surface

• Generally lowest
• In deserts & arid regions with lack of water but high
temperatures.

• Open ocean lacking nutrients and sun only near the surface
Shallow waters
Gross Secondary Productivity
What is GSP?
•Gross secondary productivity (GSP)
is total energy or biomass assimilated
by consumers & calculated by
subtracting mass of faecal loss from
the mass of food consumed:
How to calculate the GSP?

GSP=FOOD EATEN –FAECAL LOSS

Net Primary Productivity

Plants
Net primary productivity

•Net primary productivity is

gain by producers in energy or
biomass per unit area per time
after allowing for respiratory
losses
 What is Net Primary Productivity ?(NPP)

After Respiratory losses

Gaining energy

Per unit area or time

How to calculate Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

Net primary productivity (NPP) is calculated by

subtracting respiratory losses (R) from gross primary
productivity (GPP):

NPP = GPP − R

NPP = GPP – respiration

(for both producers and consumers)
 Net Primary Productivity on Earth
•Most NPP
•Estuaries, Swamps, Tropical rainforests

•Least NPP
•Open ocean, Tundra, Desert
Open Ocean
 Why in Open ocean NPP is low?
• Ocean water in to as mineral rich as the land.
Minerals are essential for photosynthesis.

• Productivity in oceans is high where there is up-

welling of mineral rich water or near continental
shelves.

• Open ocean has less producers hence the

productivity low.
 Average annual Net Primary Productivity of the Earth's major biomes.

Net Primary Productivity

Ecosystem Type
(kilocalories/meter -2 /year)
Tropical Rain Forest 9000
Estuary 9000
Swamps and Marshes 9000
Savanna 3000
Deciduous Temperate Forest 6000
Boreal Forest 3500
Temperate Grassland 2000
Polar Tundra 600
Desert < 200
Net Secondary Productivity
Animals
• Net secondary production (NSP) is the gain
by consumers in energy or biomass per unit
area per unit time remaining after allowing for
respiratory losses (R)
Calculation :
How to Calculate GPP &NPP
• Calculate the values of both gross primary
• Productivity (GPP) and net primary
• Productivity (NPP) from given data.
NPP = GPP – R
where R = respiratory loss
 How to Calculate GSP &NSP
• Calculate the values of both gross secondary
• Productivity (GSP) and net secondary
• Productivity (NSP) from given data.
• NSP = GSP – R
• GSP = food eaten – fecal loss
• where R = respiratory loss
RECAP
• Gross primary productivity
• Gross Productivity on the Earth
• Net primary productivity
• Net Primary Productivity on Earth
• Measuring Primary Productivity
Next unit :
Nutrient cycles
What is Biogeochemical cycle?
• The cyclic transformation of chemicals through
interacting biological, geological and chemical
processes.
• Natural processes that recycle nutrients in various
chemical forms from the environment, to organisms,
and then back to the environment
• Ex: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
hydrologic cycles.
• The biogeochemical cycles of all elements
used by life have both an organic and an
inorganic phase.

• This cycling involves the decomposition of

organic matter back into inorganic nutrients
New Key Terms-Carbon Cycle

•Organic matter
•Lithosphere
•Sedimentary rock
•Limestone.
•Calcium carbonate
 What is Carbon Cycle?

• The process by which carbon is taken up by plants

and animals and returned to the environment in a
continuous cycle.

• The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by

which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the
Earth.
Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major sinks
1. As organic molecules in living and dead organisms found
in the biosphere.
2. As the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere;
3. As organic matter in soils;
4. In the lithosphere as fossil fuels and sedimentary rock
deposits such as limestone.
5. In the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide and
as calcium carbonate shells in marine organisms.
• Storages in the carbon cycle include:
• Organic storage:
• – Organisms, including forests

Inorganic storages:
• – Atmosphere
• – Soil
• – Fossil fuels
• – Oceans.
Transfers in the carbon cycle
•Transfers in the carbon cycle include:
• Herbivores feeding on producers
• Carnivores feeding on herbivores
• Decomposers feeding on dead organic matter
• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
dissolving in rainwater oceans.
Transformations in the
carbon cycle
• Transformations in the carbon cycle include the following.
• Photosynthesis, which converts inorganic materials into
organic matter.
• Photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and water into
glucose using sunlight energy trapped by chlorophyll.
• Combustion transforms biomass into carbon dioxide and
water.
• Fossilization transforms organic matter in dead
organisms into fossil fuels through incomplete decay and
pressure
 ESS EOSA Exam-DECEMBER 2021
• Date :6th Dec 2021 (Monday)
• Time : 8:45am - 10:30am
• Time :1hrs 45 mins
• Paper -2
• Format : Data Based Questions(summative format)
• Total Marks : 60

Syllabus :
• Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
• Topic 2: Ecosystems and ecology (till 2.3)
• Book Page no :- 3-100
 Don’t miss
Don’t miss any REVISION
classes

Read Read each unit PPT

5 Important Do
Do everyday Revision after
Rules the class

Start using practice sheets

Start
from each unit

Do
Do regular homework for
the ESS class
New Key Terms-Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria
• Nitrogen fixation-
• Nitrification-
• Denitrification
• Ammonium Nitrate
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Actinomycetes& Rhizobium
• Nitrogenase enzyme
 What is Nitrogen cycle ?
•Process atmospheric nitrogen
enters soil & becomes part of
living organisms, & then returns
to the atmosphere.
Presence of Nitrogen
•Earth's atmosphere -78-80% nitrogen making
it the largest pool of nitrogen.

•Most plants take up nitrogen in two solid

forms: ammonium ion and the nitrate ion .

•Animals receive the required nitrogen they

need for metabolism, growth, and
reproduction
Storages in the nitrogen cycle include:
Organic storage(Living)
• All Organisms

Inorganic storages(Non –Living)

• Soil
• Fossil fuels
• Atmosphere
• Water bodies.
3 PROCESS OF NITROGEN IN THE EARTH

• Nitrogen fixation----Nitorgen+O2+CO2+H2

• Nitrification---- Conversion of ammonia to nitrate

• Denitrification-- Nitrate becomes molecular(GAS)

nitrogen
actinomycetes
Ammonium Nitrate
Nitrite bacteria (present in the soil)
Nitrate
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen fixation
 What is Nitrogen fixation?
• Process -free nitrogen (N2) extracted from atmosphere &
converted (fixed) into nitrogen compounds

• In nature, this process is carried out by certain bacteria

(present in the root nodules actinomycetes&
Click to add text Rhizobium))
and also sometime with the help of lightning flash.

• This is known as nitrogen fixation.

•Nitrogen fixation - enables plants to utilize nitrogen
as natural fertilizer and put oxygen back into
atmosphere.

•Some fixation occurs in lightning strikes, but most

fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria.

•These bacteria have nitrogenase enzyme combines

gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen produce ammonia.
Nitrification
 What is Nitrification?
•Conversion of ammonia (NH3) to nitrate
(NO3-) is called NITRIFICATION.

•Degradation of ammonia to nitrite is

usually the rate limiting step of
nitrification.
Denitrification
 What is Denitrification?
•Process which nitrate becomes molecular
nitrogen, especially action of bacteria.

•Process nitrogen, is converted to a gaseous

form and lost from the soil or water column.

•Reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen gas.

 Nitrogen

Nitrate

Nitrogen dioxide

Ammonium Nitrate
Transfers & Transformations
 Transfers in the nitrogen cycle
•Herbivores feeding on producers

• Carnivores feeding on herbivores

• Decomposers feeding on dead

•Plants absorbing nitrates through their roots

 Transformations in the nitrogen cycle
• Four different types of bacteria.
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria transform nitrogen gas in atmosphere into
ammonium ions.

• Nitrifying bacteria transform ammonium ions into nitrite & nitrate.

• Denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into nitrogen.

• Decomposers break down organic nitrogen into ammonia.

The impact of human activities on energy flows
and matter cycles
Refer Book
Sub-topic 2.4: Biomes, zonation and
succession
Biomes
What do you?
What is a Biome?
✓A biome is a specific area characterized by the
animals and plants that live within it, the
climate conditions, the amount of water
available, the soil conditions, and the location of
the area.
BIOME is the collection of ecosystems
sharing similar climatic conditions.
•Water (rainfall), insolation (sunlight), and
temperature are the climate controls that
determine how biomes are structured, how
they function, and where they are found
round the world.
• How many biomes are there?
1. Aquatic - Freshwater and Marine
2. Freshwater - swamp forests, lakes and ponds,
streams and rivers, bogs
3. Deserts - Hot and Cold
4. Forests - Tropical, Temperate and Boreal (taiga)
5. Grassland - tropical or savanna and temperate
6. Tundra - Arctic and alpine.
What determines the biome?
•The climate is the major factor that
determines what grows where and so what
lives where.
•The other important factor is the terrain or
geography — slope, aspect and altitude.
•Two factors are most important —
temperature and precipitation (rain and
snowfall).
Click to add text
Generalized effects of altitude and latitude on climate and biomes.
Parallel changes in vegetation occur when moving from the
Equator to the poles or from the lowlands to mountaintops.

Altitude Mountain
Ice and snow

Tundra (herbs,
lichens,
mosses)

Coniferous
Forest

Deciduous Latitude
Forest

Tropical
Forest

Tropical Deciduous Coniferous Tundra (herbs, Polar ice

Forest Forest Forest lichens, mosses) and snow
Factors affects the Biomes
What do you?
What are the Factors affecting the Biomes?
•Latitude & Altitude
•Ocean currents and winds
•Insolation, precipitation and temperature
•Productivity
 Uneven Solar Heating and Latitude

Earth as a whole is in thermal equilibrium, but different latitudes are not. Moving
masses of air and ocean currents transport energy from locations with a surplus to
those with a deficit.
Altitude affects climate
What do you?
Latitude affects climate
What do you?
 Latitude and Altitude
• Latitude (distance north or south from the equator)
and altitude (height above sea level) both influence
climate and biomes.

• It generally gets colder as you increase latitude or

increase altitude.

• So there is snow on Mt Kilimanjaro and the Himalayas

and Andes and they have alpine or polar biomes even
though they are at lower latitudes.
Ocean currents and winds
What do you?
 Ocean currents and winds
• Ocean currents and winds distribute surplus heat
energy at the equator towards the poles.
• Air moving horizontally at the surface of the Earth is
called wind. Winds blow from high to low pressure
areas.
• Winds cause the ocean currents.
Insolation, Precipitation and
temperature
Insolation, precipitation and temperature
• Insolation, precipitation and temperature are the most
important abiotic (physical) factors influencing biomes or
what grows where.
• Increasing temperature causes increased evaporation so the
relationship between precipitation and evaporation is also
important.

• Plants may be short of water even if it rains or snows a lot if

the water evaporates straight away (deserts) or is frozen as ice
(tundra)
 Cold, Cell 3 North
dry air
falls Moist air rises — rain
Polar cap
Arctic tundra Cell 2 North
Model of global air Evergreen
coniferous forest
circulation and 60° Cool, dry
Temperate deciduous air falls
biomes. forest and grassland
Desert Cell 1 North
The direction of air 30°
flow and the ascent Tropical deciduous forest Moist
air rises,
and descent of air 0° Equator
Tropical cools, and
rain forest releases
masses in moisture
convection cells Tropical deciduous forest as rain
30°
determine the Desert Cell 1 South
earth’s climatic Temperate deciduous
forest and grassland Cool, dry
zones. 60° air falls

Cell 2 South
Polar cap

Cold, Moist air rises — rain

dry air
falls Cell 3 South
Productivity & Biomes
Productivity
• Productivity is greater in low latitudes (nearer the equator),
where temperatures are high all through the year, sunlight input is
high and precipitation is also high.
• These conditions are ideal for photosynthesis.

• Moving towards the poles, where temperatures and amount of

sunlight decline, the rate at which plants can photosynthesize is
lower, and thus both GPP (gross primary productivity) and NPP
values are lower
Where can you find Low Productivity?

•In terrestrial areas of the

Arctic, Antarctic and adjacent
regions (ie in high latitudes)
low temperatures.
Types of Biomes
 Types of Biomes
•Tropical Rainforest Biome
•Deserts Biome
•Temperate grasslands
•Temperate forest
•Artic Biome
•Deep ocean Biome
Tropical Rainforest Biome
Climate Hot and wet areas with broadleaved evergreen forest.

Where Within 5 degrees North and South of the equator.

(distribution)

Climate and
limiting factors
• High rainfall 2000-5000 mm yr'.
• High temperatures & High insolation as near
equator.
• Rain washes nutrients out of the soil (leaching) so
nutrients may be limiting plant growth.
What's there • Amazingly high levels of biodiversity — many species
(structure)-TRF
and many individuals of each species.

• Plants compete for light and so grow tall to absorb it

so there is a multi-story profile to the forests with
very tall emergent trees, a canopy of others,
understory of smaller trees and shrub layer under
this — called stratification.
 The photograph below shows a particular ecosystem.

1.State and briefly describe the ecosystem shown in the

photograph
2. State whether you would expect ecosystems of the type shown in the
photograph to have a low, medium or high level of abiotic factors.
Net productivity • Estimated to produce 40% of NPP of terrestrial ecosystems.
• Growing season all year round, fast rate of decomposition and respiration and
photosynthesis.
• Plants grow faster.

Human activity
• The problem is that more than 50% of the world's human population
lives in the tropics and subtropics and one in eight of us live in or near
a tropical rainforest.

Issues
Logging, clear-felling, conversion to grazing. Tropical rainforests are
mostly in LEDCs and have been exploited for economic development.

Examples Amazon rainforest, Congo in Africa, Borneo rainforest.

• Where (distribution)
• Climate and limiting factors
• What's there (structure)-TRF
• Net productivity
• Human activity
• Issues
• Examples
Instructions:
• Write your answer in your ESS Notebook

• Marks based on content and creativity .

Deserts Biome
Climate
Dry areas which are usually hot in the day and cold at night as
skies are clear and there is little vegetation to insulate the
ground. There are tropical, temperate and cold deserts.
Where Cover 20-30% of the Earth's surface about 30 degrees North and
(distribution) South of the equator where dry air descends.
The Atacama desert in Chile can have no rain for 20 years or more. It
is the driest place on Earth.

Climate and Water is limiting.

limiting factors Precipitation less than 250 mm per year.
Usually evaporation exceeds precipitation — E>P.
Salt bush Buckwheat bush

Little leaf horse brush

What's there • Few species and low biodiversity but what can survive in deserts is
(structure) well-adapted to the conditions.
• Plants are drought-resistant and mostly cacti and succulents with
adaptations to store water and reduce transpiration, eg leaves
reduced to spines, thick cuticles to reduce transpiration.
• Animals too are adapted to drought conditions. Reptiles are
dominant.
• There are few large mammals in deserts.

Net productivity Both primary (plants) and secondary (animals) are low because water is
limiting and plant biomass cannot build up to large amounts. Food chains
tend to be short because of this.
The 10 largest deserts
Rank Desert Area (km²) Area (mi²)
Antarctic Desert
1 13,829,430 5,339,573
(Antarctica)
2 Arctic 13,700,000+ 5,300,000+
3 Sahara (Africa) 9,100,000+ 3,320,000+
Arabian Desert (Middle
4 2,330,000 900,000
East)
5 Gobi Desert (Asia) 1,300,000 500,000

6 Kalahari Desert (Africa) 900,000 360,000

Patagonian Desert
7 670,000 260,000
(South America)
Great Victoria Desert
8 647,000 250,000
(Australia)
Syrian Desert (Middle
9 520,000 200,000
East)
Great Basin Desert
10 492,000 190,000
(North America)
Human activity • Traditionally, nomadic tribes herd animals such as camels and goats in
deserts as agriculture has not been possible except around oases or
waterholes.
• Population density has been low as the environment cannot support large
numbers. Oil has been found under deserts in the Gulf States and many
deserts are rich in minerals including gold and silver.
• Irrigation is possible by tapping underground water stores or aquifers so, in
some deserts, crops are grown. But there is a high rate of evaporation of this
water and, as it evaporates, it leaves salts behind.

Issues
Desertification — when an area becomes a desert either through overgrazing,
overcultivation or drought or all of these, eg the Sahel.

Examples Sahara and Namib in Africa, Gobi in China.

Which is the biggest cold desert in India
siachen glacier
Temperate grasslands
What Fairly flat areas dominated by grasses and herbaceous (non-woody) plants.

Where
In centres of continents 40-60° North of equator.
(distribution)
Climate and
limiting factors P = E or P slightly > E. Temperature range high as not near the sea to moderate
temperatures. Clear skies. Low rainfall, threat of drought.

What's there Grasses, wide diversity. Probably not a climax community as arrested by grazing
(structure) animals.
Grasses die back in winter but roots survive. Decomposed vegetation forms a mat,
high levels of nutrients in this.
Burrowing animals (rabbits, gophers), kangaroo, bison, antelopes. Carnivores —
wolves, coyotes. No trees.

Net productivity 600 g m 2 yr 1 so not very high.

Human activity Used for cereal crops. Cereals are annual grasses. Black earth soils of the
steppes rich in organic matter and deep so ideal for agriculture.
Prairies in North America are less fertile soils so have to add fertilizers. Called
world's bread baskets. Plus livestock — cattle and sheep that feed on the
grasses.
Issues Dust Bowl in 1930s in America when overcropping and drought led to soil
being blown away on the Great Plains — ecological disaster.
Overgrazing reduces them to desert or semi-desert.

Examples North American prairies, Russian steppes in Northern hemisphere; pampas

in Argentina, veld in South Africa (30-40° South).
Temperate forest, Artic Biome,
& ocean refer notes
Refer book
What
Cold, low precipitation, long, dark winters. 10% of Earth's land surface.
Youngest of all the biomes as it was formed after the retreat of the continental glaciers

Where (distribution) Just south of the Arctic ice cap and small amounts in Southern hemisphere. (Alpine tundra is
found as isolated patches on high mountains from the poles to the tropics.)
Climate and limiting • Cold, high winds, little precipitation. Frozen ground (permafrost).
factors • Permafrost reaches to the surface in winter but in summer the top layers of soil
defrost and plants can grow. Low temperatures so rates of respiration,
photosynthesis and decomposition are low.
• In the winter, the Northern hemisphere, where the Arctic tundra is located, tilts
away from the sun.
• During spring and summer, animals are active, and plants begin to grow rapidly. to
water.
What's there • No trees but thick mat of low-growing plants — grasses, mosses, small
(structure) shrubs. Adapted to withstand drying out with leathery leaves or
underground storage organs.
• Growing season may only be 8 weeks in the summer. Animals also
adapted with thick fur and small ears to reduce heat loss. Mostly small
mammals, eg lemmings, hares, voles.
• Simple ecosystems with few species.
• Often bare areas of ground. Low biodiversity — 900 species of plants
compared with 40,000 or more in the Amazon rainforest.
• Soil poor, low inorganic matter and minerals.

Very low. Slow decomposition so many peat bogs where most of the carbon
Net productivity
is stored.
Few humans but mining and oil — see oil tars. Nomadic groups herding
Human activity
reindeer.
Issues Fragile ecosystems that take a very longtime to recover from disruption.
May take decades to recover if you even walk across it. Mining and oil
extraction in Siberia and Canada destroytundra.

The global rise in temperature may damage the Arctic and Antarctic more
than any other biome because the Arctic tundra's winter will be shortened,
melting snow cover and parts of the permafrost, leading to flooding of some
coastal areas.

Very large amounts of methane are locked up in tundra ice If these are
released intothe atmosphere then huge increase in greenhouse gases

Examples Siberia, Alaska.

Deep ocean Biome
AQUATIC BIOMES

Ocean Coral reefs

Rivers
Lakes Mangroves
 High tide Depth in
Sun meters
Low tide
Coastal Zone Open Sea
Sea level
0

Photosynthesis
50
Euphotic Zone
Estuarine 100
Zone
Continental 200
shelf

Bathyal Zone 500

Twilight
1,000

1,500

2,000
Abyssal Zone

3,000

Darkness
4,000

5,000

10,000
What The ocean and seafloor beyond continental shelves.

• 65% of the Earth's surface. Most is abyssal plain of the ocean floor —
Where (distribution)
averaging 3.5 miles deep.
• Pressure increases with depth, temperature variation decreases to a
Climate and constant —2°C at depth.
limiting factors • Light limiting below 1,000 m — there is none.

• Nutrients — low levels and low primary productivity but some dead
organic matter falls to deep ocean floors.
What's there • Top 200 m — some light for photosynthesis so phytoplankton and
(structure) cyanobacteria live here and they and algae are the main producers.
• They are eaten by zooplankton, fish and invertebrates, eg squid,
jellyfish.
• Very little light reaches here so large eyes, reflective sides and light-
producing organs on their bodies.
• 1,000-4,000 m deep — higher diversity here, always dark. Fish are
black with small eyes, bristles and bioluminescence — create own
light to hunt or avoid predators. Very little muscle, large mouths.

• Also mud and volcanic rocks in mid-ocean ridges. Where volcanoes

erupt, there are hydrothermal vent communities high in sulphides where
chemosynthetic bacteria gain their energy from the sulphur.
• These producers support communities of crabs, tubeworms, mussels,
and even octopus and fish.
Net productivity Low.

Minimal but rocks rich in manganese and iron could be a

Human activity
resource.

Pollution from run-off from rivers, sewage, ocean warming due to

Issues
climate change.

Examples Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific Oceans.

New Key Terms-Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria
• Nitrogen fixation-
• Nitrification-
• Denitrification
• Ammonium Nitrate
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Actinomycetes& Rhizobium
• Nitrogenase enzyme
 What is Nitrogen cycle ?
•A process in which atmospheric nitrogen
enters the soil and becomes part of living
organisms, and then returns to the
atmosphere.
Presence of Nitrogen
•Atmosphere is approximately 78-80%
nitrogen.
•Plants can only take up nitrogen in two
solid forms: ammonium ion and the
nitrate ion .
•Animals need for nitrogen metabolism,
growth, and reproduction.
Storages in the nitrogen cycle include:
Organic storage:
• All Organisms

Inorganic storages:
• Soil
• Fossil fuels
• Atmosphere
• Water bodies.
3 PROCESS OF NITROGEN IN THE EARTH

• Nitrogen fixation----Nitorgen+O2+CO2+H2

• Nitrification---- Conversion of ammonia to nitrate

• Denitrification-- Nitrate becomes molecular(GAS)

nitrogen
actinomycetes
 nitrification Nitrogen
fixation

Ammonium Nitrate
Nitrite bacteria (present in the soil)
Nitrate
Nitrogen dioxide

Convert into
gas with help
of bacteria

Directly-Bacteria
present in plant
roots starts active
on lightening
Nitrogen fixation
 What is Nitrogen fixation?
•Free nitrogen (N2) is extracted from the
atmosphere and converted (fixed) into nitrogen
compounds which are plant nutrients (fertilizer).

•In nature, is carried out by certain bacteria

(present in the root nodules actinomycetes&
Rhizobium)) and also sometime with the help of
lightning flash.
Nitrification
 What is Nitrification?

•The conversion of ammonia (NH3) to

nitrate (NO3-) is called
NITRIFICATION.

•Nitrification is an important step in

the nitrogen cycle in soil
Denitrification
 What is Denitrification?
•The process by which nitrogen, is converted
to a gaseous form and lost from the soil or
water column.

•The reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen

gas.
 Nitrogen

Nitrate

Nitrogen dioxide

Ammonium Nitrate
Transfers & Transformations
 Transfers in the nitrogen cycle
•Herbivores feeding on producers
• Carnivores feeding on herbivores
• Decomposers feeding on dead
•Plants absorbing nitrates through their roots
 Transformations in the nitrogen cycle
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria transform nitrogen gas
in the atmosphere into ammonium ions.
• Nitrifying bacteria transform ammonium ions
into nitrite and then nitrate.
• Denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into
nitrogen.
• Decomposers break down organic nitrogen into
ammonia.
SUCCESSION
 What are Lichens?
•Lichens composite organisms
consisting of fungus &
a photosynthetic partner growing
together in a symbiotic relationship.
What are Mosses?

•Mosses are soft plants that are

typically 1–10 cm (0.4–4 in) tall
In ecology what is succession?
•Succession process by habitat changes over
time different plants get established.

• Occur from bare rock to old-growth forest.

•Change in communities from earliest

community to final community called
Succession.
Stages of Succession
•In first stage of Pioneer community be
defined first stage of ecological
succession contains hardy species.

•Final stage Climax community is more

stable than earlier seral stages and in
equilibrium.
Types of succession

Two types of Succession

•Primary succession
•Secondary succession
Primary succession
 What is Primary Succession?
•Primary succession is series of community
changes occur on entirely new habitat has
never colonized before.

•Examples include newly exposed

landslips, volcanic lava & debris, elevated
sand banks & dunes, quarried rock faces.
•Primary succession pioneer
species like mosses, lichen, algae
& fungus other abiotic factors
like wind & water start to
"normalize" the habitat.
Secondary succession
 What is Secondary succession?
•Secondary succession series of community
changes place on previously colonized, but
disturbed or damaged habitat.

•Examples include areas cleared of existing

vegetation & destructive events such as
fires.
•In which succession the plants
will grow faster rate?
•Secondary succession can proceed
much faster because the soil has
already been prepared by the previous
community
• Already existing seed bank suitable
plants in the soil.

•Root systems undisturbed in

soil,from existing plants rapidly
regenerate.
Difference Between Primary & Secondary Succession
•The mature stage of succession in a particular
area, in which all organisms and non living
factors are in balance.

•This last stage is described as the "climax"

because it is left undisturbed, communities can
remain in this stage in perpetuity.

•
• Where (distribution)
• Climate and limiting factors
• What's there (structure)-TRF
• Net productivity
• Human activity
• Issues
• Examples
Home work :
•Deserts Biome
•Temperate grasslands
•Temperate forest
•Artic Biome
•Deep ocean Biome
•Marks -50
•Submission Date : 24.01.2022-Monday
Instructions:
• Write your answer in your ESS Notebook

• Marks based on content and creativity .

Changes through a succession
The following charts summarize the major trends as
the ecosystem undergoes succession.
Ecosystem Trends in Primary succession
characteristic
Food chains Simple food chains becoming more complex food webs

Relative Changes rapidly first, changes slower in the later stages.

Species
abundance
Total biomass Increasing
Humus (non- Increasing
living organic
matter)
Species Low diversity in the early stages, then increasing in the
diversity intermediate stages and then stabilizing in the final
stages as an equilibrium is approached
Mineral and Nutrient cycles
Ecosystem characteristic Trends in ecological succession

Mineral cycles Becomes more self-contained in later

stages

Nutrient recycling Increases in later stages

 Productivity during the succession
Ecosystem characteristic Trends in ecological succession

Gross productivity (GP) Increasing during early stages of primary

succession then little or no increase
during final stages of secondary
succession

Net Primary productivity (NPP) Decreasing

Respiration (R) Increasing

Changes in climax community
The features of a climax community (compared to an early
community) are:
•Greater biomass
• Higher levels of species diversity
•Taller and longer-living plant species
• Greater community complexity and
stability
•Greater habitat diversity
•Steady state equilibrium.
PRIMARY & SECONDARY SUCCESSION

POSTIVE & NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

 Essay Question
• (a) Distinguish between the terms succession and
zonation, giving a detailed example of one of these. (6)

• (b) Explain how the gross and net productivities, nutrient

cycling and the diversity of an ecosystem change as it
passes through the different stages of succession. (9)
 Plagio-Climax Conclusion
•Humans impacts upon ecosystems create
climax communities.

•Issues such pesticides & grazing to human

disturbances in rainforest including logging &
deforestation.
Zonation
Height
 What is ZONATION?
•Arrangement or patterning of plant
communities or ecosystems into bands in
response to change, over a distance, in some
environmental factor.

• Biomes display zonation relation to latitude

& climate.
 Changes in the distribution of animals with
elevation on a typical mountain in Kenya. Another
example of Zonation
Heating of solids, sunlight and shade in different altitudinal zones
(North hemisphere)
 Differences : succession & zonation
The difference is succession refers to
change over time, and zonation to spatial
patterns.

Spatial describes how objects fit together

in space, either among the planets or down
here on earth.
Environmental gradient
Distance
What is Environmental gradient?
•An environmental gradient is gradual
change in abiotic factors through space or
time.

•Environmental gradients related to factors

such altitude, temperature, depth, ocean
proximity and soil humidity.
Population Dynamics
r-strategists & K-strategists
 TWO TYPES OF SPECIES
• r-selected species
• K-selected species

• r-selected species live variable or unpredictable

environments(constantly changing).

• K-selected species live fairly constant or predictable

environment(Stable Environment)
STABLE ENVIRONMENTS
UNSTABLE ENVIRONMENTS
r-strategists or r-Species
What is r-strategists?
•Letter ’r ’ stands for reproduction.

• Species called r-strategists because

high reproductive rates.

•Examples r-strategists include

cockroaches, mice, and mosquitoes
Instructions -11B4
• The file should be your name

• If you have two files upload creating folder

• https://bit.ly/3GWmJWW
 Examples of r-selected species
• Rodents, insects, Mosquitoes and Weeds(kind of a
plant).

• r-selected species thrive in disturbed habitats,

• Such as freshly burned grasslands
• Forest affected by natural calamities(flood or heavy
rain)
Instructions -11B5
• The file should be your name

• If you have two files upload creating folder

• https://bit.ly/3KLxqy6
K-strategists or K-Species
What is K strategists?
•’K’ stands carrying capacity.

•Population growth determined limiting factors

eventually reaches carrying capacity.

•Examples -Rhino, whales, and humans, birds,

larger mammals (such as elephants, horses,
and primates), and larger plants.
 Examples of K-selected species

•Examples of K-selected species

include birds, larger mammals (such
as elephants, horses, and primates),
and larger plants.
r Species & k Species Selection Factors
 r Species Features
•Rapid Development
•High r = or net reproductive rate
•Early Reproduction
•Small Body Size
•Many Small Offspring
•Short Life Span
 K Species Features
•Slow Development
•Competitive Ability
•Delayed Reproduction
•Large Body Size
•Few Large Offspring
•Long Life Span
A
STABLE & UNSTABLE ENVIRONMENTS
• Organisms live in stable environments tend make
few, "expensive" offspring.

• Organisms live unstable environments tend

make many, "cheap" offspring.

• Scientific literature, r-selected species occasionally

referred "opportunistic", while K-selected species
described "equilibrium
 RECAP
• What is r selected species? Example
• What is K selected species? Example
• How r/K species related to Ecology?
• What is Stable &unstable Environment
• r Species Selection Factors
• K Species Selection Factors
Sub-topic 2.5: Investigating ecosystems
 Unit :

•Measuring biotic components of the

system
Construct simple keys and use published
keys for the identification of organisms.
Dichotomous Key
What is Dichotomous Key?
• Dichotomous key, is identification key where
the sequence and structure of identification
steps is fixed by the author of the key.

•At each point decision process, multiple

alternatives offered, each leading to result or a
further choice
 SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

•Usually done with published

identification key or published book

•The key asks question and answer

determines what step next, either
name of species or another question.
•Presence/absence of legs;
•Number of legs;
•Presence/absence of
tentacles;
•Number of tentacles;
•Visible eyes;
Limitations of DK
•Some keys use technical terms only
expert would understand.

•Some features of organisms cannot

easily established in field.

•Some organisms significantly change

body shape during their lifetime.
Construct a key in the space below to identify the six organisms in figure 1 above
by their visible physical characteristics. In your key, refer to each organism by
letter, you are not expected to name them
•Clear use of characteristics (only accept
characteristics visible
in the figure) [3 max] e.g.
presence or absence of legs;
horn on head;
shape;
shell;
tail;
dark ring on neck;
MEASURING THE ABIOTIC
FACTORS
MEASURING THE ABIOTIC FACTORS
• How to measure the Abiotic factors in the
ecosystem?

• Study from the Book

• Page no :
1.TEMPERATURE:-Normally measured using thermometers or
temperature probes attached to data logger.
Technique:
• Digital thermometer used to measure
temperature air, water.

Evaluation:
• Data vary if temperature not taken at same depth
each time.
 2. Soil moisture
How measured?
Using oven heat soil so water evaporates.

Technique:
• Heat soil until no further loss weight. Loss of weight calculated as
a percentage starting weight.

Evaluation:
• If oven too hot when evaporating the water, organic content also
burn off.
3.WIND SPEED:
• Measured using anemometer; instrument cuts that spin in
wind
Technique:
Anemometer hand-held & pointed into wind.
• Anemometer held same height each measurement.

Evaluation:
• Gusty conditions lead large variations in data.

• Care must taken not to block the wind.

4.SALINITY:
•Salinity measured using
electrical conductivity (with a
datalogger) or by density of
water.

•Salinity most often expressed

parts per thousand (ppt);
5.pH:
• Measured using universal indicator or a pH probe
•This can be measured using a pH meter or
data logging pH probe.

• Values in fresh water range from slightly

basic to slightly acidic depending on
surrounding soil, rock, and vegetation.
Seawater usually has a pH above 7 (alkaline).
6.Turbidity
• Measured depth(m) using sechi disc(black& white decorated
disc) lowered on measuring rope.

• Technique:
• A Secchi disc mounted on pole or line and lowered water
until out of sight.
• Disc raised just visible again and second reading taken.

• Evaluation:
• Reflections off water reduce visibility make difficult
turbidity measurements.
The Secchi disk measures the transparency of the water. Transparency can be
affected by the color of the water, algae, and suspended sediments. Transparency
decreases as color, suspended sediments, or algal abundance increases.
Measuring biotic components
of the ecosystem
Direct methods of estimating the abundance of motile animals.
Evaluate methods for measuring or estimating
populations of motile and nonmotile organisms.
1.Freshwater nets for lake and stream
invertebrates
 2.Sweep nets for grassland and scrub

Sweep nets are sturdy nets used to collect insects from long grass.
3.Pit trapping and baited traps for terrestrial
invertebrates
4.Beating trays for invertebrates in trees
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Estimating the Abundance
of organisms.
Species richness and diversity
 Methods for Estimating Population Size
1. Quadrats Method
2. Capture/Mark/Release/Recapture (Lincoln
Index)
Why we should know the population size of
an ecosystem?

•Knowing population size is important in

making environmental decisions that
affect population.

•Making a decision on estimate too high →

extinction.
•Making a decision estimate that too low →
Apply Simpson’s diversity index
and outline its significance

Simpson’s Diversity Index

Simpson diversity can measure
using the

Quadrats METHOD
 Simpson’s Diversity Index

1) Simpson's diversity index (also known as species

diversity index) is one of a number of diversity
indices, used to measure diversity.

2) In ecology, it is often used to quantify the biodiversity

of a habitat.

3) It takes into account the number of species present, as

well as the relative abundance of each species.
•For plant species the percentage cover
in a square is usually used;

•The reason percentage cover is used is

because it is usually very difficult to
count all the individual plants
 Using Quadrats
1. Mark out area to be sampled.
2. Place quadrates randomly within the area.
3. Count how many individuals are inside each of the
quadrates.
4. Calculate the mean number of individuals per
quadrate.
5. Pop. Size = mean x total area
area of each Quadrat
 RANDOM SYSTEMATIC
QUDRATS QUDRATS

Quadrat sampling is suitable for

plants that do not move around and
are easy to find.
Quadrat method can be used to determine:
▪POPULATION DENSITY = number of
individuals each species per area.

▪PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY = percent of

each species found within an area.

▪PERCENTAGE COVER = percent of plant

covering a given area.
Which one is easy to calculate the biomass?
Coconut tree

Problems?

Grass

Problems?
Evaluation of quadrats
• Quadrat method difficult use very large or very
small plants.

• Difficult count plants grow in tufts or colonies.

• Difficult measure abundance plants outside their

main growing season
• What magical creature
would make the world a
better place for
environment if it existed?
January MSA
• 15 marks from Zoom Class
• 15 Marks from Biome worksheet
• Total -30
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Simpson’s Diversity Index
Formula for Simpson’s Diversity Index using Quadrat

• Where:
• D = diversity index
N = total number of organisms of all species found
• n = number of individuals of a particular species
• =Sum of
•As species richness and evenness
increase, so diversity increases.

•With this index, 1 represents infinite

diversity and 0, no diversity.
 Species Number of individuals Number of individuals
in Ecosystem 1 in Ecosystem 2

A 23 2
B 28 2
C 22 1
D 27 93
Total individuals in 100 98
ecosystem
Simpson’s Diversity Index =
• [23x(23-1)] + [28x(28-1)] + [22x(22-1)] +[27x(27-1)]
100 x (100 – 1)
=4.08

• For Ecosystem 2:
• Simpson’s Diversity Index =
• 2x(2-1)] + [2x(2-1)] + [1x(1-1)] + [93x(93-1)]
98 x (98 – 1)
= 1.11
RESULT
• From this it can be seen that ecosystem 1 has the
highest index of diversity.

• The larger then Simpson’s index the more

diverse.

• Increasing diversity tends to suggest more stable

ecosystems with more connections within them.
•Describe and evaluate methods for
estimating the biomass of trophic
levels in a community.
Biomass Calculation
•Biomass is calculated to show the
amount of biological material

•Biological molecules held together by

captured sunlight energy so greater
biomass, greater the amount of energy
present
What is Dry Weight Biomass?
Capture/Mark/ Release/Recapture
Lincoln index
 What is Lincoln Index ?
• Lincoln Index known as capture-mark-release-
recapture method.

• Animals captured, marked,then released. After

specific amount time animal population is
resampled.

• Some of animals initially marked will caught

again, or recaptured.
 Capture/Mark/ Release/Recapture
Lincoln index Method
1. Capture many individuals possible in area
occupied by animal population, using
netting, trapping or careful searching.

2. Mark each individual, without making more

visible to predators & without harming
them.
3. Release all marked individuals allow them to settle back their
habitat.

4. Recapture many individuals possible count how many marked &

how many are unmarked.

10 marked

14 unmarked
Capture and Marking
Calculate the estimated population size by using the
Lincoln Index:

population size = N1 * N2
N3
N1 = number caught and marked initially
N2 = total number caught in 2nd sample
N3 = number of marked individuals recaptured

Most suitable for animals that move around and are

difficult to find.
Lincoln Index : Assumptions:
1. Population organisms must close, with no
immigration or emigration.

2. Marked organisms must mix completely with

rest of population during time between two
samples.

3. Organisms not hurt or disadvantaged being

caught
 EVALUATION
•Animals move in and out of sample area, so t
less trustworthy and data invalid.

•Some individuals may hidden vegetation &

therefore difficult find.

•Animals may migrate in or out o study area.

Evlauation Lincoln index:
•Capturing animals may injure .
•Mark may toxic some animals but
not others.
•Marks make the animal more or
less attractive to predators.
Try for yourself!
• A group of students are trying to estimate the number of
mice in a meadow. They conducted
a capture/mark/release/recapture method and recorded
the following numbers.
• n1 = 38
• n2 = 15
• m2 = 9
• Using the Lincoln index to estimate the number of mice in
the meadow.
•N = n1 × n2 / m2
•N = 38 × 15 / 9
•N = 570 / 9
•N = 63.3
ESS IA Introduction

• ESS IA CRITERIA-Guide
• Page 75-87
• ESS TEAM LEADERS

• https://www.essgurumantra.com/subject-
presentations-1-8
Describe factors affecting the
nature of climax communities
• Measuring changes in an ecosystem due to human
activity
 Factor 1: Soil
•Soils less rich nutrients cannot support
climax community high biomass
&diversity.

• In Africa, tropical savannah grasslands

grow in areas poor in soil nutrients
rather than forests.
Factor 2: Climate
 Factor 2: Climate
•Rainforests is example of climax communities
with high habitat & species diversity, and
biomass.
•Because rainforests are found near the
equator the climate is warm, significant
rainfall, and high levels of sunlight.
Factor 3: Human disturbance
Factor 3: Human disturbance
•Human factors can affect the process of
succession through disturbance.
•Interrupted succession is known as
plagioclimax.
•Describe and evaluate methods for
measuring changes in abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem along an
environmental gradient
Pristine Forest
Logged forest
 Method 1: Ground sampling
• Both pristine & logged forest areas studied so
comparisons can be made.

• Stratified random sampling used two areas

because both areas different in habitat quality.

• Samples collected from grids using random

sampling methods in both the areas.
•Evaluation of ground sampling
•Abiotic & biotic components measured
over a long period of time take account
daily &seasonal variations for valid data.

•Repeating samples between sampling

grids improves reliability data.
Method 2:
Satellite images

•Satellites orbit Earth used to take

photos of Earth’s surface.
•These images show effects
human disturbance on
ecosystems
Advantage of satellite images
•Advantage of satellite images very
reliable, cover large area & monitor
change over time.

•Another advantage visible nature of

photos is useful motivating action
against logging.
 Disadvantage
•Disadvantage they can expensive
obtain may not available for area
being studied.

•Plant productivity, other biotic &

abiotic components cannot be
measured.