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B
Contents

03 17 35 58
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Ecology Ecosystem: Types of Biodiversity
Components and Ecosystems
Functions

92 127 146 159

Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Environmental Climate Change Renewable Energy Sustainable
Issues Sources Development

1
 162 173 186
Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11
Agriculture Global National
Conservation Conservation
Efforts Efforts

202 211
Chapter 12 Previous Year
Environmental Questions
Impact Assessment

2
 CHAPTER - 1
ECOLOGY
• The term ‘Ecology’ may be defined as
the scientific study of the relationship
of living organisms with each other
and with their environment. Ecology
(Greek. ‘oikos’ = home or estate and
‘logos’ = study) is a term coined in 1869
by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
The emphasis is on the interactions
between organisms and environmental
elements, both biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living).
• Ecology encompasses not only
the study of individual organisms'
interactions with their surroundings,
but also populations, communities,
habitats, biomes and the biosphere. It
entails intra-individual relationships as
well as inter-individual relationships
between populations.
Abiotic
Water, climate (humidity and temperature), Living organisms including plants, animals,
Light, sub strata (soil, river/seabed), microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa),
atmospheric gases. and human beings.
Abiotic Components
• Light: Sunlight is a source of energy.
Green plants use sunlight to provide
food for themselves and all other living
organisms by photosynthesis.
• Rainfall: All living organism need water
to survive. Water helps to regulate body
temperature. Majority of biochemical
reactions take place in liquid medium.
Marine plants and animals have water
bodies as their habitat.
• Temperature: It is a vital environmental
factor that has a significant impact on
organism survival. Organisms can only
withstand a certain temperature range.
3
• It explains the advantages of
ecosystems and how we can use the
Earth's resources in ways that protect
the environment for future generations.
• An ecologist studies the relationship
between living things and their habitats.
Environment
• The term environment may be defined
as the surroundings or conditions in
which an organism lives or operates.
• The environment broadly includes
living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
components.
• It is not static. Both biotic and abiotic
influences are in flux and change on a
regular basis.
Biotic
• Atmosphere: The atmosphere of the
earth is made up of 21% oxygen, 78%
nitrogen, and 0.038 percent carbon
dioxide. The remaining gases are inert
(0.93 percent Argon, Neon etc).
• Substratum: Soil covers the land and
is home to a wide range of bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, and small animals
(invertebrates). Plant roots pierce the
soil to access water and nutrients.
Terrestrial species are those that live on
land, use soil as its substratum. Aquatic
plants, animals, and microbes may
survive in both fresh and salt water.
Microbes can also be found in hot water
vents under the sea.
Biotic Components
• Green Plants: Through photosynthesis
green plants prepare food for all living
organisms.
• Animals: A ecosystem contains
individuals of the same genus. They
frequently coexist with other animals.
Microorganisms and fungi decompose
the bodies of dead plants and animals,
releasing nutrients that can be reused
by growing plants. As a result, living
organisms require both abiotic and
biotic components of their ecosystem to
survive. The survival of living organisms
depends on a delicately balanced
relationship between them and their
climate.
Ecological Hierarchy
• The synergy of organisms with their
environment leads to the formation
of grouping of organisms known as
ecological hierarchy or ecological
levels of organisation. The hierarchy of
ecological systems is given below:
Individual
• The first level of ecological hierarchy is
the individual organism.
• This hierarchy level investigates how an
organism interacts with its surroundings.
• Aspects of evolution are extensively
used in this level's research.
• It is concerned with the biological,
morphological, and physiological
development of individual organisms in
response to their natural environment.
• Examples: The individual-organism
level allows a scientist to study why a
giraffe has a very long neck.
Population
• It is a group of individuals belonging to
4
the same species that live in a definite
area and interact with each other.
• Ex: All of the angelfish living in the
same area of the ocean make up the
angelfish population.
• Birth and immigration cause population
to rise and death and emigration causes
population to decrease.
Community
• It is a group of organisms consisting of
several different species that live in an
area and interact with each other.
• Ex: The marine ecosystem that includes
the angelfish includes populations of
other fish, corals, and a variety of other
organisms.
• Plants need animals for pollination and
animals needs plants for food. They
interact with each other and forms
community.
Ecosystem
• It is a group or collection of organisms
and their physical environment,
interacting with each other as an
ecological unit.
• Ecosystems contain biotic or living,
parts, as well as abiotic factors, or
nonliving parts.
• All that exists in an ecosystem is reliant
on the other organisms and elements
that make up that ecosystem's
ecosystem.
• When one aspect of an ecosystem is
disrupted or dies, it affects the rest of
the ecosystem.
Biome
• The terrestrial part of the biosphere,
which is divisible into large regions
called as biomes (biological home).
Biomes are characterized, by climate,
 vegetation, animal life and general soil • In biome, all biota have some
type. It is a group of similar ecosystems characteristics in common, and all
with the same general type of physical biome areas have more or less uniform
environment anywhere in the world. environmental conditions.

I M A G E 1.1: L E V E L OF E C O L O G I C A L O R G A N I S AT I O N

Biosphere
the ocean.
• A biosphere is a relatively thin life- • Biosphere is a global ecosystem. It is
supporting stratum of the Earth's surface
made up of the parts of Earth where
that extends from a few kilometres into
life exists.
the atmosphere to deep-sea vents in

5
 Habitat
• The habitat of an animal is the physical
space in which it resides, and which
includes its environment.
• Each organism needs a habitat for
its survival where they can live and
reproduce.
• Many different species with similar
requirements can coexist in the same
habitat. A single forest ecosystem, for
example, may accommodate a lion, a
deer, a fox, wild buffalo and a variety of
other species.
• The size of a habitat is not constant and
it varies. For instance, it can be as small
as a rotten piece of wood for fungus or
a huge forests for migratory birds.
• The components of habitat are our
space, food, water and cover/shelter.
• Forest, lake, wetlands, etc. are examples
of habitat.
• Earth has four major habitats, namely,
terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine and
ocean or marine habitat.
I M A G E 1.2: S T R U C T U R A L C O M P O N E N T S
6
Niche
• A species' niche describes how it fits
within its environment.
• In ecology, the term “niche” describes
the role played by an organism in a
community. A species’ niche includes
both the physical and environmental
conditions it requires (like humidity,
temperature) and the interactions it has
with other species.
• The unique, multidimensional
fingerprint of a species is called its
niche, a term coined by Joseph Grinnell
in 1917.
• A species' habitat can be considered as
its "address" (i.e., where it lives), its niche
is similar to "profession" (I.e., species-
specific behaviours and responses).
• The term niche refers to the aggregate
of all a species' activities and
relationships that enable it to survive
and reproduce by using the resources
in its environment.
• Species with small or restricted niches
are generally referred to as specialist
species. Koalas, which only consume
the leaves of eucalyptus trees, are an
example of a specialist species. Species
with broader niches, like raccoons,
Coyote are considered generalists.
• A niche is peculiar to a species, meaning
no two species have niches that are
exactly alike.
• Example, many different species of
insects may be pests of the same plant,
but they can coexist as they feed on
different parts of the same plant.
OF H A B I TAT • Significance: Niche plays an important
role in conservation of organisms.

I M A G E 1.3: E X A M P L E OF
Adaptation
• Adaptation, is the adjustment of
organisms to their environment in order
to improve their chances at survival in
that environment. Living organisms
are adapted to their environment. For
example a lion cannot survive in an
ocean.
• Adaptation is characterised as an
organism's appearance, behaviour,
structure, or mode of life that enables
it to survive in a given environment. For
example, giraffes have very long necks
so that they can eat tall vegetation,
which other animals cannot reach.
• Adaptations can be observed in
structure or behaviour or physiology of
an organism. For example presence of
gills and fins in fishes are adaptations
to aquatic habitat. The absence of
wood formation and a severely reduced
root system are adaptations to aquatic
conditions in aquatic flowering plants.
• Adaptations have a genetic basis and
7
are perfected through evolution.
• As a consequence of mutation,
variations appear. Which variety will
prosper and thrive is determined by
competition and natural selection.
Variations that help a species succeed
in its fight for survival are welcomed
and promoted.
• Natural selection, as described by
Darwin, is an evolutionary force that
selects among variations, or genes,
which aids the organism adjust to its
environment. Natural selection causes
certain genes to replicate more often in
a population.
• Offspring who are adapted to their
immediate environment have a
greater chance of survival, reaching
reproductive age, and passing on
the appropriate adaptations to their
offspring.
NICHE
• Thus, as a result of evolution there is
diversity of species and adaptation.
Species
• A species is a group of organism that
are capable of interbreeding in nature
and produce fertile offspring.
• A dog, an elephant, and a lily are
examples of different species. Every
species has a scientific name that is
recognised by people around the world.
Humans are members of the Homo
sapiens genus.
• Every species has a specific set of genetic
characteristics that distinguishes it from
other species.
• Organisms in one species are incapable
of reproducing with organisms in
another species.
• Every species has its own set of genetic
characteristics that distinguish it from
other species. For example, Cows, cats,
and dogs, come in a variety of shapes
and sizes, which is an example of
diversity within each of these species.
• Humans belong to species of Homo
 sapiens. Variation within the human
race is represented by differences in
skin colour, hair type (curly or straight),
eye colour, and blood type among
ethnic groups.
I M A G E 1.4: S P E C I E S V A R I AT I O N
Speciation
• Speciation is the process of creating
new organisms, and evolution is the
mechanism that allows speciation to
occur.
• In most of the times a population
undergoes speciation by geographical
isolation. Whenever a physical barrier
like mountain, or an ocean separate a
population into two completely isolated
I M A G E 1.5: S P E C I AT I O N
8
populations, interbreeding and gene
exchange does not happen between
them.
• Other isolations are:
• Ecological isolation – It is caused by
differences in temperature, humidity,
pH etc. in the environment of the two
populations.
• Reproductive isolation – It is caused by
interference in interbreeding between
members of different populations of
species.
• Mutations occur spontaneously in
isolated populations giving rise to new
variation within and subpopulation
of these mutations. Natural selection
favours those that aid in adaptation
to the environment, because they are
replicated in greater numbers in the
next generation.
• After a long period of time, the sub
populations become very different and
get isolated, reproductively, i.e., they no
longer interbreed.
• Example, two species of squirrels
Kaibab squirrels and Abert's squirrels
that live on opposite sides of the Grand
Canyon became separate species when
about 1 million years ago the Colorado
river changed its course, splitting the
original population of squirrels into two.
Extinction
• Extinction means the dying out of a
variety of species.
• Extinction is generally a natural
occurrence. But ongoing 6th mass
extinction is human induced.
• It occurs when species cannot evolve
fast enough to cope with the changes
taking place in their environment.
Reasons for Extinction:
• Primary reason for the extinctions is
environmental change or biological
competition. It can also take place due
to catastrophic natural phenomena
such as tsunami, volcanoes etc.
• In recent times, human activities such
as over exploitation, environmental
pollution and environmental change
are the major factors responsible for
extinction.
Population
• The second level in the study of the
level of species organization involves
population.
• A community of freely interbreeding
individuals of the same species present
in a particular area at a given time is
known as population.
• When we say a city has a population
of 800 people, we mean that there
are 800 people in that city. However,
the genus Homo sapiens includes all
populations of humans living in every
part of the planet.
• Population ecology studies the
interaction among the individual
members of a population.
• Individual animals have properties that
cannot be discovered through observing
them alone, such as population growth
over time, genetic diversity and factors
that restrict the density of individuals in
each region.
9
• Ecological studies at the population
level help us to predict the future
success of endangered species and to
discover controls for pest species.
The characteristics of any population
depends on:
» Density
» Natality (birth rate)
» Mortality (death rate)
» Dispersal
» Biotic potential
» Age distribution
» Dispersion and
» Growth form
Population Density
• Population density is known as the
number of individuals per unit area at
any given time.
• The density of species varies from time
to time and from one place to another.
• The density of large, mobile animals
such as elephant, giraffe and lion can
be calculated by counting individual
animals or using pugmarks (Food
imprints) left by the animals in a defined
area. Pug marks of each individual
animal are unique and different from
one another.
Community
• Community comes at the third level
in the study of the level of species
organization as it is larger than the
population.
• Population is a group of individuals
of a single species in each area, the
community involves a group of different
species in each area.
• Community in most instances are
named after the dominant species.
• For example, a grassland community
 is dominated by grasses though trees,
shrubs and herbs may be present along
with associated animals of different
species.
Characteristics of a Community
Species Diversity
• The different kinds of organisms present
in a community represent its species
diversity.
• The total number of species (richness)
and the relative abundance of each
species (evenness) are used to quantify
diversity.
• The species composition or diversity
differs from one community to another.
• Even in the same community, there
may be seasonal variation in species
composition.
• It is an important attribute of a
community as it influences the stability
of the community (the ability to revert to
its previous state after being disrupted
in any way). Communities with a high
diversity of species have been shown to
be healthier.
Biotic Interactions
• A biotic interaction is the effect that a
pair of organisms living together in a
community have with each other.
• Biotic interactions occur when
organisms living in the same community
directly or indirectly influence one
another.
• An area's or ecosystem's biological
environment is a dynamic web of
interactions.
• Intra-specific interaction refers to
interactions between individuals of the
same species, whereas inter-specific
interaction refers to interactions
between individuals of different species
10
in a population.
• Types of interactions:
» Amensalism: This is a negative
relationship between two species
in which one species harm or limits
the existence of the other species
without being adversely affected or
harmed. Example, the bread mould
fungi Penicillium produce penicillin,
an antibiotic substance which inhibits
the growth of a variety of bacteria.
When the competition from bacteria is
eliminated, Penicillium seems to benefit
from getting more food available.
Again, the black walnut tree secrets a
chemical from its roots which harms
neighbouring plants, but walnut tree
does not get effected.
» Predation: In this form of encounter, a
predator catches, kills, and consumes a
prey animal of a different species. The
predator profits from this relationship,
but the prey suffers as a result. Example,
a lion killing a deer for its food.
» Parasitism: One species suffers as a
result of this relationship, while the
other profits. Parasitism includes a
parasite, which is typically a small
organism that lives in or on another
living species known as the host, from
which the parasite obtains food and
shelter. The parasite benefits while the
host suffers. Example tapeworm, round
warm and many bacteria or fungi are
common parasites of humans.
» Competition: It adversely affects both
species. It occurs when two populations
or species, both need a vital resource
that is in short supply. It could be inter-
specific or intra-specific.
» Commensalism: One species (the
commensal) benefits, while the other
species (the host) is neither harmed
nor inhibited. Example, sucker fish
remora attaches itself to the shark
which helps remora to get protection,
a free ride and meal from the leftover
 shark's meal. However, the shark does
not get any benefit, nor is it adversely
affected by this association. Similar
is the relationship between trees and
epiphyte in plants.
• Mutualism: Biotic interaction where both
species gets benefit. Some mutualism is
so intimate that the interacting species
can no longer live without each other
as they are totally dependent on each
other to survive, such associations are
called symbiosis. Example: Lichen is a
mixture of algae and fungs. Bees help
in flower pollination, where flowering
plants are cross pollinated by bees that
benefit from the nectar and cannot live
without each other.
• Neutralism: Neutralism is the term
used to describe a relationship
between two organisms that interact
but do not influence one another. It
is used to characterise relationships
in which one species' fitness has little
bearing on the fitness of the other.
True neutralism is highly improbable
and difficult to demonstrate. When
dealing with the dynamic networks of
interactions that ecosystems present, it
is impossible to say with certainty that
there is no competition or advantage
to either species. Since true neutralism
is uncommon or non-existent, it is often
applied to cases where interaction is
minor or non-existent.

Type of interaction Species 1 Species 2

NEGATIVE INTERACTIONS

Amensalism 0 -

Predation + -

Parasitism + -

Competition - -

POSITIVE INTERACTIONS

Commensalism + 0

Mutualism + +

NEUTRAL INTERACTIONS

Neutralism 0 0
Note: + = beneficial, - = harmful, 0 = unaffected or neutral

11
 I M A G E 1.6: T Y P E S
Ecosystem
• In the hierarchical structure, ecosystem
comes at the fourth level. A. G. Tansley
coined the term ‘ecosystem’ in 1935.
• It is a combination of all the above
three levels – individuals, population,
and community.
• An ecosystem is a natural functional unit
I M A G E 1.7: S T R U C T U R E
12
OF B I OT I C I N T E R AC T I O N S
in which the biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) components interact in
complex ways. A lake, for example, is an
example of an ecosystem. An ecosystem
can be a lake, a mangrove forest, or a
puddle of water in a rock.
• The study of ecosystems helps us to
understand two key processes in nature,
i.e., the flow of energy and the cycling of
materials through biological channels.
OF ECOSYSTEM
Difference between Ecology,
Environment and Ecosystem
Ecosystems are the units that are formed
by the interaction of a community of
organisms with the environment and
consist of biotic and abiotic components.
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
Ecosystem is a sub part of ecology.
An environment is a group of ecosystems.
Biome
• A biome is a part of the biosphere that
comprises a group of biotic communities
in a given area that are subjected to
similar characters, climatic conditions,
and have dominant species with similar
life cycles, adaptations, and structures.
I M A G E 1.8: B I O M E S
13
• The rule of climatic similarity states that
similar climatic conditions contribute
to the evolution of species that are
similar in shape and function but not
necessarily in genetic heritage or
internal structures. The emergence of
desert plants with similar adaptations
is an example of this (Convergent
evolution), even though they are
geographically isolated.
• Each biome has its own functional
characteristics. The climate defines a
biome's limits as well as the abundance
of plants and animals contained within
it.
• Temperature and precipitation are the
most significant climatic variables in
deciding the biome.
Sr.no. Biomes Physical Characteristics Flora Fauna

TERRESTRIAL BIOMES

Also called a cold desert.

Two seasons, Insects, large
Winter: extreme cold and hooved
snow. mammals
No trees found,
Summer: flooding caused (Caribou,
dominated by
by melting of the snow and The reindeer
mosses, lichens
permafrost layer. musk ox),
1. Tundra and grasses,
bears, wolves,
Location: far south and far some small
small rodents
north – towards the polar ice shrubs are
(lemmings),
caps. found.
migrant during
Temperature:10° Celsius. the breeding
Rainfall: 25 cm/year. season.

Snow: 10-20 cm/year.

Long winter, short fall and Diverse array of

spring, 2- 3 months of Trees 5-10 m
migrants from
summer, wetter seasons, high, boreal
the topics with
Taiga/ heavy rain, and snow. forest, conifers
few resident
2. Boreal – pine, Spruce,
Location: Coniferous forest, species (moose,
Forest bog plants
far northern and far southern (ferns and bear, lynx, Fox,
latitudes (Northern Europe, wolves), large
mosses).
Asia, and North America). insect blooms.

Four seasons: Winter, Spring,

Summer, and Fall.
Location: central and
Vegetation of
southern Europe, eastern A diverse range
Temperate complex levels,
North America, western of tropics
3. Deciduous deciduous trees,
China, Japan, New Zealand migrants and
Forest loose leaves in
etc. resident species.
fall.
Moderate average
temperature and abundant
rainfall (80-140 cm/year).

Distinct wet and dry seasons. Grasses,

shrubs, trees
Rainfall: 90–150 cm/year. Large
short and (2 m
4. Savannah Location: tropical to ungulates, large
tall) clumped
subtropical (Most extensive in together (10 m predators.
Africa). tall).

14
 Temperate and some active
grassland (extreme north
and prayers-steppes and
Temperate some extreme southern Large
5. Grasses.
Grassland and grasslands-pampas of ungulates.
Argentina).
Rainfall:25-70 cm/yr.

Winter is mild and rainy,

followed by a hot, dry Diversity of
summer. Many plants depend mammals, birds,
Temperate on frequent fires to survive. Short trees and
6. insects, etc.
Shrubland shrubs.
Location: near coast which likes dry
lines (California, Chile, habitat.
Mediterranean).

Very dry
Rainfall: less than 25 cm/year
Sagebrush
Location: predominantly Reptiles and
7. Desert Cactus, shrubs,
equatorial however, some small rodents
and creosote
species can be found in
temperate climates.

Very wet – heavy rainfall, Large trees –

Nutrient-depleted soil Broad – leaved
evergreen,
Throughout the year, the epiphytes, not Highest
Tropical temperature remains
8. much forest diversity of
Rainforest constant (wet and dry floor vegetation animal
seasons) (little sunlight),
Location: equatorial, 23.5° N canopy 30–40
latitude – 23.5° S latitude m above ground

Aquatic Biome

Marine- Various birds,

Deep ocean, dependent on
1. Pelagic Algae large mammals,
upwelling
zone fish

Marine- Detritus feeders,

2. Ocean floor, no light None
Benthic predatory fish

There are marshes rich in

Aquatic
Marine- plants and animals where
3. vegetation, Rich variety
Estuaries rivers flow into the ocean,
marsh plants
mixing salt and freshwater.

15
 Marine-
4. Intertidal Shoreline to shallow waters
zone
5. Coral reefs Tropical oceans
Biosphere
• On a broader scale of interpretation,
the biosphere represents the totality
of all things on earth, including their
interactions.
• In simple words, the portion of the earth
which sustains life is called biosphere.
• The biosphere incorporates all
ecosystems on earth and their
I M A G E 1.9: B I O S P H E R E
• Life in the biosphere is mostly present
between 200 m (660 feet) below the
surface of the ocean and about 6000
m (20,000 feet) above sea level.
• Biosphere in general is not present at
extremes of the North and South poles,
the highest mountains, and the deepest
oceans, this is because of the extremely
harsh weather conditions at these
places do not support life except a few
species of bacteria and fungi.
• The biosphere is special for the following
reasons:
16
Marine worms,
Algae clams, oysters,
crustaceans
Algae Coral, fish
interaction among each other.
• The atmosphere (air), lithosphere
(land) and hydrosphere (water) make
up the biosphere, which is a highly
interconnected and interacting zone.
• The biosphere extends from the deepest
root systems of trees, to the dark
environment of ocean trenches, to lush
rain forests and high mountaintops.
» It sustains life/living organism.
» Only biosphere has water in liquid form
and that too in substantial amount.
» Biosphere receives its energy from the
sun in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.
» Biosphere has interfaces between the
different faces of matter like solid, liquid
and gas.
» It is here in biosphere that transfer of
energy and cycling of chemicals takes
place.
 CHAPTER - 2
ECOSYSTEM: COMPONENTS AND
FUNCTIONS
• A group of living things that
communicate with one another and
with their surroundings around them
(solar energy, air, water, soil, wind, and
various essential chemicals) is called an
ecological system or ecosystem.
• Ecosystem can be a small tree, a pond,
a puddle of water in a rock or an ocean.
• Within any given area, living and
nonliving interact with each other.
Together, these things form an
ecosystem.
• An ecosystem is an area with a
boundary through which an input and
Components of the Ecosystem
I M A G E 2.1: E C O S Y S T E M C O M P O N E N T S
• A natural functional unit is an ecosystem
in which living organisms interact with
one another and with the physical world
around them. The ecosystem is made
of two major parts. The non-living or
abiotic and the living or the biotic.
17
output of energy and matter can be
measured and related to one or more
environment. The boundaries drawn
around ecosystems are arbitrary and
are selected for convenience in studying
each system.
• Just as a community is not merely a
collection of plants and animals, an
ecosystem is not merely a group of plants
and animals plus their environment.
In the study of an ecosystem, we also
understand the interaction between
the organisms and between organisms
and environment.
Abiotic components (Non-living):
A biotic component can be grouped into
following three categories:
• Physical factors: These include
 conditions such as light, temperature,
wind, humidity, pressure, current and
rainfall generated when solar energy
interacts with the ecosystem's organic
and inorganic chemicals and with
structural features of the earth surface.
• Inorganic substances: These include
water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulphur, rock, soil, and
other minerals.
• Organic substances: These include
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
other substances. These are the
building blocks of living systems and
therefore, make a link between the
biotic and abiotic components.
Biotic Components (Living)
• Producers (Autotrophs- self nourishing):
Photosynthesis is a mechanism by
which green plants provide food for the
entire ecosystem.
» Autotrophs are green plants that absorb
water and nutrients from the soil, carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, and solar
energy in the process.
» Producers reuse and thereby recycle
decomposition materials such as
inorganic nutrients that are released
into the environment.
» In the terrestrial ecosystem, producers
are basically herbaceous and woody
plants, while in aquatic ecosystem
producers are various species of
microscopic algae.
• Consumers (Heterotrophs- other
nourishing): They are called
heterotrophs and they consume food
synthesised by the autotrophs. It is
divided into two broad groups namely
micro and macro consumers.
• Macro consumers (Phototrophs): They
feed on plants or animals or both
and are categorised based on their
nutritional inputs.
18
• Micro consumers (Saprotrophs):
These are primarily bacteria and fungi
that feed on dead and decomposed
organic matter of animals and plants
by secreting enzymes on the dead
matter
Consumers:
• Herbivores feed mainly on plants.
They are known as primary
consumers. e.g., deer, sheep.
• Primary consumers are consumed by
secondary consumers e.g., Hyenas.
• Tertiary consumers which consume
secondary consumers are known as
Carnivores. e.g., Tigers which can eat
wolves.
• Organism that consume both animals
and plants are Omnivores e.g., Human
beings, Monkey.
• Detritivores include earthworms
and some soil organisms (such as
arthropods and nematodes) that feed
on detritus and help in the breakdown
of organic matter.
Functions of Ecosystem
Ecosystems are complex, open, and
dynamic systems. They perform certain
functions. These are: -
• Energy flow through food chain
• Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical
cycles)
• Ecological succession or ecosystem
development
• Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or
feedback control mechanisms
Energy Flow
• Ecosystems properties that make them
dynamic are energy flow and food
chains. They connect the biotic and
abiotic components of an ecosystem.
• Gross primary productivity (GPP) of an
ecosystem is the rate of production of
organic matter during photosynthesis.
A considerable amount of GPP is
utilized by plants in respiration.
Gross primary productivity minus
respiration losses (R), is the net primary
productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
• Net primary productivity is the
available biomass for the consumption
to heterotrophs (herbivores and
decomposers).
• Secondary productivity is defined as
the rate of formation of new organic
matter by consumers.
• Except for the deep-sea hydro-thermal
ecosystem, the Sun is the only source of
energy for all ecosystems on Earth.
• Of the total incident solar radiation,
less than 50 percent of it is photo
synthetically active radiation (PAR).
I M A G E 2.2: E N E R G Y F L OW
Food chain
• A food chain is described as the transfer
of energy from producers (green plants)
through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten. Ex:
Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog →
Snake → Hawk/Eagle.
• Each step in the food chain is called
trophic level.
• Two types of food chains:
19
Plants absorb just 2-10% of PAR, but
this small amount of energy is sufficient
to support the entire living planet.
• All species, whether directly or
indirectly, rely on producers for their
food. So, there is a unidirectional flow
of energy from the sun to producers
and then to consumers.
• To combat the universal tendency
toward increasing disorderliness,
ecosystems need a constant supply of
energy to synthesise the molecules they
need.
• Energy flows in an ecosystem in a
linear or one-way fashion. As the
size of the boxes in fig 2.2 shows, the
amount of energy flowing through the
successive trophic stages decreases.
The energy obtained by the organism
at each point in a food chain or web
is used to maintain the organism, and
the remainder is passed on to the next
trophic stage.
AT D I F F E R E N T T R O P H I C L E V E L S I N A N E C O S Y S T E M .
» Grazing food chain: It starts from
the green plants that make food for
herbivores and herbivores in turn for
the carnivores.
− A simple grazing food chain (GFC)
in terrestrial ecosystem is depicted
below:
− In Aquatic ecosystem,
phytoplankton’s (primary producers)
are eaten by zooplankton which are
 eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten
by pelicans.
− As energy is transferred, the number
of trophic levels in the grazing food
chain is restricted to 10 percent
law – only 10 percent of the energy
is transferred to each trophic level
from the lower trophic level.
Ecological Efficiency (Landman’s
Efficiency)
It is the ratio between the amount
of energy acquired from the lower
trophic level and the amount of energy
transferred from higher trophic level is
called ecological efficiency. It follows a
10% rule e.g. if autotrophs produce 100
cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal.
and carnivores 1 cal.
I M A G E 2.3: Y - S H A P E D
Trophic levels
• Depending on their feeding relationship
with other species, organisms occupy a
location in the natural setting or in a
group.
» Organisms occupy a particular position
in the food chain known as their
trophic level based on the source of
their nutrition or food. Producers are
on the first trophic stage, followed by
20
» Detritus food chain: It starts from the
dead organic matter. The detritivore
organisms which in turn make food for
protozoan to carnivores etc.
• The energy source for the first level
customers is the difference between
these two food chains. The prime
source of power in the grazing food
chain is living plant biomass, while the
primary source of energy in the detritus
food chain is dead organic matter or
detritus.
• The two chains are functionally linked
in an ecosystem and make a y-shaped
food chain.
FOOD CHAIN
herbivores (primary consumers) and
carnivores (secondary consumers).
» Autotrophs: They are the food producers
for the ecosystem's other species.
They are mostly green plants that
use photosynthesis to turn inorganic
material into chemical energy in the
presence of solar energy (food). Gross
Primary Production (GPP) refers to
the overall amount at which radiant
energy is accumulated in green plants
 through the photosynthesis process.
This is known as total assimilation or
total photosynthesis. From the GPP, a
part is utilized by the plants for its own
metabolism. The remainder is retained
as Net Primary Production (NPP) by
the plant and made accessible to
consumers.
» Herbivores: The animals which eat the
plants directly are called herbivores or
primary consumers. Ex: birds, ruminants,
insects, and rodents.
I M A G E 2.4: T R O P H I C
• When an organism dies, it is reduced
to detritus, or dead biomass, which
decomposers use as an energy source.
• The energy demands of organisms at
each trophic level are met by those at
the lower trophic level. The amount of
energy decreases at successive trophic
levels.
• At any given time, each trophic level has
a certain mass of living material known
21
» Carnivores: They are secondary
consumers and they feed on herbivores
and tertiary consumers if they use
carnivores as their food. Ex: frog, tiger.
» Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant
and animals Ex: bear, pig.
» Decomposers: They take care of the
dead remains of organisms at each
trophic level and help in recycling of the
nutrients e.g., fungi and bacteria.
LEVELS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
as the standing crop. The mass of living
organisms (biomass) or the amount
in a unit area is used to calculate the
standing crop. A species' biomass is
measured in either fresh or dry weight.
Food web
• Trophic levels do not follow a linear
pattern in an ecosystem. They are
 linked together to form a food web. So,
food web is a matrix of interconnected
food chains.
• Food web is a more realistic and
practical model of energy flow through
an ecosystem. In nature one often finds
food web rather food chain.
• It is possible that one animal is a member
I M A G E 2.5: S I M P L E
• For example, grasses may serve food
for rabbits or grasshoppers or goats
or cows. Similarly, an herbivore may
be a food source for many carnivorous
species.
Ecological pyramids
• In an ecosystem the graphic
representations of trophic levels are
called ecological pyramids. They have
a pyramidal shape to them.
• The pyramid's base is made up of
producers, with the subsequent tiers
representing herbivore, carnivore, and
top carnivore levels.
• The ecological pyramids can be
categorized into three types:
22
of several different food chains.
• If any one of the intermediate food
chains is removed, the succeeding links
of the chain will automatically suffer.
Most species in an ecosystem have
more than one food source thanks to
the food web, which increases their
chances of survival.
FOOD WEB
» Pyramid of numbers: This represents
the number of organisms at each
trophic level. It graphically represents
the total number of individuals of
different species, belonging to each
trophic level in an ecosystem.
» For example, in a grassland system,
the number of grasses outnumbers
the number of herbivores that eat
them, and the number of herbivores
outnumbers the carnivores number. In
few cases, the pyramid of number may
be inverted, i.e., herbivores are more
than primary producers. For example
when many caterpillars and insects
feed on a single tree.
− Upright Pyramid of Numbers: The
number of individuals decreases as
 you progress from the lowest to the
highest trophic level in this pyramid.
In the grassland biome, this sort of
pyramid can be seen.
» At each trophic stage, this reflects the
» Although in an aquatic environment,
I M A G E 2.6: P Y R A M I D O F NUMBERS IN
GRASSLAND
− Inverted Pyramid of Numbers:
The number of individuals in this
pyramid rises from the lowest to the
highest trophic level. There will be a
limited number of major producers
in a forest count for example few
numbers of huge trees.
• It can be attributed to the fact that the
tree (primary producer) is few and thus
represents the base of the pyramid,
followed by dependent herbivores
(for example, birds) in the next higher
trophic stage, and parasites in the next
trophic level. Hyper parasites being at
higher trophic levels represent higher
numbers.
I M A G E 2.7: I N V E R T E D PYRAMID OF NUMBER
23
» Pyramid of biomass: Individuals in each
trophic stage are weighted rather than
counted like pyramid of numbers. This
yields a biomass pyramid, or the total
dry weight of all species at each trophic
stage at any given time.
total standing crop biomass. The sum
of living matter in a crop at any given
time is referred to as standing biomass.
It is represented as gm/unit area or Ki
local/unit area. The biomass pyramid
is upright in many of the terrestrial
ecosystems.
the biomass pyramid can be inverted;
for example, in a pond, phytoplankton
are the primary producers, with short
life cycles and a high turnover rate
(i.e., they are rapidly replaced by new
plants). As a result, their overall biomass
is less than the biomass of herbivores
they sustain at any given time.
− Upward Biomass Pyramid: The
biomass pyramid in most terrestrial
ecosystems has a broad base of
primary producers with a smaller
trophic level perched on top.
− Inverted Biomass Pyramid: In many
aquatic environments, the biomass
pyramid can take on an inverted
shape. Since the producers are tiny
phytoplankton that develop and
reproduce quickly, this is the case.

» Pyramid of Energy: Since energy flows
from one trophic stage to the next,
energy is always lost as heat at each
step, the pyramid of energy is always
upright and can never be inverted.
» The total amount of energy at each
trophic level is represented by this
pyramid. Energy is indicated by means
of unit like Cal/unit area/unit time or
kcal/unit area /unit time.
» The biological magnification
phenomenon—the propensity for
harmful compounds to accumulate at
higher levels of the food chain—can
be explained using the energy pyramid
definition.
I M A G E 2.9: P Y R A M I D OF
24
I M A G E 2.8: P Y R A M I D S OF BIOMASS
Pollutants Movement in Trophic
Level
• In an ecosystem, the pollutants
(especially non-degradable) can move
through the various trophic levels.
• Non-biodegradable materials such as
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
(Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro ethane or
DDT, benzene hexachloride or BHC,
etc.), waste plastic bottles, polyethylene
bags, used soft-drink cans, etc. are
either not degraded or degraded only
very slowly by decomposers in the
nature.
Bioaccumulation
• It is the mechanism of increasing
the concentration of toxic elements
within the body of a specific organism
and in general, the concentration of
contaminants increases in the body
of the organism as compared to the
external environment like water, air, etc.
• Example- The air pollution which is
caused due to various factors including
the vehicular emission, progresses to
an accumulation of toxic elements like
PM2.5 and PM10 inside an organism
and can have dangerous impacts on
ENERGY
humans as well as other organisms.
Biomagnification
• Biomagnification is the increase in
contaminated substances due to
the intoxicating environment. The
contaminants can be arsenic, mercury
or other heavy metals and pesticides
such as DDT and polychlorinated
biphenyls.
I M A G E 2.10: B I O M A G N I F I C AT I O N
• The pollutant must be mobile, long-
lived, soluble in fats, and biologically
active in order for biomagnification
to occur. If a pollutant has a short
life span, it will be degraded until it
becomes toxic. If it is not airborne, it
will remain stationary and will not be
consumed by organisms. The organism
can excrete the pollutant if it is soluble
in water. Pollutants that dissolve in fats,
may settle for a long time.
• It can be observed in pollutants like DDT
or Mercury. The concentration of DDT/
Mercury increases at the successive
trophic levels. When zooplankton
consumes DDT-contaminated
water, the concentration of DDT in
the zooplankton is amplified. The
magnification is even higher at higher
trophic stages, such as small fish, large
25
• These compounds are absorbed by
animals via the food they eat. Toxins
grow in higher species as organisms in
the higher food chain feed on organisms
in the lower food chain that produce
these toxins.
• Thus, in biomagnification there is an
increase in concentration of a pollutant
from one trophic level to the next.
fish, and tertiary carnivore, proving the
event of Biomagnification.
• Since they remain in the environment
and magnify in the food web, dioxins,
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
and heavy metals are all agents of
biomagnification.
Nutrient/Biogeochemical
Cycles
• The flow of energy in ecosystems
is linear, but the flow of nutrients is
cyclical. This is because as energy flows
downhill i.e., it is lost or utilized in the
form of heat as it flows forward.
• The nutrients on the other hand keeps
rotating in the cyclical form from dead
 remains of organisms to be released
back into the soil by detritivores which
are absorbed again. i.e., nutrients
absorbed from soil by the root of green
plants are passed on to herbivores and
then carnivores.
• The nutrients are locked in the dead
remains of organisms and released
back into the soil by detritivores and
decomposers.
• This movement of nutrient elements
through the various components of an
ecosystem is called nutrient cycling or
bio-geochemical cycle (Bio = living, geo
= rock, chemical = element).
• The two vital part of a bio-geochemical
cycle are:
» Reservoir (nutrient) pool: They are large
and abiotic factors. Ex: atmosphere or
rock, which stores large amounts of
nutrients.
» Cycling pool or compartments of
cycle: They are relatively short storages
of carbon in the form of plants and
animals.
• (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary are
the two types of nutrient.
• The reservoir for gaseous type of
nutrient cycle (e.g., carbon cycle,
nitrogen) sustain in the atmosphere
and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g.,
phosphorus and sulphur cycle), the
reservoir is in Earth’s crust.
• Environmental factors, e.g., soil,
moisture, pH, temperature, etc.,
regulate the rate of release of nutrients
into the atmosphere.
• The function of a reservoir is to meet
with the deficit which occurs due to
imbalance in the rate of influx and
efflux.
• A nutrient cycle is classified as Perfect
or Imperfect depending on the
replacement time.
• Nutrients are replaced at the same rate
26
as they are used in a perfect nutrient
cycle. The majority of gaseous cycles
are regarded as perfect cycles.
• Sedimentary cycles, on the other
hand, are considered incomplete
because certain nutrients are lost
from the flow and become trapped in
sediments, making them inaccessible
for immediate cycling.
• Important gaseous cycles are: Water,
Carbon and Nitrogen whereas
important sedimentary cycles are:
Phosphorus and Sulphur.
Water Cycle
• Water is an important ecological factor.
• It determines the structure and function
of the ecosystem. Cycling of all other
nutrients is very much dependent on
water because it acts as a medium
for their transportation during various
steps.
• The water distribution on the surface of
earth is not uniform. Nearly 95% of the
world's total water is chemically bound
to rocks and does not cycle. Nearly 97.3
percent of the remaining 5% is in the
oceans, with 2.1 percent in the form
of polar ice caps. As a result, only 0.6
percent is fresh water in the form of
ambient water vapours, groundwater,
and soil water.
• Solar radiation and gravity are the
driving forces for water cycle.
• The water cycle is made up of two
primary processes: evaporation and
precipitation. They alternate with each
other.
• Water from lakes, oceans, streams,
rivers, and ponds evaporate due to
sun's heat energy.
• Plants also transpire huge amounts
of water. Water remains in the vapour
state in air and forms clouds which
drifts with wind.
• Clouds collide with cold air above
the forests in mountainous areas,
condensing to form rain precipitate
that falls due to gravity.
• Evaporation loses an average of 84
percent of the water from the ocean's
surface. It gets 77 percent of its energy
I M A G E 2.11: W AT E R C YC L E
Carbon Cycle
• Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is
the source of all carbon. Since carbon
dioxide is highly soluble in water, oceans
contain vast amounts of dissolved
carbon dioxide.
• Carbon is comparatively a minor
constituent of the atmosphere as
compared to oxygen and nitrogen.
But without carbon dioxide life could
not exist, because it is vital to produce
carbohydrates through photosynthesis
by plants.
• The global carbon cycle consists of
following steps:
» Photosynthesis: In the presence of
sunlight, green plants use CO2 in the
photosynthesis process to convert
inorganic carbon into food (organic
matter) and release oxygen. Plants
use a portion of the food they produce
27
from the precipitation.
• Water run-off from lands, rivers, and
seas accounts for 7% of total run-off,
balancing the ocean's evaporation
deficit. Evaporation accounts for 16
percent of evaporation on ground, while
precipitation accounts for 23 percent.
by photosynthesis for their own
metabolism, while the remainder is
retained as biomass, and is accessible
to herbivores, heterotrophs, including
microorganisms and humans as food.
Green plants fix 4-9 x 10 kg of CO2
each year through the entire biosphere.
Forests serve as CO2 reservoirs because
the carbon fixed by trees is deposited
for a long time due to their long-life
cycles. Forest fires emit a significant
amount of CO2.
» Respiration: Respiration is a process
carried out by all living things. Food is
oxidised to release energy, water, and
CO2 during the metabolic process.
The energy released during respiration
is used by living organisms (animals,
plants, decomposers, and so on) to
carry out life processes. As a result of
this operation, CO2 is released into the
atmosphere.

I M A G E 2.12: C A R B O N C YC L E
» Decomposition: Animals and plants
do not fully metabolise any of the food
they ingest or synthesise. They keep a
large portion of it as their own biomass,
which decomposers will use after they
die. Microorganisms decompose the
dead organic matter, and decomposers
release CO2 into the atmosphere.
» Combustion: Carbon dioxide enters into
the atmosphere when biomass is burnt.
» Impact of human activities: Since
the dawn of the industrial age,
anthropogenic activities have been
gradually disrupting the global carbon
cycle. Deforestation on a large scale
and the increasing use of fossil fuels
by a growing number of factories,
power plants, and vehicles are the
primary causes of rising carbon dioxide
emissions.
• Carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere have been steadily rising
as a result of human activities such as
urbanisation, industrialization and the
increased use and number of vehicles.
As a consequence, the atmospheric
concentration of CO2 is rising, which
is a significant contributor to global
warming.
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is a part of protein that
28
is required by all living organisms,
including humans.
• Nitrogen makes up nearly 79 percent
of our atmosphere, but it cannot be
used directly by most living organisms.
Broadly like CO2 cycle, nitrogen also
cycles from gaseous phase to solid
phase then back to gaseous phase
through the activity of a wide variety of
organisms. All living organisms depend
on nitrogen cycling to survive. The
nitrogen cycle is governed by five main
processes, which are detailed below:
• Nitrogen fixation: This procedure
involves converting gaseous nitrogen
into ammonia, a type that plants can
use. The three methods mentioned
below will fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• Atmospheric fixation: Combustion,
lightening and volcanic activity help in
the nitrogen fixation.
• Industrial fixation: At high temperature
(400°C) and high pressure (200
atmosphere), Ammonia is formed when
molecular nitrogen is broken down into
atomic nitrogen and then combined
with hydrogen.
• Bacterial fixation: The two bacteria
types are:
» Symbiotic bacteria e.g., Rhizobium in
the root nodules of leguminous plants
and blue green algae (e.g., Anabaena,
Spirulina).
» Free living bacteria e.g., Nostoc,
Azotobacter (aerobic), Clostridium
(anaerobic) and Cyanobacteria can
combine atmospheric or dissolved
nitrogen with hydrogen to form
ammonia.
• Ammonium ions can be taken up
directly as a nitrogen source by certain
plants, or they can be oxidised to nitrites
or nitrates by two types of bacteria.
• Nitrification is a process by which
ammonia is converted into nitrates
or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitro
 coccus bacteria, respectively. Another
soil bacterium Nitrobacter can convert
nitrate into nitrite.
• Assimilation is a process in which
nitrogen fixed by plants is converted
into organic molecules such as DNA,
proteins, RNA etc. These molecules
make the animal and plant tissue.
• Ammonification: Urea and uric acid are
nitrogenous waste products generated
by living organisms. The bacteria
transform these waste products, as
well as the dead remains of organisms,
back into inorganic ammonia.
Ammonification is the name for this
method. This is aided by ammonifying
bacteria.
• Denitrification: Denitrification is the
process of converting nitrates back
into gaseous nitrogen. Denitrifying
I M A G E 2.13: N I T R O G E N C YC L E
29
bacteria prefer to live in an oxygen-free
environment, so they live deep in the
soil near the water table. The process
of denitrification is the opposite of
nitrogen fixation.
• Similar steps occur in the marine nitrogen
cycle. There, the ammonification,
nitrification, and denitrification
processes are performed by marine
bacteria and archaea.
• Some nitrogen-containing compounds
fall to the ocean floor as sediment. Over
long periods of time, the sediments get
compressed and form sedimentary
rock.
• Eventually, geological uplift may move
the sedimentary rock to land. The
nitrogen is released gradually to plants
as the rock wears away, or weathers.
Phosphorus Cycle
• Phosphorus is one of the major
constituents of biological membranes,
nucleic acids, and cellular energy
transfer systems. Many animals need
large quantities of this element to make
shells, bones, and teeth.
• Rock, which constitutes phosphorus in
the form of phosphates, is a natural
phosphorus reservoir. Tiny quantities
of these phosphates dissolve in soil
solution and are absorbed by plant
roots as rocks are weathered.
• Primary Producers (plants) and other
animals obtain this element from plants.
• Volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral
dust can also be significant phosphate
sources.
• Phosphate-solubilising bacteria
decompose waste products and dead
bodies, releasing phosphorus.
I M A G E 2.14: P H O S P H O R U S C YC L E
30
• By the process of weathering and
erosion phosphates enter rivers and
streams that transport them to the
ocean.
• In the ocean once the phosphorus
accumulates on continental shelves in
the form of insoluble deposits.
• After millions of years, the crustal plates
rise from the seafloor and expose the
phosphates on land. After more time,
weathering will release them from rock
and the cycle’s geochemical phase
begins again.
• Major differences between carbon and
phosphorus cycle are firstly, atmospheric
inputs of phosphorus through rainfall
are much smaller than carbon inputs,
secondly, gaseous exchanges of
phosphorus between organism and
environment are negligible and, thirdly,
there is no respiratory release of
phosphorus into the atmosphere.
Sulphur Cycle
The sulphur cycle is a biogeochemical
cycle consisting of various processes
that together enable the movement of
sulphur through different reservoirs like the
atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.
• Sulphur is an important mineral in living
organisms that is found in biomolecules
like proteins.
• Besides, sulphur is also an essential
mineral found in rocks and soil as the
lithosphere is the main reservoir of
sulphur compounds.
• The sulphur cycle is referred to as
a biogeochemical cycle because
the element passes through various
environments on Earth in various
oxidation states, influencing both
biological and geological processes.
• Sulphur's chemical structure allows it to
stay stable in various oxidation states,
allowing it to form a wide range of
organic and inorganic compounds.
• Sulphur is the tenth most abundant
element on the Earth’s surface, which
is found in different forms in the rocks
and soil.
• The sulphur cycle consists of both the
terrestrial and atmospheric processes;
however, most of it remains in the
lithosphere.
• All the reserves of sulphur are tied up
in the lithosphere, from which they
31
are slowly released by weathering
processes.
• Sulphur compounds formed during the
cycle can act as oxidants or reductants
depending on the oxidation state of the
compounds.
• Microorganisms play an important role
in the sulphur cycle as these organisms
have specialized enzyme systems and
mechanisms to form different sulphur
compounds.
• Sulphur enters the atmosphere by a
variety of mechanisms, including fossil
fuel combustion, volcanic eruptions,
decomposition gases and ocean
surface emissions. Sulphur dioxide is
formed when hydrogen sulphide in the
atmosphere is oxidised. After being
dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphuric
acid, atmospheric sulphur dioxide is
transported back to the planet.
• Sulphur found in nature might even
exist in a combined form with other
elements like phosphorus and nitrogen.
• The concentration of sulphur on Earth
might be affected by human activities
like the addition of sulphur-containing
fertilizers to the soil.
• Unlike inorganic phosphorus
compounds, sulphur molecules are
usually more soluble in water which
increases their availability to plants
and microorganisms found in soil.
 I M A G E 2.15: S U L P H U R
Ecological Succession
• Ecological succession is the mechanism
by which plant and animal species
in a given region are replaced or
transformed into another over time.
• Biotic communities are very dynamic in
nature and change over a period.
• This transition is influenced by both
biotic and abiotic factors. The physical
environment in that region, as well as
the activities of the communities, have
both contributed to this transition.
• The direction, type, rate, and optimal
limit of changes are frequently
influenced by the physical environment.
Plant and animal populations change
as a result of succession. The two types
of successions (i) Primary succession
and (ii) Secondary succession.
Primary Succession
• Takes place over unoccupied or bare
areas such as newly formed deltas,
32
C YC L E
rocks outcrop, sand dunes, glacial
moraines as well as emerging volcano
Islands where no community has
existed previously.
• The community that initially inhabits a
bear area is called pioneer community.
It is simpler, with fewer species of plants
and animals.
• After a period of time, the pioneer
population is replaced by a new
community with a different species
mix. This second community gets
replaced by another community. This
process continues order wise in which
a previous community is replaced by
another community.
• A stage in succession or a seral
community is a transitional (temporary)
community that is created and replaced
during succession.
• The final (terminal) stage of succession
forms the community which is called
the climax community. A climax
community is mature, stable, mature,
long-lasting, and more complex.
• The entire sequence of communities occurs on land with low moisture
in each area, succeeding each other, content, such as bare rock. Hierarchy is
during succession is known as sere. a term used to describe succession in a
• Xerarch is a form of succession that water body such as a lake or pond.

I M A G E 2 .16: P R I M A R Y S U C C E S S I O N

Secondary Succession forest fires or hurricanes, or by human-

• Secondary succession is the formation
of a community after the current
natural vegetation that makes up
the community is lost, disturbed, or
destroyed by natural disasters such as
caused events such as harvesting or
land tilling.
• Since the soil contains the required
nutrients as well as a large pool of seeds
and other dormant stages of organisms,
secondary succession occurs quickly.

I M A G E 2.17: S E C O N D A R Y S U C C E S S I O N

33
Autogenic and Allogenic Succession
• Autogenic succession occurs when
change is brought about by living
members of the group, while allogenic
succession occurs when change is
brought about by external forces.
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
Succession
• Autotrophic succession is described as
a succession in which the green plants
are abundant at first, and heterotrophic
succession is defined as a succession in
which the heterotrophs are abundant.
Succession of Plants:
• The succession of plants is called
hydrarch or xerarch depending on the
nature of the ecosystem – whether it
is wet/very wet area or very dry areas.
In wetter environments, hydrarch
succession occurs, with the successional
sequence progressing from hydric to
mesic conditions. Xerarch succession,
on the other hand, occurs in dry areas
and progresses from xeric to mesic
34
environments. As a result, both hydrarch
and xerarch successions result in mesic
water conditions – neither too dry (xeric)
nor too wet (hydric).
Homeostasis
• Ecosystems have the ability to maintain
their equilibrium. They have the ability
to control the structure and function
of their own organisms. Homeostasis
refers to the ecosystem's ability to self-
regulate.
• For example, if the population of
zooplankton in a pond environment
increased, they would eat a large
number of phytoplankton, and
zooplankton would soon run out of food.
Phytoplankton populations begin to
increase as the number of zooplankton
decreases due to starvation. The
population size of zooplankton grows
over time, and this process continues at
all trophic stages of the food chain.
• A negative feedback mechanism is
responsible to maintain ecosystem
equilibrium in a homeostatic
environment.
 CHAPTER - 3
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
• All non-living and living things in
a particular natural setting make
up an ecosystem. Insects, plants,
microorganisms, animals, soil, sunlight,
water, and rocks are predominant parts
of multiple ecosystems.
Natural
Aquatic
Freshwater or
Marine Estuarine
Limnic
I M A G E 3.1: T Y P E S
Natural Ecosystems
• A natural ecosystem is a group of
living and non-living entities that exists
naturally and in which each component
interacts as a single unit through
chemical, physical, and biological
processes.
• Natural ecosystems are distinguished
from other ecosystems by the fact that
their interactions are entirely natural,
unlike artificial ecosystems, which are
affected by human activity.
35
• Terrestrial and marine ecosystems are
the two types of ecosystems that exist.
Terrestrial ecosystems are based on
land, while aquatic ecosystems are
based on water. The major types of
ecosystems are grasslands, tundra,
deserts, marine, forest and freshwater.
Ecosystem
Artificial
(Man-made)
Terrestrial
Forests Grasslands Deserts
OF ECOSYSTEMS
• Sunlight, soil, plants, air, animals,
water, and microorganisms are the
components of natural environments
that cause these interactions.
Components of these ecosystem factors
is related, either directly or indirectly.
Ex: The growth of plants is affected by
temperature fluctuations.
• Based upon the kind of habitat, these
are further divided as:
» Terrestrial, e.g., forest, grassland, desert.
» Aquatic which is further distinguished
 as:
− Freshwater which can be lotic
(stream, spring, or river) or lentic
(lake, pond, pools, ditch, swamp,
etc.).
− Marine for example ocean or sea
(deep bodies).
a) Forest Ecosystem
I M A G E 3.2: T E R R E S T R I A L /F O R E S T E C O S Y S T E M
• The forests are natural plant
communities in which flowering plants
predominate. Shrubs, trees, herbs,
and climbers are present in plenty.
Depending on the type of trees and
climate they are generally grouped into:
Tropical Rainforest
• Distribution: They are distributed in
the heavy rainfall areas on either side
of the equator. Such forests scattered
in South-East Asia, western coast of
36
− Brackish e.g., salt marshes, forests,
estuaries, and mangrove swamps.
Terrestrial Ecosystems
• It includes forest, grassland, desert, and
tundra types of ecosystems.
India, South America, and some parts
of Africa.
• Climate: Tropical rainforests occur in
areas by having high temperature and
high humidity and receives above 200
cm of rainfall per year. Soil is rich in
humus.
• Flora and Fauna: These forests have
a very rich biodiversity e.g., Brazilian
tropical rain forests have more than
300 species of trees in an area of 200
 square kilometre. Trees are generally
tall that grows up to 50 to 60 m. These
forests also support epiphytes, like
creepers, vines, orchids, and woody
creepers. The forests is rich in tree
dwelling animals like, flying squirrels,
monkeys, centipedes, snails, millipedes,
and many insect species are common
on the forest floor.
Tropical Savanna Forests
• Distribution: These forests are in Africa,
South-East Asia, Australia & some other
parts of India.
• Climate: Rainfall is seasonal but high
(annually about 100 cm to 150cm).
These forests are characterized by
Warm climate, alternate dry & wet
seasons.
• Flora and fauna: Dominantly found
species in this ecosystem like Zebra,
Elephant, Kangaroo (only in Australia),
Giraffe, etc.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
• Distribution: The forest is spread mostly
in eastern North America, Eastern
Europe, Korea, north China, Japan,
Australia, and far eastern Russia. Trees
of deciduous forests shed their leaves
in autumn and a new foliage grows in
spring.
• Climate: These forests can be found in
areas with moderate climatic conditions,
such as temperatures ranging but 10 to
20°C with 6 months long winter and an
annual rainfall between 75 to 150 cm.
They have brown soils which are rich in
nutrients.
• Flora and fauna: Beach, oak, chestnut,
heath, pine, and birch are the common
trees. These forests also show
stratification and have an understory
of saplings shrubs and tall herbs.
Prominent grazers include bison, deer,
and rodents. In these forests, rodents
play a critical role. Seeds, vegetables,
and tree leaves are among their
favourite foods. Omnivores such as
37
black bears, raccoons, wild cats, wolves,
foxes, and skunks can be found in these
forests. Hibernation, or winter sleep, is
a common characteristic of animals
found in these forests during the winter.
Green flies, aphids, some moths, and
butterflies are among the invertebrate
fauna.
Temperate Shrub Forest
• Distribution: These are also called
Mediterranean shrub forests. Such
forests are found in South Australia
along the Mediterranean, South Africa,
Coast of California, Chile etc.
• Climate: Here the rainfalls in winter only.
Rain is less and temperature is moderate.
These forests are characterized by-dry
climate with moist air.
• Flora and fauna: Vegetation is broad
leaves and resinous plants such as
rubber. Common species found in this
ecosystem are small mammals, reptiles,
and huge mammals etc.
Boreal or North Coniferous Forests
• Distribution: The word 'Taiga' refers
to coniferous forests. Below the arctic
tundra, they form a continuous belt
throughout North America and North
Eurasia. Since there is no ground at this
latitude, there is no equivalent to these
forests in the southern hemisphere.
• Climate: Cold with long, harsh winter,
with mean annual temperature below
0°C. The soils are poor in nutrients and
acidic in nature.
• Flora and fauna: Coniferous forests
are characterized by woody, drought
resistant and evergreen trees. Conifers
(gymnosperms) e.g., spruce, fir and pine
trees which bear naked seeds in cones.
The animals found in these forests are
goat, mule, deer, red squirrel, moose etc.
The carnivores which feed upon them
are bears, lynxes and timber wolves.
Some common birds are warblers,
crossbill, sparrow, thrushes, flycatchers,
and robin.
b) Grassland Ecosystem
• Distribution: Grasslands are places
where grasses predominate. They
occupy about 20% of the land on
the planet's surface. These types of
ecosystems occur both in tropical and
temperate regions where rainfall is not
enough to support the growth of big
trees. They are known by various names
in different parts of the world:
» The steppes of (in) Asia and Europe
» The Prairies of (in) USA and Canada
» The Velds of (in) Africa
» The Pampas of (in) South America
• The prominent difference between
steppes and savanna is that all the
forage in the steppe is provided only
during the brief wet season However,
in the savannas, forage is primarily
derived from grasses that emerge not
only during the wet season, but also
from the limited regrowth that occurs
during the dry season.
• Climate: Grasslands are found in areas
having well defined hot and dry, warm,
and rainy seasons. Natural grasslands
generally have a precipitation of
500 -900 mm per year. Temperature
has a wide spectrum of distribution
throughout the world, the average
temperature of the grassland is form –
20°C to 30 °C.
• Flora and fauna: Grasses are the
dominant plants in tropical grasslands,
with a few drought-resistant thorny
trees strewn around. Fox, badgers,
zebra, ass, antelope are found grazing
on grasslands supporting the dairy
and leather industries. Grasslands also
support a large population of insects,
rodents, and reptiles.
c) Desert Ecosystem
• Distribution: Desert habitats are found
38
in areas of less than 25cm of annual
rainfall. Deserts cover a large portion
of land, accounting for about 17%
of total land area. Flora and fauna
are underdeveloped due to high
temperatures, intense light, and a lack
of water.
» The climate of deserts is modified by
latitude and altitude (Height). Deserts
are hot near the equator and tropics
and cold at high altitudes and larger
distances from the equator.
» Temperatures can vary greatly, from
extremely hot in hot deserts to extremely
cold in cold deserts. The Sahara,
Arabia, and Gobi deserts complex
stretches from Africa to Central Asia
has extremely erratic and negligible
rainfall as well as low humidity due to
excessive evaporation.
» Lack of rain in the mid latitude is often
due to stable high-pressure zones;
deserts in temperate regions often lie
in “rain shadows”, that is, where high
mountains block off moisture from the
seas.
» The cold deserts are found at high
elevations, where temperatures are
cold, and rainfall is scarce because the
air loses much of its moisture content
as it rises. Cold deserts occur in Tibet,
Bolivia Arctic and Ladakh regions of
Himalayas.
• Flora and fauna: Producers are mainly
bushing, some grasses, shrubs, and few
trees. Leaves and stems are modified to
conserve water. The best-known desert
plants are spiny leaved cacti and the
succulents. Consumers are commonly
insects, reptiles, birds, camels and are
adapted to the xeric conditions.
• Adaptations: Desert plants have to
deal with extreme heat and aridity.
» The proper desert plants may be
divided into two main groups.
 − Depending directly upon on rain.
− Those depending on the presence
of subterranean water.
» The first group consists of two types:
− Depending directly upon the rain
are of two types - the ‘ephemerals’
and the rain perennials.
» Ephemerals are delicate annuals with
slender stems and root systems and
sometimes large flowers that seem
to be free of xerophilic adaptations.
They appear almost instantly after
rain, produce flowers and fruits in an
extraordinarily short period of time,
and die as soon as the soil's surface
layer dries up.
» Rain perennials are only visible above
ground during the rainy season, but
they have an underground stem that
lasts all year.
» The second category, which is
dependent on the availability of
underground water. By far the majority
of native plants are capable of
absorbing water from deep beneath
the surface of the ground through a
well-developed root system, the main
component of which is usually a slender,
woody tap root of extraordinary length.
» Following are the adaptation the plants
use to conserve water:
− They are mostly shrubs.
− Leaves are either reduced in size or
absent.
− The leaves and stems of plants are
succulent and capable of storing
water, and the stems of some
plants also contain chlorophyll for
photosynthesis.
− The root system is well-developed
and spread out over a wide area.
− Annuals germinate, flower, and
reproduce only during the brief
rainy season, not during the summer
39
or winter. This is an adaptation to
desert conditions.
The species have adapted to desert
environments physiologically and
behaviourally.
− They conserve water by excreting
concentrated urine.
− They are fast runners who prefer to
be nocturnal to escape the heat of
the sun during the day. Animals and
birds with long legs hold their bodies
away from the hot earth.
− Lizards are often insectivorous and
can go for days without drinking
water.
− Herbivorous animals get enough
water from the seeds which they eat.
− The camel is known as the desert
ship because it can travel long
distances without drinking water for
many days.
− While mammals as a whole are
poorly adapted to deserts, several
species have developed secondary
adaptations. A few nocturnal rodent
species can survive in the desert
without water.
d) Tundra
• Since they are located in areas of the
world where environmental conditions
are extremely harsh, the term tundra
literally means "barren land" Tundra
is divided into two types: arctic and
alpine.
• Distribution: In the northern
hemisphere, Arctic tundra spreads as
a continuous belt below the polar ice
cap and above the tree line. It includes
the northernmost regions of European
Russia, Canada, Siberia, Alaska, and
the Arctic Ocean's island group. On the
Antarctic Peninsula Since the majority
of the Antarctica tundra is covered by
ocean, it is very thin. Alpine tundra can
be found high up in the mountains,
 above the treeline. Since mountains
can be located at all latitudes, alpine
tundra experiences day and night
temperature changes.
• Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation
of arctic tundra is sedges, cotton
grass, dwarf birches, heath, lichens,
and willows. Animals of tundra are
arctic hare, musk ox, reindeer, caribus,
lemmings and squirrels. The majority of
them have a long lifespan, such as the
arctic willow Salix Arctica, which can
live for 150 to 300 years. Animals show
the following adaptations:
» To keep warm, the body is covered in
fur.
» Epidermal hair and thick cuticle and
protect them from chill.
» Tundra mammals have a large body
size and a short tail and ear to prevent
heat loss from the soil.
» Insects have brief life cycles that are
finished at the most favourable time of
year.
Aquatic Ecosystems
• Aquatic ecosystems include plant and
animal species found in bodies of water.
Aquatic ecosystems are classified
based on salinity into following two
types: (i) Freshwater (ii) Marine
Components of Aquatic Ecosystems:
• Abiotic Components
» Light: Solar radiation provides the
energy that keeps the system running.
The amount of dissolved or suspended
particles in water, as well as the
number of plankton, all influence
light penetration. Based on extent
of penetration of light an aquatic
ecosystem can be divided into euphotic
(eu=true, photic=light), mesophotic and
aphotic zones. In the euphotic zone,
40
plants and animals have plenty of light.
In the aphotic region, there is no light.
» Inorganic substances: These are
carbon, water, phosphorus, nitrogen,
calcium, and another element like
sulphur depending on the location of the
ecosystem. The inorganic substances
like CO2 and O2 are dissolved in water.
Both plants and animals rely on water
for food and gas exchange; phosphorus,
nitrogen, sulphur, and other salts of
inorganic nature are present in bottom
sediment and within living organisms
as reserves. A very small percentage of
the sum can be in dissolved state.
» Organic compounds: Amino acids,
humic acids, as well as the breakdown
products of dead animals and plants,
are natural organic matter in the
aquatic environment. They are partially
dissolved and partially suspended in
water.
Note:
• It is observed and documented that
the snow cover on water bodies can
effectively cut off light, which makes
the waters goes into darkness. Hence
photosynthesis stops but respiration
of plants and animals continues.
Thus, in shallow lakes, the oxygen
gets depleted soon. Fishes and
another small organism thus die. This
condition is known as winter kill.
• Biotic Components
» Producers or autotrophs: These
synthesize food for all the heterotrophs
of the aquatic ecosystem. They can be
categorized into two groups:
− Floating microorganisms
and plants: These are called
phytoplankton (“Phyto”- plants,
“plankton” –floating). They are
microscopic organisms. Sometimes
they are so abundant in the water
body that they make it look green
 in colour e.g., Spirogyra, Ultrix,
Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox.
Rooted plants: From the periphery
to the deeper layers, these are
organised in concentric zones.
With increasing water depth, three
distinct zones of aquatic plants can
be seen in the following order:
• Zone of emergent vegetation:
e.g., Typha, Bulrushes and
Sagittaria.
• Zone of rooted vegetation with
floating leaves. e.g., Nymphaea
• Zone of submergent vegetation:
e.g. All pond weeds like Hydrilla,
Rupia, musk grass etc.
» Consumers/Heterotrophs: These are
animals which feed directly or indirectly
on autotrophs e.g., Tadpole, snails,
sunfish, bass etc. These animals can be
classified into the following groups
− Neuston are unattached organisms
which live at the air water interface
such as floating plants, etc. E.g.,
beetles and back-swimmers.
− Periphyton are organisms which
remain attached to stems and leaves
of rooted plants or substances
emerging above the bottom mud
such as sessile algae and their
associated group of animals.
− Zooplanktons are floating animals.
Cyclops, Cypris.
− Nektons are creatures who have the
ability to float and navigate at will.
Fish, for example.
− Benthic species are those that
live at the bottom of the ocean.
Molluscs, mites, beetle, and some
crustaceans.
» Decomposers: They are distributed
throughout the entire aquatic
ecosystem but in the sediment most
abundant. There are bacteria and
fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia,
41
Cladosporium) found at the bottom of
the water body.
Fresh Water Ecosystem
• Fresh water is land-based water that
is constantly cycling and has a low salt
content, and limnology is the research
of it. Ex: Pond ecosystem
• Freshwater habitats cover 0.80% of
the Earth's surface area and contain
0.009% of the world's total water.
• They generate nearly 3% of its net
primary production.
• They are home to 41% of the world's
recognised fish species.
• Freshwater habitats are classified into
three categories:
» Lentic: still water or slow-moving,
including pools, ponds, and lakes.
» Lotic: rapidly moving water, for example
rivers and streams.
» Wetlands: For at least part of the year,
the soil is inundated or saturated.
• Physical characteristics: The
concentration of dissolved salts in fresh
water is minimal.
» The temperature varies during the day
and throughout the year. The surface
temperature of tropical lakes is never
below 40°C, in temperate fresh waters,
never goes above or below 40°C and in
polar lakes never above 4°C.
» In temperate climates, the water
surface layer freezes, but species live
underneath the frozen surface.
» Light has a great influence on freshwater
ecosystems. Many suspended materials
obstruct penetration of light in water.
» Certain animals float up to water
surface to take up oxygen for respiration.
Depending on their size and habits,
aquatic organisms may float in water,
swim freely, or be sedentary (fixed).
» Photosynthesis is carried out by aquatic
plants using carbon dioxide dissolved
in water.
• Depressions containing standing water
are known as ponds and lakes. Lake
Superior is the largest lake in the world
is in North America. Lake Baikal in
Siberia is the deepest lake. Chilka Lake
(Odisha) is the largest lake in India.
• In a lake, there are three major zones
that can be distinguished:
» Peripheral zone (littoral zone) with
shallow water.
» Open water beyond the littoral zone
where water is quite deep.
» Benthic zone (bottom) or the floor of
the lake.
• Wetlands are areas that are regularly
flooded with water and host a diverse
population of aquatic species, such as
frogs and other amphibians. Wetlands
include swamps, marshes, and
mangroves.

I M A G E 3.4: P O N D ECOSYSTEM

42
Marine Ecosystem
• It includes oceans and seas including
organisms.
• The marine ecosystem occupies about
71 percent of the earth's surface, with an
average depth of around 4000 metres.
Freshwater rivers gradually drain into
the ocean, and various species live at
various depths of the sea or ocean.
• Physical characteristics: The open sea
has a steady salinity of 3.6 percent.
» The temperature range in the sea is
much smaller than it is on land.
» In seas, hydrostatic pressure increases
with depth due to the water column.
Near the surface, it is 1 atm, and at the
deepest point, it is 1000 atm. Deeper-
layer animals have adapted to the high
pressure.
» Certain marine animals, such as sperm
whales and seals, will dive to great
depths and then swim back to the
surface with ease.
» Tides are a natural characteristic
in marine environments due to the
gravitational pull of the moon.
• Flora and fauna: When compared
to terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic
ecosystems have a high degree of
biodiversity. Almost every major animal
group can be found in the sea.
» Insects and vascular plants are
completely absent in the marine
ecosystem.
» Algae, diatoms, jelly fishes and
dinoflagellates are some of the free-
floating life forms in oceans.
» Free-swimming species that can
navigate include large turtles,
crustaceans, mollusks, and mammals
such as porpoises, whales, dolphins,
and seals.
» Sessile (fixed) organisms such as
corals, sponges, starfish, and crabs are
43
common bottom dwellers.
» The tidal zone, which is close to the sea,
has the greatest diversity of marine
species.
• Adaptations:
» Lightweight animals and plants float in
water and move with the water currents.
» Animals and plants in the ocean are
tolerant to high concentration of salts.
» Osmoregulation is the mechanism of
maintaining a steady osmotic pressure
in the bloodstream.
» The bodies of swimming animals
are streamlined. Their bodies are
compressed laterally.
» Bioluminescence is seen in deep sea
forms (they emit light).
» They are reliant on the upper sea zones
for food.
Brackish Water Ecosystems
• They salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt.
For example, salt marshes, estuaries,
swamps, mangrove forests.
Estuaries
• An estuary is a body of water where
a river or stream meets the sea. It is a
partly enclosed coastal region at the
river's mouth, where the river's fresh
water, which contains fertile silt and
runoff from the soil, combines with the
salty sea water.
• It forms a transition zone between the
marine and freshwater ecosystems,
with salinity variations caused by the
mixing of salt and fresh water.
• Since river flow, tidal range, and
sediment distribution are constantly
changing in estuaries, they are very
diverse and active ecosystems. Coastal
bays, River mouths, lagoons, tidal
marshes, and deltas are examples of
 estuaries.
• Estuaries have more nutrients than
freshwater or coastal waters, so they
are more active and have a varied
fauna. Green algae, diatoms, blue-
green algae and dinoflagellates make
up the phytoplankton of estuaries in
general.
• Huge algae and sea grasses can be
found along the estuaries' seashores.
Mangrove forests can be found near
the mouths of rivers and deltas. During
cyclones and high-velocity landward
winds, the extensive mangrove forests
serve as barriers for the coastal
ecosystem, reducing wind speed.
• Both plants and animals in estuaries are
exposed to salinity variations to which
they have adapted (osmoregulation).
• Estuary Formation: Most estuaries can
be divided into one of four geomorphic
groups based on the physical processes
that shaped them: (1) movement of
sand and sandbars; (2) rising sea level;
(3) tectonic processes; and (4) glacial
processes.
• Estuaries form a transition zone
(ecotone) between river environments
and maritime environments. So,
estuaries are typically highly productive
biological zones.
• They also serve as a filter for certain
dissolved constituents in river water,
which precipitate in the region where
the river reaches the sea.
• They trap of suspended sand and mud
which rivers carry leading to formation
of delta estuaries, is more significant.
Deltas are triangular areas that run
borders river valley on their way to
44
the mouth. They are synonymous with
land that protrudes into the sea as
protuberances.
• Estuaries have been damaged due to
industrialization, growth of population
and urbanization. Aquaculture activities
such as prawn seed harvesting has
caused considerable damage. Further,
pollution due to industrial effluents
and always remains have caused
eutrophication.
Ecotone:
Ecotone is a zone of junction between
two or more diverse ecosystems e.g.,
the mangrove forests. They represent an
ecotone between marine and terrestrial
ecosystem. Some more examples of
ecotone are – grassland, estuary, and
riverbank.
Characteristics of Ecotone:
• It may be very narrow or quite wide.
• It has the conditions intermediate
to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence
ecotone is a zone of tension.
• It is linear as shows progressive
increase in species composition of
one in coming community and a
simultaneous decrease in species
of the other outgoing adjoining
community.
• A well-developed ecotone contains
some organisms which are entirely
different from that of the adjoining
communities. Sometimes the number
of species and the population density
of some of the species is much greater
in this zone than either community.
This is called edge effect.
 I M A G E 3.5: E C OTO N E
Mangroves
• Mangroves are a type of littoral
forest ecosystem that grows near the
seashore. In tropical and subtropical
areas, these forests develop in mudflats,
tidal creeks, sheltered low lying coasts,
lagoons estuaries, backwaters (coastal
waters kept back on land) and marshes.
• The best spots are where rivers carry
a lot of silt or on the backside of
accumulating sandy beaches.
• Mangroves are the best example of
an ecotone since they are situated
between land and sea.
• Characteristics and adaptations of
mangrove ecosystem:
» It includes various composition of
shrubs and trees.
» Tolerant to high temperature.
» Mangroves are high-productive
habitats with trees varying in height
45
from 8 to 20 metres.
» They protect the coastline from
tsunami and cyclone damage. Their
physiological adaptation to salinity
stress (halophytic), to waterlogged
anaerobic mud and tidal effect is high.
» They require high solar radiation and
can absorb fresh water from brackish /
saline water.
» It produces pneumatophores (blind
roots) to solve the anaerobic soil's
respiration problem.
» Mangroves come in a range of shapes and
sizes. Some plants, such as Rhizophora,
send down arching prop roots into the
water. Others, such as Avicenna, send
vertical “Pneumatophores,” or air roots,
up through the mud.
» The majority of mangrove vegetation
has lenticellated banks, which allows for
more water loss and results in coppices.
The leaves are thick and contain glands
that secrete salt.
» Mangroves reproduce using the
Viviparity process. i.e., seeds germinate
inside the tree (before falling to the
ground). This is an adaptive mechanism
for overcoming the saline water
germination problem.
» Some plants secrete excess salt through
their leaves, which can be seen as salt
crystals on the backs of the leaves if
you look closely; others prevent salt
absorption at their roots.
» Stilt roots are adventitious roots that
grow above ground level from a tree's
main trunk.
I M A G E 3.6: M A N G R OV E
Coral Reefs
• Coral is a living animal. Coral and
‘zooxanthellae,' microscopic algae that
live on coral, have a symbiotic relationship
(each gives something to the other and
receives something in return).
46
• The animal communities are of two
types:
» Permanent fauna mainly bentic
are crustaceans, molluscs, insects’
polychaetes, and birds like kingfishers.
» Visiting fauna includes crustaceans,
mollusks, birds and echinoderms which
come from adjacent rivers and terrestrial
ecosystems. Crocodiles, Tree frogs,
snakes and turtles are present in these
forests. Many commercially valuable
fishes use them as a breeding and
spawning site. Sunder ban mangroves
are the only mangroves where tiger
population is found.
• Through their photosynthetic activities,
zooxanthellae aid the coral in nutrient
development. These practises provide
energy to the coral in the form of
fixed carbon compounds, enhance
calcification, and mediate elemental
 nutrient flux.
• The tissues of corals do not have the
beautiful colours of the coral reef,
but instead are transparent (white).
The corals' colour comes from the
zooxanthellae that live inside their
tissues.
• In exchange, the host coral polyp
provides a healthy space for its
zooxanthellae to live in, as well as a
constant supply of carbon dioxide for
its photosynthetic processes.
• Soft corals and hard corals, such as
gorgonians and sea fans, are the two
types of corals. Reefs are built by hard
corals only.
• Coral reefs are formed by tiny animals
known as polyps. These polyps leave
their limestone (calcium carbonate)
skeletons behind as they thrive, evolve,
and die. New polyps also colonised
the limestone. As a result, a coral reef
is made up of layers of these skeletons
that are gradually covered by living
polyps.
• Despite the fact that corals live in
I M A G E 3.7: C O R A L R E E F
47
nutrient-poor environments, their
capacity to recycle scarce nutrients
(by the entire nutrient community) is
tremendous.
• Many vertebrates, invertebrates and
plants live in close proximity to corals in
the coral reef environment, allowing for
strong resource coupling and recycling,
allowing coral reefs to have extremely
high productivity and biodiversity,
so they are known as ‘the Tropical
Rainforests of the Oceans’.
• While most coral reefs are found in
tropical and sub-tropical water, there
are also deep-water corals in colder
regions.
• Cold Water Corals: Deep, cold (39-55
degrees F) water is home to cold-water
corals. According to the United Nations
Environment Program, there are more
cold-water coral reefs than tropical
reefs on the planet. Just around six
separate coral species are related to the
development of these reefs. The Roost
Reef, located off the coast of Norway,
is the world's largest cold-water coral
reef.
Artificial Ecosystem
• They are also called man-made or
man-engineered ecosystems. They are
maintained artificially by man where,
by addition of energy and planned
manipulation, natural balance is
disturbed regularly, e.g., croplands such
as sugarcane, maize, wheat, rice-fields,
orchards, gardens, villages, cities, dams,
aquarium, and manned spaceship.
• Zoo parks often create artificial
ecosystems by placing animals in
human-made areas similar to their
natural habitat.
• However, traditionally, scientists
and policymakers have regarded
artificial ecosystems as relatively low
in ecological value, regardless of their
actual function and services
• The past several decades has seen
ferocious clashes in environmental
philosophy and conservation biology
over the role of artificial ecosystems.
I M A G E 2.8: E V E R G R E E N F O R E S T
48
Ecosystems of India
India is a vast country and possesses many
types of natural ecosystems.
Terrestrial Ecosystem in India
Forests
• Champion and Seth classified Indian
Forest into sixteen types.
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests
• Wet evergreen forests are distributed
all along the northeaster region, the
Nicobar and Andaman Islands, and
Western Ghats.
• It is characterized by tall, straight
evergreen trees. The more common
trees that are found here are the
jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango,
and hoolock.
• The trees in this forest are arranged in
a tier pattern, with shrubs covering the
layer closest to the ground, then short-
structured trees, and finally tall trees.
• On the trunks of the trees, beautiful
ferns of various colours and orchids of
various varieties grow.
IN W E S T E R N G H AT
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
• The forests are distributed across the
Eastern Himalayas, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, and Western Ghats.
• Such forests have a mixture of the
wet evergreen trees and the moist
deciduous trees.
• The forest is dense and is filled with a
large variety of trees of both types.
I M A G E 3.9: D E C I D U O U S F O R E S T
Littoral and Swamp
• These forests are distributed along the
deltas of Brahmaputra and Ganga river
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• They have soft tissue roots that allow
49
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
• Moist deciduous forests are found
throughout India except in the western
and the north-western regions.
• The trees are tall, have broad trunks,
branching trunks and roots to hold
them firmly to the ground.
• Some of the taller trees shed their
leaves in the dry season.
• There is a layer of shorter trees and
evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth.
• These forests are dominated by salt
and teak, along with mango, bamboo,
and rosewood.
the plant to breathe while in the water.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest
• Except in the north-east, dry deciduous
forests can be found in the northern
 part of India. It is also found in Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
• The canopy of the trees does not
normally exceed 25 metres.
• The common trees are the Sal, a variety
of acacia, and bamboo.
I M A G E 3.10: T R O P I C A L T H O R N
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest
• The coasts of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are covered
in dry evergreens.
• There are mostly hard-leaved evergreen
trees with fragrant flowers, with a few
deciduous trees.
Sub-Tropical Broad-Leaved Forests
• Broad-leaved forests can be found • These wet forests consist mainly of
50
Tropical Thorn Forests
• This type is found in areas with black
soil: North, West, Central, and South
India.
• The trees do not grow beyond 10 metres.
• Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of
this region.
FORESTS
along the Silent Valley in the Western
Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas. There
is a major difference in the vegetation
types in the two regions.
• In the Silent Valley, the prosper,
cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant
grass are predominant.
• In the Eastern Himalayas, the flora has
been badly affected by the shifting
cultivation and forest fires.
 evergreen trees with a sprinkling of
deciduous here and there.
• There is oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and
cherry trees. There are a large variety
of orchids, bamboo, and creepers.
Subtropical Pine Forests
• On the steep dry slopes of the Western
Himalayas, Shivalik Hills, Central
Himalayas, Naga, Khasi, and Manipur
Hills Pine forest are found.
• The trees predominantly found in these
areas are the chir, oak, rhododendron,
and pine as well as sal, amla, and
laburnum are found in the lower regions.
Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forests
• Dry evergreen forests normally have a
prolonged hot and dry season and a
cold winter.
• It generally has evergreen trees with
shining leaves that have a varnished
look.
• These forests are found in the Shivalik
Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up
to a height of 1000 metres.
Montane Wet Temperate Forests
• In the North, Montane wet temperate
forests are found in the region to the
east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh,
receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000
mm.
• In the North, there are three layers of
forests: the higher layer has mainly
coniferous, the middle layer has
deciduous trees such as the oak and the
lowest layer is covered by rhododendron
and champa.
• In the South, it is found in parts of
the Nilgiris Hills, the higher reaches of
Kerala.
• The forests in the northern region
51
are denser than in the South.
Rhododendrons and a variety of ground
flora can be found here.
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest
• This type spreads from the Western
Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas.
• The trees found in the western section
are broad-leaved oak, brown oak,
walnut, rhododendron, etc.
• In the Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall
is much heavier and therefore the
vegetation is also lusher and denser.
• There are a large variety of broad-
leaved trees, ferns, and bamboo.
• Coniferous trees are also found here,
some of the varieties being different
from the ones found in the South.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest
• This type is found in Lahaul, Kinnaur,
Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas.
• There are predominantly coniferous
trees, along with broad-leaved trees
such as the oak, maple, and ash.
• Chilgoza, deodar, fir and juniper are
found at higher elevation.
Subalpine Forest
• Sub alpine forests extend from
Arunachal Pradesh to Kashmir between
2900 to 3500 metres.
• In the Western Himalayas, the vegetation
consists mainly of juniper, rhododendron,
willow, and black currant.
• In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper,
birch, and larch are the common trees.
• Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity
the timberline in this part is higher than
that in the West.
• Rhododendron of many species covers
the hills in these parts.
Moist Alpine Scrub
• Moist alpines are found all along the
Himalayas and on the higher hills near
the Myanmar border.
• It has a low scrub, dense evergreen forest,
consisting mainly of rhododendron and
birch.
• Mosses and ferns cover the ground in
patches.
• This region receives heavy snowfall.
Dry Alpine Scrub
• Dry alpines are found from about 3000
metres to about 4900 metres.
• Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the
black juniper, the drooping juniper,
honeysuckle, and willow.
Grasslands
• Four major types of grasslands are:
Semi-Arid Zone
• It covers the western Uttar Pradesh,
northern portion of Gujarat, Punjab,
Rajasthan (excluding Aravalli’s) and
Delhi.
• Sand dunes and Hill spurs punctuate
the topography.
Dry Sub Humid Zone
• It covers the whole of peninsular India
(except Nilgiris).
Moist Sub Humid Zone
• It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in
Northern India.
• The topography is level, low lying and
ill-drained.
52
Humid Montane Regions
• This extends to the humid montane
regions and moist sub-humid areas of
Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu and Kashmir.
• The savanna is derived from the humid
forests on account of shifting cultivation
and sheep grazing
Deserts
The Thar Deserts
• The Thar desert in Rajasthan is an
extension of the Sahara deserts through
Arabian and Persian desserts. They
extend from Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Haryana to Punjab state.
• The climate of this area is characterised
by extreme drought, with sporadic and
erratic rainfall, and the northern Indian
winter rains seldom enter the region.
• From November to March, temperature
extremes prevail, with temperatures
often dipping below freezing at night;
from April to June, the heat is severe,
with frequent scorching winds and
major desiccation. The atmosphere's
relative humidity is always low.
• Only plants and animals with unique
adaptations are able to develop
themselves because the environment is
hostile to all vegetation.
• Flora: The trees in this desert are short
and stout and stunted by the scorching
sun. Cacti, reunjha (Acacia leucophloea),
khejra (Prosopis spicigera), kanju
(Holoptelia integrifolia), Oak (Calotropis
gigantea) etc are common plants in this
region.
• Fauna: It is home to the Great Indian
Bustard Sanctuary and has some of
India's most spectacular grasslands.
Among the mammal, wild ass, the
blackbuck, caracal, chinkara, desert fox
and sandgrouse inhabit the grasslands,
 open plains, and saline depressions.
» The nesting ground of Flamingos and
the only known population of Asiatic
wild Ass lies in the remote part of Great
Rann, Gujarat. It is the migration flyway
used by cranes and flamingos.
Cold Desert/ Temperate Desert
• Cold desert of India includes Spiti valley
of Himachal Pradesh, areas of Ladakh,
Leh and Kargil, Sikkim, some parts of
northern Uttaranchal.
• Since they are in the rain-shadow of
the Himalayan mountain systems,
these arid areas are not affected by the
Indian monsoons.
• They are not ideal for plant growth
because of the harsh cold weather and
depleted terrain.
• Herbaceous shrubs that are isolated,
dispersed, and overgrazed are found,
with grazing periods of less than 3-4
months.
• Characteristics:
» Severe arid conditions - Dry Atmosphere.
Monsoon is insignificant and the annual
rainfall is less than 400mm. Between
November and March, there is a lot of
snow.
» Temperature less than 0°C for most
of the period, drops to –50°C during
winter.
» Soil type - sandy to sandy loam. Soil
pH - neutral to slightly alkaline. Soil
nutrient - Poor organic matter content.
Soil has low water retention capacity.
» Wind erosion is a more natural
occurrence.
» Limited growing season, mostly in the
summer.
» Vegetation growth is sluggish and
stunted due to the aforementioned
extreme cold conditions.
53
• Flora: Cold desert comprises of alpine
mesophytes and desert vegetation.
Dry temperature zone: Betula, Salix,
Junipers. Alpine zone: Junipers, Birch,
Rhododendron with grasses. Perpetual
snow zone: No vegetation due to
permanently frozen soil. Oak, pine,
deodar, birch, and rhododendron are
the important trees.
• Fauna: Cold desert is the home of highly
adaptive, rare, endangered fauna,
such as Asiatic Ibex, Tibetan Argali,
Ladakh Urial, Bharal, Tibetan Antelope
(chiru), Tibetan Gazelle, Wild Yak, Snow
Leopard, Brown Bear, Tibetan Wolf,
Wild Dog and Tibetan Wild Ass (‘Kiang’
a close relative of the Indian wild ass),
Woolly hare, Black Necked Crane, etc.
Aquatic Ecosystems
Lakes
• In India, natural lakes (relatively few)
mostly lie in the Himalayan region,
the floodplains of Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra, e.g., Sultanpur Lake,
Batkal Lake (Haryana).
• Lakes are often graded based on
the chemistry of their water. They are
categorised as saline, brackish, or
freshwater lakes based on their salinity
levels. They are graded as Oligotrophic
(low nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate
nutrients), or Eutrophic (high nutrients)
based on their nutrient content.
• Because of nutrients obtained from
their surroundings or organic wastes
entering them, the vast majority of
lakes in India are either eutrophic or
mesotrophic.
Estuaries
• There are 14 major, 44 medium, and 162
minor rivers in the country, all of which
drain into the sea through various
estuaries.
• Estuaries are a rare and significant part
of the coastal landscape, with highly
complex habitats, varying physical-
chemical properties, and a diverse flora
and fauna.
• The Bay of Bengal has many large
estuaries. Most of the world's largest
seaports are situated in estuaries.
• Most of India's major estuaries occur on
the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries
on the west coast are smaller.
Mangroves
The Sundarbans mangroves are the world's
largest single block of tidal halophytic
mangrove. The Royal Bengal Tiger and
crocodiles have made this mangrove forest
famous.
• The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa)
is the second largest in the Indian
subcontinent.
I M A G E 3.11: M A N G R OV E S
54
• In the Krishna-Godavari deltaic regions
of Andhra Pradesh, mangrove swamps
abound in the intertidal mudflats on
both sides of the creeks.
• However, the mangroves of Pichavaram
and Vedaranyam have been destroyed
primarily due to the development of
aquaculture ponds and salt pans.
• On the west coast of India, mangroves,
mostly scrubby and degraded, occur
along the intertidal region of estuaries
and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa, and
Karnataka.
• The mangrove vegetation in the coastal
zone of Kerala is very sparse and thin.
• In Gujarat (north-west coast) are found
mainly in the Kori creek and Gulf of
Kachchh and Mangroves are of scrubby
type with stunted growth, forming
narrow, discontinuous patches on soft
clayey mud.
IN INDIA
• Mangroves vary in scale from bushy
dwarf mangrove stands in the Gulf
of Kachchh to taller stands in the
Sundarbans.
• Tiny tidal estuaries, lagoons and neritic
inlets on the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands support a thick and abundant
undisturbed mangrove flora.
Coral Reefs
• India is centrally located in the Indian
Ocean's warm tropical zone, with
extensive coral reefs in its marine
I M A G E 3.12: C O R A L
• Patch reefs are present near Kerala
coasts, Malvan, and Ratnagiri.
• Fringing and barrier reefs are found in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Atoll reefs are found in Lakshadweep.
55
territories.
• Significant coral reef habitats can be
found in India's Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, Gulf of Kachchh, Lakshadweep
Islands and Gulf of Mannar which
encompass all three major reef forms
(atoll, fringing, and barrier) and include
diverse and extensive Indian Ocean
reef areas.
• Platform reefs can be found in the Gulf
of Kachchh, while fringing reefs can
be found in the Palk Bay and Gulf of
Mannar.
REEFS IN INDIA
• Absence of reefs in the Bay of Bengal
along the northeast coast is attributed
to the immense quantity of freshwater
and silt brought by the rivers such as
Ganga, Krishna, and Godavari.
Artificial /
Human Modified
Ecosystems
• Humans' greed and needs have
drastically altered and modified
natural habitats. The following are the
key reasons for the alteration of natural
ecosystems:
1. increasing human population
2. increasing human needs and
3. changing lifestyles.
• Human-modified environments may
or may not rely on solar energy; for
example, in an industry, energy may
be supplied in the form of fossil fuels,
electricity, or both.
Agroecosystems
• Wide areas where commercial crops
are grown are referred to as agro-
ecosystems. It is also known as crop
ecosystems, and they are usually grown
as monocultures (growing only one
type of crop) over an entire region or
sometimes growing two or more crop
species in the same field at the same
time.
• Characteristics:
» They are highly simplified ecosystems.
» Species diversity is low.
» Highly unstable and not self-sustaining.
» Attract weeds and are susceptible to
plant diseases.
» Soils are poor, deficient in nutrients,
require supplementation of chemicals
or fertilizers.
» Need artificial irrigation and water
management.
» Dependent on human care and
management.
56
Plantation Forests
• It is a man-built ecosystem made up of
individuals of a particular tree species
with the goal of producing fast-growing,
commercially valuable plants.
• Characteristics:
» Plantation forests are generally
monoculture, like rubber plantation, oil
palm plantation and coffee plantation.
» Plantation forests have trees of
approximately the same age.
» Plantation forests are highly susceptible
to pathogens and pests.
» Poor in species diversity.
» Requires constant human care and
management.
Special Plantation
• Recently plantations of Jatropha
curcas have become very popular for
obtaining biodiesel.
• Roadside planting (one row of Populus
nigra)
• Under very arid conditions, the choice
of species is rather limited. Where
water is available, several species
can be selected. Within an area each
row can be given over to one or more
species. Mixtures are thus created and
are considered better as they yield
different produce to meet local needs.
• Species generally used for rail-side
planting are:
• Arid areas: Tamarix spp, Eucalyptus
spp, Acacia spp, Opuntia ficus indica,
Prosopis spp.
• Semi-arid areas: Eucalyptus spp, Avaga
spp, Acacia spp, Ficus spp, Sapium spp,
Bauhinia spp.
Social Forestry
• The conservation and management
of forests and afforestation on barren
lands, is referred to as social forestry.
Its aim is to aid in rural, environmental,
and social development.
• Social forestry is divided into three
groups by the National Commission on
Agriculture (1976). They are:
i. Urban forestry,
ii. Rural forestry and
iii. Farm forestry.
• To raise and to maintain trees on
privately and public owned lands near
urban centres, such as parks, green
belts, industrial and commercial green
belts, roadside streets, etc is referred to
as urban forestry.
• The promotion of community-forestry
and agro-forestry is emphasised in
rural forestry.
• Agro-forestry refers to the planting of
agricultural crops and trees on the same
plot of land, including waste patches.
It combines agriculture and forestry,
resulting in changes in the production
of fodder, grain, wood, fruit, and timber
at the same time.
• Community forestry includes planting
trees on community or public land, such
as temple land, village pasture, canal
bank, roadside, railway line strips, and
schools, among other areas. The aim
of the community forestry programme
is to support the entire community. It
is a way for people from low-income
families to join together in the planting
of trees.
57
Aquaculture
• Aquaculture is the practice of raising
aquatic animals or plants in a managed
environment. It is primarily used for
commercial purposes to cultivate edible
crustaceans, marine and freshwater
fish, mollusks, and aquatic plants.
• There are two types of aquaculture:
» The method of growing fish in a
managed area, such as a lake, coastal
or inland pond, paddy field or reservoir
and harvesting them when they reach
the desired size is Fish farming.
» The method of keeping fish in captivity
for a few years in floating cages in
coastal lagoons before releasing them
into the wild is Fish ranching. Adults are
harvested as they return to lagoons for
spawning (to lay eggs), e.g., Hilsa and
salmon that migrate to rivers to spawn
are cultivated using the fish ranching
process.
Dams, Reservoirs, and
Diversions
• A structure designed to keep tidal
or river water in storage is known as
Dam. Reservoirs, Dams, and irrigation
channels absorb and store runoff water,
which is then released as required. They
are used for a variety of purposes such
as:
» Flood control or mitigation.
» Hydroelectric power generation.
» Provide water to rural, suburban, and
urban areas for irrigation, industry, and
other purposes. Support recreational
activities such as swimming and
boating.
 CHAPTER - 4
BIODIVERSITY
• Biodiversity is an abbreviation for
biological diversity. A diverse range of
living species, including plants, animals,
and microorganisms, share our earth,
making it a beautiful place to live. Living
species can be found everywhere, from
the mountains to the seas, and from
the rainforests to the deserts. They vary
in their shapes, sizes, and colour. The
remarkable diversity of living organisms
forms inseparable and significant part
of our planet.
• Biodiversity describes the huge variety
of life on Earth. It is more often used to
apply to all of the organisms in a single
ecosystem. Biodiversity is describing as
every living thing which including flora
and fauna. Scientists have made some
estimate that there are around 8.7
million species of plants and animals
in existence. However, only around 1.2
million species have been identified
and described so far, most of which are
insects.
Biodiversity Levels
• Biodiversity mainly exist at three levels:
genetics, species, and ecosystems.
Genetic Diversity
• Genetic diversity is described as the
variety of genes contained within
species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms.
• Genetic diversity permits species to
adapt to different environments.
• This diversity ensures that some species
survive drastic changes and thus carry-
on desirable genes.
58
• New gene variation in individuals
occurs by gene and chromosomal
mutation, and in organisms with sexual
reproduction. It is spread across the
population by recombination.
• The differences could be in alleles
(different varieties of the same gene), in
the entire gene (the traits determining
particular characteristics) or in structure
of chromosome.
• The amount of gene pool present
in an interbreeding population is
characterised by mechanism of natural
selection.
• Selection results in some genetic
persona being given preference and
finally leads to changes in the frequency
of genes within the pool. This forms the
basis of adaptation among the living
beings.
• India has large amount of genetic
diversity and is regarded as a Vavilov’s
centre of high crop genetic diversity.
Species Diversity
• Species diversity is described as the
variety of species within a geographical
area.
• Species differ from one another,
mainly in their genetic makeup, do not
interbreed in nature.
• It is the ratio of single species over total
number of organisms across all species
in the given biome. 'Zero' represents
infinite diversity, and 'one' represents
only one species present.
• Species diversity can be classified in
terms of:
» Species richness: It refers to the number
 of various species in a defined area. It
can be further classified as:
− Alpha diversity: It denotes the
diversity within a specific area
or ecosystem and is usually
denoted by number of species (i.e.,
species richness) in that particular
ecosystem.
− Beta diversity: It compares diversity
between ecosystems, usually
measured by variation in number of
species between the ecosystems.
− Gamma diversity: It refers to the
measurement of the overall diversity
of the different ecosystems within a
region.
» Species abundance: It refers to the
relative numbers among different
species. For example, the number
of plant species, animals and other
microorganisms may be more in an area
than that recorded in another area.
Sample Area A
Sample Area C
I M A G E 4.1: T H E D I F F E R E N T S A M P L E A R E A S S H OW I N G S P E C I E S D I V E R S I T Y .
59
» Taxonomic diversity: refers to the
genetic relationships between different
species.
• When taxonomically not related
species are present in an area, the area
represents higher species diversity as
compared to an area represented by
the related species.
• Species diversity unevenly distributed
across the globe. The richness of species
is concentrated in region around
equator and tends to decrease as one
moves from equator to Polar Region.
• Biodiversity in land ecosystems normally
decreases with increasing height. In
marine ecosystems, richness tends to
be much greater in continental shelves.
• Here, all three reference areas are
shown by three types of species.
(species richness is same). However,
they vary in species abundance
(varying number of individuals per
Sample Area B
 species) and in taxonomic diversity.
Observe that sample C has the highest
species diversity as it is represented by
taxonomically unrelated species
Ecosystem Diversity
• It refers to the presence of several types
of ecosystems.
• For example, the tropical southern India
with rich species diversity will have
different structure compared to the
desert ecosystem which has quite less
number of plant and animal species.
Services Provided by Biodiversity
• Biodiversity provides many services for human beings which includes-
Type
Ecosystem Services
Biological Services
Social Services
60
• On the same lines, the marine ecosystem
although has many varieties of fishes,
yet in terms of characteristics, it differs
from the freshwater ecosystem of rivers
and lakes.
• Each and every species adapts
themselves to a particular kind of
environment.
• As the environment changes, species
best suited to that environment becomes
predominant. Therefore, the diversity of
species in the ecosystem is influenced
by the nature of the ecosystem.
Services
• Protection of natural resources like
water.
• Formation of soil and its protection.
• Storage and recycle of nutrients.
• Pollution breakdown.
• The climate stability.
• Maintenance of ecological processes.
• Recovery from unpredictable events.
• Food Production.
• Medicinal resources and
pharmaceutical drugs.
• Wood products.
• Ornamental plants.
• Breeding.
• Diversity in genes, species, and
ecosystems.
• Research, education, and monitoring.
• Recreation activities and tourism.
Ecosystem Services
• Living organisms provide a variety
of ecological services and they are
responsible for the ecosystem's overall
health. Thus, biodiversity is prerequisite
for the maintenance and sustainable
utilization of goods and services from
ecology as well as from individual
species.
i. Protection of water resources:
» Natural vegetation cover assists in
maintaining hydrological cycles,
regulating water run-off and act as a
buffer against extreme events such as
floods. Removal of vegetation results
in silting of dams and waterways.
Wetlands and forest areas act as water
purifying systems, while mangroves trap
silt, thus reducing impacts on marine
ecosystems.
ii. Soil protection:
» Biological diversity helps in the soil
conservation and retention of moisture
as well as nutrients. Removing large
areas of vegetation cover has been
often seen as accelerating soil erosion,
reducing its productivity, and often
resulting in flash floods. Root allows
penetration of water to the sub soil
layer. Root also brings mineral nutrients
to the surface by nutrient uptake.
iii. Nutrient storage and cycling:
» Ecosystem perform the vital function
of recycling of nutrients found in the
atmosphere and in the soil. Plants have
the capacity to take nutrients, and after
that these nutrients then can form the
basis of food chains, to be used by a
wide range of life forms. Nutrients in
the soil, in turn, is replenished by dead
matter which is transformed by micro-
organisms; this may then feed others
such as earthworms which also mix
61
and aerate the soil and make nutrients
more readily available.
iv. Reducing Pollution
» Ecosystems play an important role in
maintaining gaseous composition of
the atmosphere, breakdown of wastes
and pollutants removal.
» Some ecosystems, mainly wetlands
have the ability to break down and
absorb pollutants. Natural and human
made wetlands are being used to
filter effluents to remove nutrients,
suspended solids; reduce the BOD
(Biological Oxygen Demand) and
eradicate harmful micro-organisms.
Huge quantities of pollutants, however,
can be detrimental to the integrity of
ecosystem.
v. Climate stability:
» Vegetation influences climate both
at macro and micro levels. Growing
evidence suggests that undisturbed
forests help in maintaining rainfall in
the vicinity by recycling water vapour
at a steady rate back into atmosphere.
» Vegetation also have influence on
micro-climate. Vegetation's cooling
effect is a natural phenomenon that
helps people to live comfortably. Some
organisms are dependent on such
micro-climates for their existence.
vi. Maintaining ecological processes:
» Different species of birds and predators
helps in controlling insect pests, thus
reduce the need of artificial control
measures. Birds and nectar–prone
insects which breed in natural habitats
are important pollinating agents of
crop and wild plants.
» Some habitats protect important life
stages of wildlife populations such
as spawning areas in mangroves and
wetlands.
• Without ecological services provided
by biodiversity, it would be impossible
to get food and pure air to breathe.
Biological Resources of
Economic Importance
i. Food, fibre, medicines, fuel wood as
well as ornamental plants:
» Five to six thousand plant species are
known to have been used as food
by humans. Currently, approx. 20
species feed the majority of the world's
population and just 3 to 4 only are
the major staple crops to most of the
population in the world.
» A large number of plant and animal
ingredients have application in the
treatment of various ailments. Since
long times medicinal plants have been
used in India, dating back to the Pre-
Vedic culture. The therapeutic values
of herbal medicines led to evolution of
Ayurveda which means "life sciences". It
is calculated that at least two-third of
the country's population are dependent
on herbal medicines and more than
7000 plants species are used for
medicinal purposes.
» Wood is a basic commodity used
throughout the world for making
furniture and for construction purposes.
Firewood is the primary source of fuel
widely used in underdeveloped and
developing economies. Wood and
bamboo are useful in making paper.
» Plants have been traditional source of
fibre such as coir, hemp, flax, cotton,
jute.
ii. Breeding material for crop
improvement:
» Wild relatives of cultivated crop plants
possess valuable genes that are of high
genetic value in programmes of crop
62
improvement. Genes of wild crop plants
are being used to make new varieties
of cultivated plants. For example: Asian
grown rice is protected from four main
diseases by genes contributed by a
single wide rice variety.
iii. Future resources:
» There is a marked relationship between
the conservation of biological diversity
and the finding of new biological
resources. The relatively few developed
plant species cultivated currently have
had a large amount of research and
selective breeding applied to them.
» Many under-utilised food crops have
the potential to become important
crops in the coming times. Local
people's knowledge of wild plants is
often a source for ideas on developing
new plant products.
Social Benefits
i. Recreation:
» Forests, wildlife, national parks
and sanctuaries and garden have
high recreation value. Ecotourism,
photography, painting, and literary
activities are closely related.
ii. Cultural values:
• Plants and animals play an instrumental
role in the cultural life of humans.
Cultures of human have co-evolved
with their environment and biological
diversity can impart a distinct cultural
identity to different communities.
• The natural environment serves the
inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and
educational needs of the society, of all
cultures. In majority of Indian villages
and cities, plants like Tulsi (Ocimum
sanctum), Peepal (Ficus religiosa), are
planted and considered sacred.
Research, Education and
Monitoring
• There is still much to learn on how to get
better use from biological resources,
how to maintain the genetic base of
harvested biological resources, and how
to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems.
• Natural areas provide excellent living
laboratories for such studies, for
comparison with other areas under
systems of use and for valuable research
in ecology and evolution.
Causes for Loss of
Biodiversity
• Loss of biodiversity occurs when either
a specific species is destroyed or the
habitat essential for its survival is
broken.
The Evil Quartet: The four major causes
for loss of biodiversity are:
• Habitat loss,
• Over-exploitation,
• Alien species invasions and
• Co-extinctions
• Since the origin and diversification of
life on earth there were five phases of
mass extinction of species.
• However, the 'Sixth Extinction' presently
in progress is different from the previous
episodes as the current species
extinction rates are estimated to be
about 100 to 1,000 times faster than the
pre-human times and human activities
are responsible for the increasing rates.
• The biodiversity loss can be caused in
the following three ways:
» Direct ways: Deforestation, hunting,
commercial exploitation.
» Indirect ways: Loss of the natural
63
habitats, introduction of exotic species,
pollution, etc.
» Natural causes: Climate change,
Natural disaster.
Major Reasons for Loss:
• The evil quartet is the concept which
describes the reasons which cause a
decrease in the number of species. There
is loss of biodiversity due to four main
reasons which were known as the four
horsemen of the ecological apocalypse.
The reasons are overexploitation, loss
of habitat, introduction of the exotic
species and co-extinction of species.
The researchers investigated these
factors and proposed them as the
primary causes of the species' extinction
in the future. They are:
• Habitat loss and fragmentation: As a
result of cutting and burning forests,
draining and filling wetlands, converting
natural areas for industrial uses, human
settlements, mines, road construction,
and other growth projects.
» These changes either kill or force out
many species from the area causing
disruption of interactions among the
species.
» Fragmentation of large forest tracts
(e.g., the corridors) affects the species
occupying the deeper part of the forest
and are first to disappear.
» Example, The Amazon rainforest (called
the ‘lungs of the planet’) is being cut
and cleared for cultivating soybeans or
for conversion to grasslands for raising
beef cattle.
• Introduction of exotic species:
When alien species are introduced
unintentionally or deliberately for any
purpose, some of them turn invasive,
and leads to decline or extinction of
 indigenous species. Example,
» Congress grass (a tropical American
weed) has invaded many of the vacant
areas in cities, towns and villages in
India leading to removal of the local
plants and the dependent animals.
» Nile perch, an exotic predatory fish
introduced into Lake Victoria (South
Africa) threatened the entire ecosystem
of the lake by eliminating several native
species of the small cichlid fish that
were endemic to this freshwater aquatic
system.
» Water hyacinth clogs lakes and
riversides and threatens the survival of
many aquatic species. This is common
in Indian plains.
» Lantana camara (an American weed)
has invaded many forest lands in
various parts of India and wiped out
the native grass species.
• Co-extinctions: When a species
becomes extinct, the plant and
animal species associated with it in a
mandatory way also become extinct.
Example,
» When a host fish species becomes
extinct, its unique assemblage of
parasites also has the same fate.
» Coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism
where extinction of one invariably leads
to the extinction of the other.
• Over exploitation and Pollution: Air
pollution, acid rain destroys forests.
Acid rain that seeps into the ground will
dissolve nutrients like magnesium and
calcium that trees need to thrive.
» Water pollution affects the fish and
other aquatic species severely and
proves lethal to them. Toxic and
hazardous substances drained into
waterways kill aquatic life. Oil spills kill
coastal area birds, plants, and other
marine animals.
64
» Plastic trash entangles wildlife.
Biodiversity
Conservation
• Conservation is the proper management
of natural resources, to retain the
balance in nature and diversity. It
also includes wise use of natural
resources in a way that the needs of
the present generation are fulfilled and
at the same time have enough for the
future generations. Conservation of
biodiversity is important for:
» Preventing the loss of genetic diversity
of a species,
» Saving a species from becoming
extinct, and
» Protecting ecosystems damage and
degradation.
• Conservation efforts can be divided
into the following two categories:
» In-situ conservation includes the
protection of plants and animals
within their natural or protected
areas. Protected areas are land or sea
dedicated to protecting and maintain
biodiversity.
» Ex-situ refers to conservation of plants
and animals outside their natural
habitats. These include botanical
gardens, zoos, gene banks, seed banks,
tissue culture and cryopreservation.
In-situ conservation
Habitat Protection
The main strategy for species conserve is
the protection of habitats in representative
ecosystems. The established natural
habitats are:
• National parks
• Sanctuaries re-creative interest or which contains a
• Biosphere reserves natural landscape of great beauty.

• Reserved forests • The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WPA) of

1972 provided for the declaration of
• Protected forests National Parks by the State Government.
• There are 104 existing national parks in
National Parks India covering an area of 40501.13 sq.
km, which is 1.23% of the geographical
• IUCN (1975) defined national park as area of the country.
a relatively large area where one or
several ecosystems are not altered by
• Examples of a few well-known National
Parks are Corbett National Park,
human exploitation and occupation,
Kanha National Park, Simlipal National
where plant and animal species,
Park, Gir National Park and Kaziranga
geomorphological sites and habitats
National Park.
are of special scientific, educative, and

I M A G E 4.2: N AT I O N A L P A R K S

65
 Area Square Year of
S. No. Protected Area State Name
km. Establishment
1 Anamudi Shola Kerala 7.50 2003
2 Anshi Karnataka 417.34 1987
Madhya
3 Fossil 0.27 1981
Pradesh
4 Balphakram Meghalaya 220.00 1986
5 Bandipur Karnataka 874.20 1974
6 Bannerghatta Karnataka 260.51 1974
7 Bansda Gujarat 23.99 1990
8 Palamau Jharkhand 226.33 1986
9 Bhitarkanika Odisha 145.00 1998
10 Bison (Rajbari) Tripura 31.63 2007
11 Velavadar Gujarat 34.53 1973
Madhya
12 Van Vihar 4.45 1979
Pradesh
13 Buxa NP West Bengal 117.10 1986
Andaman &
14 Campbell 426.23 1992
Nicobar Islands
15 Chandoli Maharashtra 317.67 1985
Jammu &
16 City Forest 9.00 1992
Kashmir
17 Clouded Leopard Tripura 5.08 2007
18 Corbett Uttarakhand 520.82 1936
Jammu &
19 Dachigam 141.00 1981
Kashmir
20 Desert Rajasthan 3162.00 1992
21 Dibru-Saikhowa Assam 340.00 1999
Madhya
22 Dinosaur Fossils 0.8974
Pradesh
23 Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh 490.00 1977
24 Eravikulam Kerala 97.00 1978
Andaman &
25 Galathea 110.00 1992
Nicobar Islands
26 Gangotri Uttarakhand 2390.02 1989

66
27 Gir Gujarat 258.71 1980
28 Gorumara West Bengal 79.45 1992
29 Govind Uttarakhand 472.08 1990
Himachal
30 Great Himalayan 754.4 1962
Pradesh
31 Gugamal Maharashtra 361.28 1975
32 Guindy Tamil Nadu 2.82 1976
33 Gulf of Mannar Marine Tamil Nadu 6.23 1980
34 Sanjay Chhattisgarh 1440.71 1981
35 Hemis Ladakh 3350.00 1981
Himachal
36 Inderkila 104.00 2010
Pradesh
37 Annamalai Tamil Nadu 117.1 1989
38 Indravati Chhattisgarh 1258.37 1982
39 Intanki Nagaland 202.02 1993
40 Jaldapara West Bengal 216.51 1990
41 Kalesar Haryana 46.82 2003
42 Kangerghati Chhattisgarh 200.00 1982
Kasu Brahmananda
43 Telangana 1.43 1994
Reddy
44 Kaziranga Assam 858.98 1974
45 Keibul-Lamja Manipur 40.00 1975
46 Keoladeo Ghana Rajasthan 28.73 1981
47 Khangchendzonga Sikkim 1784.00 1977
Himachal
48 Khirganga 710.00 2010
Pradesh
Jammu &
49 Kistwar 425 1981
Kashmir
50 Kudremukh Karnataka 600.32 1987
Andaman &
51 Wandoor 281.50 1983
Nicobar Islands
Mahaveer Harina
52 Telangana 14.59 1994
Vanastha
53 Manas Assam 500.00 1990
54 Gulf of Kachchh Gujarat 162.89 1995

67
55 Mathikettan Shola Kerala 12.82 2003
56 Mollem Goa 107.00 1992
Arunachal
57 Mouling 483.00 1986
Pradesh
Andaman &
58 Mount Harriett 46.62 1987
Nicobar Islands
59 Mrugavani Telangana 3.60 1994
60 Mudumalai Tamil Nadu 103.23 1990
61 Darrah Rajasthan 200.54 2006
62 Mukurthi Tamil Nadu 78.46 1990
63 Murlen Mizoram 100.00 1991
Arunachal
64 Namdapha 1807.82 1983
Pradesh
65 Nameri Assam 200.00 1998
66 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 624.6 1982
67 Nawegaon Maharashtra 133.88 1975
68 Neora Valley West Bengal 159.89 1992
69 Nokrek Meghalaya 47.48 1985
70 Orang Assam 78.81 1998
Madhya
71 Pench 292.85 1975
Pradesh
72 Pambadum Shola Kerala 1.32 2003
Andhra
73 Papikonda 1012.86 2008
Pradesh
Madhya
74 Madhav 375.22 1977
Pradesh
75 Pench Maharashtra 257.26 1975
76 Periyar Kerala 350.00 1982
Phawngpui (Blue
77 Mizoram 50.00 1992
Mountain)
Himachal
78 Pin Valley 675.00 1958
Pradesh
79 Rajaji Uttarakhand 820.42 1983
Andhra
80 Rajiv Gandhi 2.30 2005
Pradesh
81 Nagarahole Karnataka 643.39 1974

68
 Andaman &
82 Rani Jhansi 320.06 1996
Nicobar Islands
83 Ranthambore Rajasthan 282.00 1980
Madhya
84 Bandhavgarh 448.85 1981
Pradesh
Andaman &
85 Saddle Peak 32.54 1987
Nicobar Islands
Madhya
86 Sanjay 466.88 1981
Pradesh
87 Sanjay Gandhi Maharashtra 86.96 1983
88 Sariska Rajasthan 273.80 1992
Madhya
89 Panna 542.67 1975
Pradesh
90 Silent Valley Kerala 89.52 1984
Himachal
91 Simbalbara 27.88 2010
Pradesh
92 Simlipal Odisha 845.70 1980
93 Singalila West Bengal 78.6 1992
Madhya
94 Satpura 585.17 1981
Pradesh
Andhra
95 Sri Venkateswara 353.62 1989
Pradesh
96 Sultanpur Haryana 1.43 1989
97 Sundarbans West Bengal 1330.1 1984
98 Tadoba Maharashtra 116.55 1955
99 Valley Of Flowers Uttarakhand 87.50 1982
100 Valmiki Bihar 335.65 1989
Madhya
101 Kanha 940.00 1978
Pradesh

69
Wildlife Sanctuaries
• The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 has
a provision that State Government
can declare certain areas as wildlife
sanctuaries if the area were thought to
be of adequate ecological and natural
significance.
• A wildlife sanctuary is also dedicated
to wildlife protection. However, its
conservation is species-oriented, and
its boundary is not limited by state
I M A G E 4.3: W I L D L I F E S A N C T U A R I E S
70
legislation.
• There are 553 wildlife sanctuaries in
India.
• Examples of various sanctuaries are
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (established
in 1940 around an artificial lake),
Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary (Keoladeo
Ghana- second habitat in the world
that is visited by the Siberian Cranes in
winter), Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary and
Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary.
Biosphere Reserves
• Biosphere reserves are undisturbed
natural areas dedicated to conservation
I M A G E 4.4: B I O S P H E R E R E S E R V E S
• To carry out the activities of biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use of
natural resources, biosphere reserves
are traditionally grouped into 3
interrelated zones, known as:
» The core area: It is fully protected and
natural area of the Biosphere Reserve
least disturbed by human activities.
71
of biological diversity and genetic
integrity of animals, plants, and
microorganisms in their totality.
It is a legally protected ecosystem in
which entry is not allowed except with
permission for some special purpose.
Destructive sampling for scientific
investigations is prohibited.
» The buffer zone: It basically, surrounds
the core zone and is managed to
accommodate a greater variety of
 resource use strategies, research, and
educational activities.
• The transition zone or ‘area of
cooperation’: the outermost part of the
Biosphere Reserve, is an area of active
engagement between the reserve
management and the locals, where
activities like settlements, cropping,
forestry, recreation, and other economic
activities are in harmony with the
conservation goals.

I M A G E 4.5: Z O N E S IN B I O S P H E R E R E S E RV E S

• Presently, 18 notified biosphere reserves are there in India. Tweleve biosphere reserves
are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man
and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

Biosphere Reserves in India (as on Dec 2014)

S. Date of
Name Area (in sq. km) Location (State)
No. Notification
Part of Wayanad,
Nagarhole, Bandipur
5520 and Madumalai,
1 Nilgiri 01.09.1986 (Core 1240 & Nilambur, Silent Valley
Buffer 4280) and Siruvani hills
(Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
and Karnataka).
5860.69
Part of Chamoli,
(Core 712.12, Pithoragarh, and
2 Nanda Devi 18.01.1988 Buffer Bageshwar districts
5,148.570) & T. (Uttarakhand).
546.34)
820
(Core 47.48 & Part of Garo hills
3 Nokrek 01.09.1988 Buffer 227.92, (Meghalaya).
Transition Zone
544.60)

72
 Southern most islands
885 (Core 705 &
4 Great Nicobar 06.01.1989 of Andaman And
Buffer 180)
Nicobar (A&N Islands).
10,500 km2 Indian part of Gulf of
Total Gulf area Mannar between India
5 Gulf of Mannar 18.02.1989
(area of Islands and Sri Lanka (Tamil
5.55 km2) Nadu).

Part of Kokrajhar,
2837 Bongaigaon, Barpeta,
6 Manas 14.03.1989 (Core 391 & Nalbari, Kamprup
Buffer 2,446) and Darang districts
(Assam).
Part of delta
9630 of Ganges and
7 Sunderbans 29.03.1989 (Core 1700 & Brahamaputra river
Buffer 7900) system
(West Bengal).
4374
(Core 845, Part of Mayurbhanj
8 Simlipal 21.06.1994
Buffer 2129 & district (Orissa).
Transition 1400
765 Part of Dibrugarh
9 Dibru-Saikhowa 28.07.1997 (Core 340 & and Tinsukia Districts
Buffer 425) (Assam).

5111.50 Part of Siang and

10 Dehang-Dibang 02.09.1998 (Core 4094.80 Dibang Valley in
&Buffer 1016.70) Arunachal Pradesh.
Parts of Betul,
Hoshangabad and
11 Pachmarhi 03.03.1999 4926
Chindwara districts of
Madhya Pradesh.
2619.92 Parts of
12 Khangchendzonga 07.02.2000 (Core 1819.34 & Khangchendzonga
Buffer 835.92) hills and Sikkim.

Neyyar, Peppara and

Shendurney Wildlife
13 Agasthyamalai 12.11.2001 1828 Sanctuaries and their
adjoining areas in
Kerala.

73
 Covers parts of Anupur
3835.51 and Dindori districts
Achanakamar -
14 30.3.2005 (Core 551.55 & of M.P. and parts of
Amarkantak
Buffer 3283.86) Bilaspur districts of
Chhattishgarh State.
Part of Kachchh,
Rajkot, Surendra
15 Kachchh 29.01.2008 12,454 km2 Nagar and Patan Civil
Districts of Gujarat
State.
Pin Valley National
Park; Chandratal
16 Cold Desert 28.08.2009 7770 and Sarchu & Kibber
Wildlife Sanctuary in
Himachal Pradesh.
Seshachalam Hill
17 Seshachalam Hills 20.09.2010 4755.997 Ranges of Andhra
Pradesh.
Parts of Panna and
18 Panna 25.08.2011 2998.98 Chhattarpur districts in
Madhya Pradesh.

• The main functions of the biosphere resource use and promotes economic
reserves are: development, which is culturally,
socially, and ecologically sustainable.
» Conservation: Long term conservation
of representatives, landscapes, and
» Scientific research, monitoring, and
education: Support conservation
different types of ecosystems, along
research, monitoring, education, and
with all their species and genetic
information exchange related to local,
resources.
national, and global environmental and
» Development: Encourages traditional conservation issues.

I M A G E 4.6: O B J R C T I V E S O F B I O S P H E R E R E S E RV E S

74
 I M A G E 4.7: C O M PA R I S O N OF NP, WS AND BR

Conservation Reserves and Conservation Reserves

Community Reserves • It refers to an area owned by the State
Government besides National Parks
• Conservation reserves and community
and sanctuaries for protecting the
reserves are terms explaining protected
landscape, seascape and habitat of
areas of the country which act as buffer
plant and animals. It is managed by
zones to corridors between established
Conservation Reserve Management
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
Committee.
reserved and protected forests.
• Such areas are given the status • The State Government may, after having
suitable consultations with the local
of conservation areas if they are
communities, declare any area owned
uninhabited and completely owned
by the Government as conservation
by the Government but used for
reserve.
subsistence by communities if part of
the lands are privately owned. • Tiruppadaimarathur conservation
reserve in Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu is the
• These protected area categories were
first conservation reserve established in
first emerged in the Wildlife (Protection)
the Country. It is an effort by the village
Amendment Act, 2002 − the amendment
community to protect the birds nesting
to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
in their village and acted for declaration
• These categories were added because of conservation reserve.
of less protection in and around existing
or proposed protected areas due to
• Rajasthan government in India declared
"Jawai Bandh forests" as a conservation
private ownership of land.
reserve forest in 2012.

75
Community Reserve
• The State Government may notify a
community land / private land as a
Community Reserve, provided that
the members of that community or
concerned individuals do agree to offer
such areas for the protection of fauna
and flora, as well as their traditions,
cultures, and practices.
• The declaration of such an area is
mainly aimed at improving the socio-
economic conditions of the people
living in that particular areas as well
as conserving wildlife. The Reserve is
managed by a Community Reserve
Management Committee.
• There should not be change in land use
shall be made within the Community
Reserve, except in accordance with a
resolution passed by the Management
Committee and approval of the same
by the State Government.
• Keshopur chamb gurdaspur (Punjab)
conservation reserve is India's first
community reserve.
• Gogabeel, an ox-bow lake in Katihar
district of Bihar, has been declared as
the state's first 'Community Reserve'.
Sacred Forests and Sacred Lakes
• A traditional strategy for the protection
of biodiversity has been in practice in
India and some other Asian countries in
the form of sacred forests. These places
are protected by local communities
because of their religious beliefs and
traditional rituals that run through
several generations.
• These have been free from all
disturbances. Sacred forests are located
in several parts of India i.e., Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Kerala, Meghalaya.
• Similarly, several water bodies for
example, Khecheopalri lake in Sikkim,
have been declared sacred by the
76
people, leading to protection of aquatic
flora and fauna.
Species-Oriented Projects
• Certain species have been identified as
needing a concerted and specifically
directed protection effort. Project
Tiger, Project Elephant and Project
crocodile are examples of focusing on
single species through conserving their
habitats.
Critical Tiger Habitat
Critical 'tiger' habitats (CTHs), also called
as core areas of tiger reserves—are
identified under the Wildlife Protection
Act (WLPA), 1972. Such regions are
required to be kept as inviolate for the
purpose of tiger conservation, without
affecting the rights of the Scheduled
Tribes (STs) or such other forest dwellers.
The notification of CTH is done by the
state government in consultation with
the expert committee established for the
purpose.
Marine Protected Areas (MPA)
• IUCN has defined Marine Protected
Area (MPA) as any area of intertidal
or sub tidal terrain, together with its
overlaying water and associated flora,
fauna, historical as well as cultural
features, which has been reserved by
law or other effective means to protect
part or all of the enclosed environment.
• The MPAs in marine environment
in India are primarily classified into
following three categories:
» Category-I: This covers National
Parks and Sanctuaries and having
entire areas in intertidal/sub-tidal or
mangroves, coral reefs, creeks, seagrass
beds, algal beds, estuaries, lagoons.
The Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in
India comprise of 33 national parks and
 wildlife sanctuaries designated under
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. For
example, Gulf of Kutch, Bhitarkarnika
etc.
» Category-II: This includes Islands, which
have major parts in marine ecosystem
and some parts in terrestrial ecosystem.
» Category-IIIA: This includes sandy
beaches beyond the intertidal line
but occasionally interacting with the
seawater.
» Category-IIIB: This includes evergreen
or semi evergreen forests of Islands.
Ex-situ Conservation
Botanical garden
• Botanical garden can be described
as scientifically planned collection of
living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, and
other plants from various parts of the
world.
• The Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah
(West Bengal) is more than 200 years
old. Other important botanical gardens
are located in Ooty, Bangalore and
Lucknow.
• Aims and objectives of botanical
gardens:
» To study the taxonomy as well as plant
growth.
» To study the acclimatization process of
exotic plants.
» It acts as a germplasm collection.
» It helps development of new hybrids.
» It augments conserving rare and
threatened species.
» To serve as a Centre of Excellence for
conservation, research and training.
Zoo
• Zoo is an establishment, both stationary
77
or mobile, where captive animals are
kept for exhibition to the public and
includes rescue centers.
• Definition: As per Section 2 (39) of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, "Zoo"
means an establishment, whether
stationary or mobile, where captive
animals are kept for exhibition to
the public and includes a circus and
rescue centers but does not include an
establishment of a licensed dealer in
captive animals.
• The Marble Palace Zoo in Kolkata city,
West Bengal which was established in
the year 1854 is the oldest existing zoo
in the country.
• There are 150 number of Endangered
species housed in the Indian Zoos. (as
on 31/03/2018).
• There are 145 numbers of recognized
zoos in the country (as on 31-01-2020).
Out of which 17 are large category
zoos, 24 are medium category zoos, 32
are small category zoos, 58 are Mini
category zoos, 13 are Rescue Centres
and 1 Circus.
• The zoos are categorised keeping in
view the requirements of technical and
scientific human resources, upkeep,
housing, health care and visitor facilities
for operation of the zoo.
• Apart from saving individual animals,
zoos have a role to play in species
conservation too (through captive
breeding), example the Manipur
Thamin Deer, the White Winged Wood
Duck, Gangetic Gharial, turtles, and the
White Tiger.
Gene Banks
• Ex-situ collection and preservation of
genetic resources is carried out through
gene and seed banks.
• The National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi
preserves seeds of wild relatives of crop
 plants and cultivated varieties.
• The National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources at Karnal, Haryana keeps
the genetic material for domesticated
animals, and the National Bureau
of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow
maintains same for fishes.
Cryopreservation
• Cryopreservation refers to the storage
of material at ultra-low temperature
of liquid nitrogen (1960-degree C) and
essentially involves suspension of all
metabolic activities.
• It is particularly useful for conserving
vegetative propagated crops.
• Cryopreservation has been successfully
applied to meristems, zygotic and
somatic embryos, pollen, protoplasts
cells and suspension cultures of a good
number of plant species.
Conservation at Molecular Level
(DNA level)
• Cloned DNA and substance having
DNA in its native state can be used for
genetic conservation.
• Unviable material representing valuable
genotypes stored in gene banks can be
used as source of DNA libraries from
where relevant gene or a combination
of genes can be recovered.
78
Biodiversity Hotspots
• A biodiversity hotspot refers to a
biogeographic region with significant
levels of biodiversity that is threatened
by human habitation. This concept was
introduced by Norman Myers in 1988.
• Biodiversity is not evenly distributed
across all the geographical regions of
the globe. Certain regions are very rich
in biodiversity. We call such areas as
"mega diversity zones". We also refer to
them as "hot-spots".
• To be qualified as a hotspot, a region
must meet two criteria:
» Species endemism - it must contain at
least 1,500 species of vascular plants (>
0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics,
and
» Degree of threat - it has to have lost at
least 70% of its original habitat.
• Around the world, about 36 areas
qualify under this definition.
• These sites support nearly sixty percent
of the world's plants, birds, mammals,
reptiles, and amphibian species, with
a very large share of those species
as endemics. Some of these hotspots
support up to 15,000 endemic plant
species and some have lost up to 95%
of their natural habitat.
• Biodiversity hotspots host their diverse
ecosystems on just 2.4% of the planet's
surface, however, the area defined
as hotspots covers a much larger
proportion of the land.
• Overall, the current hotspots cover more
than 15.7% of the land surface area but
have lost around 85% of their habitat.
Biodiversity hotspots present in India

Hot spots Region

The Eastern Bhutan, north-eastern India, and southern, central, and

Himalayas Eastern Nepal.

North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands

Indo-Burma (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern
China).

Western Ghats
Entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
and Sri Lanka

Sundalands Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,

Brunei, Philippines).

The Himalayas The Western Ghats

• It is highest biodiversity hotspot in the
world, the Himalayas consists of North-
East India, Bhutan, Central and Eastern
parts of Nepal. This region have 163
endangered species which includes the
Wild Asian Water Buffalo, One-horned
Rhino, and as many as 10,000 plant
species, out of which 3160 are endemic.
Indo – Burma Region
• The Indo-Burma Region is spread over
a distance of 2,372,950 km square. In
the last 12 years, 6 large mammal
species were discovered in this region:
The Annamite Muntjac, the Large-
antlered Muntjac, the Grey-shanked
Douc, the Annamite Striped Rabbit, the
Leaf Deer, and the Saola.
• The hotspot is also known for the
endemic freshwater turtle species, large
number of which are threatened with
extinction, due to increased harvesting
and extensive loss of habitat. There
are also 1,300 varying bird species,
including the Grey-crowned Crocias, the
threatened White-eared Night-heron,
and the Orange-necked Partridge.
• The Western Ghats are spread across
the western edge of peninsular India
and covers most of the deciduous
forests and rain forests. It spread over
states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. This
region composes of around 6000 plant
species of which approximately 3000
are endemic. Originally, the vegetation
in this region was spread over 190,000
km square but has been now reduced
to 43,000 km square. The region has
450 species of birds, 140 mammals, 260
reptiles, and 175 amphibians. Many new
species are added every year after the
discovery.
Sundaland
• The Sundaland hotspot mainly lies in
South-East Asia and covers Singapore,
Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, and
Malaysia. The Sundaland was declared
as a World Biosphere Reserve by United
Nations in the year 2013. This region is
acclaimed for its rich terrestrial and
marine ecosystem. It consists of 25,000
species of vascular plants, of which
15,000 are endemic to this region.

79
 I M A G E 4.8: B I O D I V E R S I T Y H OT S P OT S I N W O R L D
(O R I G I N A L P R O P O S A L I N R E D , A N D A D D E D R E G I O N S I N G R E E N )

IUCN Red List • Green pages: Formerly endangered

Species that are no longer threatened.
• Formed in 1964, The International
Union for Conservation of Nature's
Red List of Threatened Species has
evolved to become the world's most
comprehensive information source
on the global conservation status of
animal, fungi, and plant species.
• The Red Data Book was first published
in 1966 by the IUCN's Species Survival
Commission as a guide for formulation,
preservation and management of
species listed.

Colour codes I M A G E 4.9: IUCN R E D L I S T C AT E G O R I E S

• Pink pages: Critically endangered
species.

List Category Definition

A taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last

Extinct
individual has died.

A taxon is extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known

Extinct in the wild
and/or expected habitats have failed to record an individual.

80
 Critically A taxon is critically endangered when it is facing high risk of
Endangered extinction in the wild in immediate future.

A taxon is endangered when it is not critically endangered but is

Endangered
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in near future

A taxon is vulnerable when it is not critically endangered or

Vulnerable endangered but is facing high risk of extinction in the wild in the
medium-term future.

A taxon is lower risk when it has been evaluated and does not satisfy
Lower Risk
the criteria for critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable.

A taxon is data deficient when there is inadequate information to

Data Deficient
make any direct or indirect assessment of its risk of extinction.

A taxon is not evaluated when it has not yet been assessed against
Not Evaluated
the above criteria.

Criteria for Threatened Categories

Criteria Critically Endangered Vulnerable
Endangered
Reduction in > 90% over the last 70% over the last 10 > 50% over the last
population 10 years years 10 years
Population size Less than 50 mature Fewer than 250 Fewer than 10,000
individuals mature individuals mature individuals
Probability of At least 50% in their At least 20% within At least 10% within
extinction in wild 10 years 20 years 100 years

• The number of species included on the to track their progress in achieving

Red List has been increasing with the
passage of time. As of 2019, In a survey
of 105,000 species, 28,338 are prone at
risk of extinction due to human activity,
in particular overfishing, hunting and
land development.
Red List Index
• The IUCN Red List Index measures
trends in the overall extinction risk
(conservation status) of sets of species,
as an indicator of trends in the
biodiversity status.
• It provides an indicator for governments
targets that reduce biodiversity loss.
• The Red list index is available for five
taxonomic groups, namely, Birds,
mammals, amphibians, cycads, and
corals
• Red list index is 1.0, it means all species
qualifying as Least Concern.
• Red list index is 0 means, all species
having gone Extinct.
World Heritage Sites
• World Heritage Sites are designated by
UNESCO on account of having cultural,

81
 historical, scientific, or other forms
of significance. World Heritage Sites
are judged on the basis of containing
cultural and natural heritage all
around the world considered to be of
outstanding value to humanity.
• Nominated sites should be of
"outstanding universal value" and meet
at least one of the ten criteria.
• There are 38 World Heritage Sites
present in India which include 30
cultural and seven natural sites as
well las one mixed site. India has sixth
largest number of sites in the world.

Heritage Site Image Features

It has high alpine peaks, alpine meadows,
riverine forests, and origins of several rivers.
Great Himalayan It protects monsoon-affected forests and
National Park alpine meadows of the front ranges of
Conservation Himalayas. This national park is a part of the
Area (2014), Himalaya biodiversity hotspot and composes
Himachal Pradesh of about 25 forest types along with a rich
arena of animal species, several of which are
threatened.
First established as reserved forest in 1908 to
Kaziranga protect the dwindling numbers of rhinoceros.
National Park It has the distinction of being home to the
(1985), Assam most number of the great Indian one-horned
rhinoceros.
It has an environment which is partly created
by human partly by embankments. Around
364 species of wintering birds that flock in
Keoladeo high numbers, arriving from distant countries
National Park of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, China, and
(1985), Rajasthan Siberia, thus, making it famous.
This national park was recorded as a Ramsar
Wetland site in 1981.
This sanctuary includes habitat of several
Manas Wildlife plant species, 21 most-threatened species
Sanctuary (1985), of mammals (out of 55 mammal species
Assam in the sanctuary), 36 reptile species, three
amphibians and 350 species of birds.
Nanda Devi and The area is renowned for its meadows of
Valley of Flowers endemic alpine flowers. It is home to rare and
National Parks endangered animals, including the Asiatic
(1988,2005), black bear, snow leopard, brown bear, and
Uttarakhand blue sheep.

82
 It is largest estuarine mangrove forest of the
world is a national park, tiger reserve, World
Sundarban Heritage Site, and a biosphere reserve.
National Park
(1987), West It is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal
Bengal tiger. It is also home to a variety of bird,
reptile, and invertebrate species, including
the salt-water crocodile.
Sundarban national park is one of the world's
ten "Hot biodiversity hotspots."
A total of around nine properties (including
Western Ghats national parks and wildlife sanctuaries)
(2012) were designated to be World Heritage Sites
– twenty in Kerala state, ten in the state of
Karnataka, five in southern sate Tamil Nadu
and four in Maharashtra.
It contains elements of both natural and
cultural significance. So, designated a World
Heritage Site in 2016 under the ‘mixed’
Khangchendzonga category.
National Park
(2016)
It covers 25% of the State of Sikkim.
The world’s third highest peak, Mt.
Khangchendzonga, is situated within the
Park.

Biodiversity of India
According to the IUCN Red List by the International Union for Conservation of Nature
there are also 48 critically endangered plant species in India (as of 5 September 2019).

Critically Endangered animals

Name Image Distribution

Arthropods

It was at first thought to be endemic to the

Rameshwaram Ramanathapuram district in Tamil Nadu,
Parachute Spider India, but has since been identified outside
India in Northern Sri Lanka’s Mannar District.

The natural habitat is deciduous forest in

Peacock Andhra Pradesh, in southern India. It is found
Tarantula only in a tiny area of not more than 100
square kilometres.

83
Birds
In India it is found in the foothills of the
eastern Himalayas and Bhutan to northeast
White-Bellied Bangladesh and Burma.
Heron
It is mostly confined and occurs in peaceful
riverside or wetland habitats.
It is among the heaviest of the flying birds.
The bustard is confined to isolated places
Great Indian
in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Bustard
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh as well as
Rajasthan.

This bird is found in east Asia. It breeds in

south-eastern Russia and north-eastern
Baer's Pochard
China, migrating in winter to southern China,
Vietnam, Japan, and India.

Spoon-Billed It breeds in around north-eastern Russia and

Sandpiper parts of Asia.

It is native to South as well as Southeast Asia.

White-Rumped
Vulture They die of kidney failure caused by poisoning
of Diclonofac.

Indian vulture is native to India, Nepal, and

Pakistan.
Indian Vulture
It breeds mainly on hilly areas of mid and
Deccan region of India.

It is found in India from the north Gangetic

Slender-Billed
plain, west of Himachal Pradesh, South and
Vulture
Northern Odisha, and East of Assam.

It has two disjunct populations, one in Indian

subcontinent and other in Southeast Asia. The
former occurs from Uttar Pradesh through
Bengal Florican
the Terai of Nepal to Assam (where it is called
ulu mora) and Arunachal Pradesh in India as
well as Bangladesh.

84
 The Bugun liocichla is currently known only
from just one location in Arunachal Pradesh.
Almost all sights of the species have been at
Bugun Liocichla
an altitude of 2,000 m around 6600 feet on
disturbed hillsides covered with shrubs and
tiny trees.

This species was known from only 2 locations

Himalayan Quail (and 12 specimens) in the western Himalayas,
Uttarakhand.

Endemic to southern India, where it is majorly

known from southern Andhra Pradesh. It has
limited geographical range being known
Jerdon's Courser
from the Godavari river valley near Sironcha
and Bhadrachalam, and from the Cuddapah
and Anantapur areas in Pennar River’s valley.
The range of the red-headed vulture is
localized primarily around northern India. It
Red-Headed is usually found in cultivated and semi-desert
Vulture areas. It can be also found in deciduous
forests, foothills, and river valleys. It is usually
found up to a height of 3000m from sea level.
It breeds on open grassland in Russia as well
as Kazakhstan.
Sociable Lapwing
These birds migrate south towards main
wintering sites including north-western India.

It breeds in boreal forests of Finland to the

Yellow-Breasted Bering Sea. It is migratory in nature, wintering
Bunting in south-east Asia, India, as well as southern
China.

Mammals

It is nocturnal flying squirrel endemic to

Namdapha Flying Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known from
Squirrel a single specimen collected in Namdapha
National Park in 1981.

It occurs in the Ladakh region of eastern

Himalayan Wolf Kashmir and Lahaul and Spiti region in
northeast Himachal Pradesh.

85
 It is known only from the Salem District of the
Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu, where it occurs in
Elvira Rat rocky habitats and dry deciduous scrub forest
at altitude of about 600 m above mean sea
level.

Andaman Shrew It is endemic to the South Andaman Island.

Jenkins's Shrew It is endemic to the South Andaman Island.

This species endemic to the Great Nicobar

Nicobar Shrew
Island.

It can be found in the Himalayan foothills in

Chinese Pangolin Eastern Nepal, Bhutan, Northern India, North-
East Bangladesh as well as Southern China.

It is a nocturnal burrowing rat. It is endemic

Kondana Rat to the Sinhagad plateau near Pune,
Maharashtra.

It is a native to alluvial grasslands in the

foothills of the Himalayas at elevation of
Pygmy Hog up to 300 m. Present times, the only known
population lives in Assam and southern
Bhutan.

Malabar Civet It is endemic to the Western Ghats of India.

86
 It can be found in riverine forests, high altitude
valleys, mountains around the Kashmir valley
and northern part of Chamba in Himachal
Kashmir Stag Pradesh. In Kashmir, it is found in Dachigam
National Park, Rajparian Wildlife Sanctuary,
Sind Valley, and in the forests of Kishtwar and
Bhaderwah.

Fish

Wayanad It is endemic to India; it can be found in fast-

Mahseer flowing rivers and rock streams substrates.

It was at a time found throughout Indo-Pacific

Pondicherry Shark coastal waters from the Gulf of Oman to New
Guinea and is known to enter fresh water.

It is largely restricted to the rivers of eastern

and northeast India, particularly the Hooghly
Ganges Shark River of West Bengal, and the Ganges,
Mahanadi, and Brahmaputra, in Bihar, Odisha
and Assam, respectively.

Glyptothorax It is known from Kashmir Valley as well as

Kashmirensis Indus river basin

It is endemic to Western Ghats and known

Glyptothorax
only from the Tunga River from inside the
Kudremukhensis
Kudremukh National Park.

Endemic to east-flowing rivers in the Western

Nilgiri Mystus
Ghats, especially Kaveri river.

Garra It is found in Tributary of Panniyar stream in

Arunachalami Kerala.

Hypselobarbus It is currently recorded only in the Dakshina

Pulchellus Kannada district of Karnataka.

Hypselobarbus
Endemic to the Western Ghats in Karnataka
Thomassi (Red
and Kerala.
Canarese Barb)

87
 Endemic to India and is presently recorded
Mesonoemacheilus
only within the Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Herrei
Sanctuary and National Park in Tamil Nadu.

This fish is native to the Cauvery River system

Bowany Barb
where it is an inhabitant of reservoirs.

This fish is currently only known from the

Deolali Minnow Darna River near Deolali in Nashik District,
Maharashtra.

This fish is found in Kerala, where it is only

Pookode Lake
known to occur in Pookode Lake in Western
Barb
Ghats.

It is found worldwide in tropical and

Largetooth
subtropical coastal regions but can also be
Sawfish
seen in freshwater.

Longcomb It is native to tropical and subtropical waters

Sawfish in the western and central Indo-Pacific.

It is endemic to Western Ghats of Karnataka,

Psilorhynchus where it is confined to two locations on the
Tenura Tunga River near Sringeri and at Korkanhalla
inside Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka.

Deccan Barb It is endemic to the Northern Western Ghats.

It is currently known to be confined to the

Schistura Krem puri cave system near the Jaintia Hills
Papulifera (Meghalaya), where it is threatened due to
limestone extraction.
Reptiles and amphibians

Chilka Limbless It can be found only in the mangrove habitats

Skink near Barkud Island in Chilka Lake, Odisha.

It is currently found in Bangladesh

Northern River (Sundarbans), Cambodia, India (parts- West
Terrapin Bengal & Odisha), Indonesia as well as
Malaysia.

88
 The National Chambal Sanctuary portion of
Red-Crowned
the Chambal River is thought to be one of the
Roofed Turtle
last viable habitats for this species.

Cnemaspis It is found in the Anaikatti Hills near

Anaikattiensis Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

Hawksbill sea turtles have a large range,

Hawksbill Sea
found mainly in tropical reefs of the Indian,
Turtle
Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans.

Population is limited to river Ganga and its

Gharial
tributaries as well river Mahanadi in Odisha.

It is endemic to the Western Ghats in Tamil

Ghats Wart Frog
Nadu and Karnataka, India.

The lizard appears to inhabit semi-evergreen

Jeypore Indian forests in high altitude areas (> 1,200 metres
Gecko (3,900 ft.) of the Eastern Ghats of southern
Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh.

Known only from its type of locality,

Indirana Gundia
Kempholey, Karnataka.

Walkerana Endemic to Anaimalai Hills of the Western

Phrynoderma Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Endemic to Andaman Islands, and is known

Charles Darwin's
from the South Andaman Island, Long Island,
Frog
as well as North Andaman Island.

Kottigehar
Endemic to the Western Ghats in Karnataka.
Dancing Frog

Dattatreya Night It was first found in Shola forests around the

Frog Dattatreya Peeta in the Chikkamagaluru
district, Karnataka. It is still known only from
this part of the Western Ghats.

89
 Endemic to India and can be known only
Sacred Grove from the Kapildhara Falls near Amarkantak,
Bush Frog Madhya Pradesh as well as Gurguria, in the
Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha.
Found in Amboli and Amba in Maharashtra
and in Londa, Castle Rock, Jog Falls-
Amboli bush frog
Mavingundi, and Malleshwaram-kudremukh
in Karnataka.
This secretive frog can be located in the
Günther's Bush wet evergreen forests around Kalakkad
Frog Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.

It can be located in disturbed sholas, a type

Green-Eyed of high-altitude evergreen forests which are
Bushfrog found only in the southern portion of Western
Ghats (Munnar).

Endemic to the south of the Palghat Gap in

Griet Bush Frog
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Kaikatt's Bush Found only in the Nelliyampathy Hills of

Frog Western Ghats, Kerala.

Found only in the Nelliyampathy Hills of

Mark's Bushfrog
Western Ghats in Kerala.

It is endemic to Munnar in the state of Kerala,

Munnar Bush Frog Ghat road to Devikulam in the south part of
Western Ghats.

It was first detailed from Ponmudi hill after

which it is named but the species has a more
wide distribution within the south Western
Raorchestes
Ghats and has been recorded in Waynaad,
Ponmudi
Idukki, and Thiruvananthapuram districts
in Kerala, and Valparai in the state of Tamil
Nadu.

Resplendent Endemic to the higher region around the

Shrubfrog Anaimudi peak in Western ghats of Kerala.

90
 It is endemic to Shillong in North East India. It
Shillong Bubble-
is known through the Khasi Hills in the region
Nest Frog
of Shillong, Meghalaya.

Anaimalai Flying Endemic to the Anaimalai Hills of Tamil Nadu

Frog and Kerala states, India.

It is found only in the Andiparai Shola in

Sushil's Bushfrog
Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India.

It is endemic to India’s Western Ghats and

Amboli Toad known only from the area surrounded of
Amboli in Maharashtra.

91
 CHAPTER - 5
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
All ecosystems are capable of self-
maintenance. They generate their own self-
correcting measures to external factors
like humidity, temperature etc. Man and
his socio-economic behaviours have the
greatest effect on the climate among all
external influences.
Every species' population and activities
are controlled by the resources available
to them, and interspecies interaction.
A waste product from one species can
provide food for another species.
Humans are the only creatures capable
of gathering resources from beyond their
immediate world and transforming them
into more complex and adaptable forms.
As a result, humans have been able to
survive and grow outside their natural
limits. As a result, anthropogenic (caused
by humans) toxins have overburdened the
ecosystem, causing it to lose its natural
balance.
Causes
I M A G E 5.1: C A U S E S
92
Rapid growth has been attributed to
a rise in the exploitation of various
natural resources. Nonrenewable energy
resources, mostly coal and petroleum, as
well as various minerals, have been rapidly
depleted as a result of technological
advancement. Dams, mining, urbanisation,
manufacturing, and industrialization have
all disturbed nature's ecological balance.
Deforestation
Deforestation is a general concept that
includes tree felling, lopping, and clearing
of forest debris, as well as grazing, browsing,
and trampling of seedlings. It can also be
characterised as the removal or damage
of vegetation in a forest to the point that
the forest's natural fauna and flora is no
longer supported.
Forests have been significantly reduced
as a result of indiscriminate tree felling as
a result of industrialization, urbanisation,
and the use of wood for commercial and
other purposes.
OF D E F O R E S TAT I O N
Agriculture
• As the demand for agricultural
products grows, more land is cultivated,
necessitating the clearing of grasslands,
woods, and marshes, as well as the
reclamation of lands under water. As
a result, there is much more ecological
damage.
• The forest soil after clearing are unable
to support farming for long periods due
to exhaustion of nutrients.
Shifting Cultivation
• Jhoom farming or shifting cultivation,
is a 12000-year-old tradition that is a
step toward transitioning from food
collection to food production. It is also
known as the slash-and-burn farming
process. Approximately 5 lakh hectares
of forest are cleared each year for this
method of farming.
• There is a restricted use of tools and
a low degree of mechanisation in this
method of cultivation. However, this
form of cultivation results in substantial
deforestation because the land is left
to nature's mercy to recover after 2-3
years of tilling.
• This form of agriculture was often
intended to meet on-site demands
or local needs i.e. the needs of the
cultivating villagers.
• Even today, in the states of Tripura,
Manipur, Assam, Mizoram, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands shifting cultivation is practiced.
Urbanisation and
Developmental Projects
• The human population has increased
considerably, so are their requirements.
Often urbanisation and developmental
activities lead to deforestation.
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• Massive dams, hydroelectric projects,
and reservoirs, building of highways
and railway lines are all highly helpful,
but they are all related to a variety of
environmental concerns. Many of these
projects lead to extensive deforestation.
Fuel (firewood) Requirements
• Firewood has been used as a source of
energy for cooking, heating etc.
• Almost 44% of the total global wood
produced fulfills the fuel requirements
of the world. If you look at the pattern
of how wood is used, you will find that
developing countries use 16 percent of
the wood they produce for fuel. India
consumes approximately 135-170 Mt
(million tonnes) of firewood per year,
and 10-15 ha of forest cover are razed
to meet the basic fuel needs of the rural
and urban poor.
Raw Material Requirements
• Various industries use wood as a raw
material to make boxes, plywood,
crates, furniture, paper, match sticks
and packing cases, among other things.
• Industries also obtain their raw
materials from plants such as drugs,
scents and perfumes, resin, gums,
waxes, turpentine, latex, and rubber,
tannis, alkaloids, bees wax.
• This exerted tremendous pressure
on the forest ecosystem and their
unrestricted exploitation for various
other raw materials is the main cause
of degradation of the forest ecosystem.
Other Causes
• Deforestation also results from
overgrazing, agriculture, mining, flood,
fire, pest, diseases, defence, and
communication activities.
Consequences
Soil erosion and flash flood
• A shrinking forest cover coupled with
over exploitation of groundwater has
accelerated erosion along the slopes of
the lower Himalayas and Aravali hills,
making them prone to landslides.
• Water runs off the land due to a lack of
forest cover, washing away the topsoil,
which is subsequently deposited as silt
in river beds. Forests check soil-erosion,
landslides and reduce intensity of flood
and drought.
• A significant portion of India's mining
activity takes place in forest areas.
Deforestation and soil erosion are the
obvious consequences.
• Since timber is used to support the roofs
of mine galleries, underground mining
has greatly diminished forest cover.
• A significant number of abandoned
mines are in poor condition and are
prone to extensive gully erosion, causing
habitat loss.
Climatic Change and Forests
• Rainfall patterns have been altered as
a result of forest destruction. Forests
recycle moisture from the soil into
the surrounding atmosphere through
transpiration, where it precipitates as
rain again.
• Due to deforestation, this natural reuse
cycle is broken, and water is lost through
rapid run off.
• Deforestation results in an immediate
lowering of ground water level and in
long-term reduction of precipitation.
• Forests help to balance carbon dioxide
and oxygen levels in the atmosphere
Thus, forests are called the green
respiratory system.
• The greenhouse effect, which is partially
caused by deforestation, is one of the
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most severe problems of the century. As
the snow line has thinned and perennial
springs have dried up, the entire
Himalayan ecosystem is endangered
and in extreme disarray.
Loss of Biodiversity
• Deforestation has reduced the number
of closed forests (based on canopy
level), resulting in an increase in
degraded forests.
• Deforestation affects the biota and
neighbouring ecosystems due to
habitat loss.
India State of Forest Report
(ISFR), 2019
• ISFR is a biennial publication of the
Forest Survey of India (FSI), which is
part of the Ministry of Environment,
Forests, and Climate Change.
• FSI has been tasked with assessing
the country's land and tree inventory,
including wall-to-wall forest cover
mapping on a biennial basis. The ISFR
2019 report is the 16th in the sequence.
• For the first time, the qualitative
existence of the forest cover was
evaluated in the 2019 study, which
included a list of biodiversity and the
types of plants and trees found. For the
first time, a national forest inventory on
forest products was established.
Findings of Report
Forest Cover
• Forest Cover (Area-wise): Madhya
Pradesh> Arunachal Pradesh>
Chhattisgarh> Odisha> Maharashtra.
• Forest Cover (Percentage): Mizoram
(85.4%)> Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%)>
Meghalaya (76.33%).
Increase in Forest Cover
• Regardless of land use, ownership, or
tree species, the country's forest cover
covers, all patches of land with a tree
canopy density of more than 10% and
an area of more than 1 hectare.
• Since 2017, India's forest cover has
grown by 3,976 sq. km, or 0.56 percent.
• The country's overall forest cover
accounts for 21.67 percent of its
geographical area.
• For the second year in a row, the ISFR
has seen a gain in dense forest (an
impressive 1,275 square kilometres).
Very Dense Forest, with a canopy
density of over 70%, and Moderately
Dense Forest, with a canopy density of
40-70 percent has also seen increased.
• Plantations with high canopy density
have contributed 2,441 square
kilometres to the dense forest group
since 2017. Non-forest areas of 1,858 sq.
km, on the other hand, have become
dense forests. Since natural forests
seldom grow at such a rapid pace, these
are plantations of fast-growing plants.
• The biggest loss is under the tropical
semi-evergreen (found along the
western coast, lower slopes of the
eastern Himalayas, Odisha and
Andaman) head in ISFR 2019 - close to
23,500 sq. km.
• The top five states to have shown
an increase in forest cover include
Karnataka (1,025 sq. km) > Andhra
Pradesh (990 sq. km) > Kerala (823
sq. km) > J&K (371 sq. km) > Himachal
Pradesh (334 sq. km).
Decline of Forest Cover in North
Eastern Region
• The North Eastern region's overall
forest cover is 65.05 percent of its
geographical area, with a 0.45 percent
decline in forest cover. With the
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exception of Assam and Tripura, all of
the states in the region have seen a
reduction in forest cover.
Forest Cover in Tribal Districts
• The tribal districts' cumulative forest
cover accounts for 37.54 percent of
their geographical area.
• In the tribal districts within the
Recorded Forest Area/Green Wash
(RFA/GW), forest cover has decreased
by 741 square kilometres, while outside
the RFA/GW, forest cover has increased
by 1,922 square kilometres.
• There has been a decrease in tree
cover within forests as a result of tribal
communities gaining "land titles"
(patta), although there has been an
increase in trees outside the forest area
as a result of increased tree planting
and afforestation activities.
Increase in the Tree Cover
• Tree cover comprises of tree patches
of size less than 1 hectare occurring
outside the recorded forest area.
• The country's tree cover is projected to
be 95,027 sq. km, or 2.89 percent of its
total land area.
• Maharashtra has seen the largest rise
in tree cover, because of horticulture.
Compared to 2017
• According to the 2019 survey, total
forest and tree cover in India increased
by 5,188 sq. km, accounting for 24.56
percent (8,07,276 sq. km) of the country's
total area. It was 24.39 percent in the
most recent evaluation.
• The nation's tree and forest cover has
generally remained between 21 and 25
percent, falling short of the National
Forest Policy of 1988's goal of 33
percent.
Mangrove Cover
• The mangrove cover in India is 4,975 sq.
km, which is 0.15% of the country’s total
geographical area.
• It has increased by 54 sq. km (1.10%) as
compared to the previous assessment.
Carbon Stock
• The country's total carbon stock was
reported to be 7124 million tonnes, up
42.6 million tonnes from the previous
estimate.
• It suggests that India is on track to meet
its pledge of 2.5-3 billion carbon sinks
under the Paris Agreement.
Wetlands
• The total number of wetlands within the
RFA/GW is 8.13 percent, with Gujarat
having the largest area of wetlands
within the RFA in the world, followed by
West Bengal.
Forest Produce
• The state of Maharashtra has the
highest reliance on forests for fuelwood,
while Madhya Pradesh has the highest
reliance on forests for small timber,
bamboo, and fodder.
• According to the results, 21.40 percent
of the country's forest cover is highly or
extremely fire prone.
Desertification
• Desertification is defined as "the
reduction or destruction of a land's
biological capacity, which can
eventually lead to desert-like conditions."
• Man-made desertification has affected
about 76.15 percent of the total Indian
desert area. Another 19.5 percent of
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the total area is decertified in some
form or another. This region is mostly
concentrated in eastern Rajasthan,
in the north-east to southwest range,
parallel to the Aravallis foothills.
• In semi-arid and arid areas, the pressure
is intensified due to dry climate, slow
regeneration, overgrazing and mining
and so on.
• Desertification is a systemic
phenomenon caused by excessive tree
felling that presents itself in the affected
region as a loss of soil fertility, increased
aridity, and temperature extremes.
Causes
Although desertification can develop
from natural causes alone, in a majority of
instances human intervention promoted
arid conditions in an already dry areas.
This can happen in any climatic zone or
ecosystem, resulting from exploitative
interaction of man with the natural
ecosystem. Most of the deserts of recent
origin have resulted from any one or more
of the following human activities.
• Soil erosion, drought, and deterioration
of soil fertility result in stunted plant
growth due to uncontrolled grazing and
overexploitation of grazing land, as well
as indiscriminate cutting of trees and
forest resources.
• Excessive mining for limestone, coal,
or other minerals in arid and semi-arid
areas, resulting in the loss of green and
tree cover, and extensive destruction
of conditions conducive to vegetation
growth.
• Uneconomic agricultural land use on
marginal lands, causing soil erosion and
impacting neighbouring productive
lands.
• Extensive and uneconomic exploitation
of water supplies resulting in seepage,
decrease in the water table and soil
salinisation issues.
Extent and causes of land degradation of the world

Area Causes of land degradation

580 million ha Deforestation: Vast reserves of forests have been degraded by large
scale logging and clearance for farm and urban use. More than 200
million ha of tropical forests were destroyed mainly for food production.
680 million ha Overgrazing: About 20% of the world’s pasture and range lands have
been damaged. Recent losses have been most severe in Africa and
Asia
137 million ha Fuel wood consumption: About 1730 million cubic meters of fuel wood
are harvested annually from forests and plantations. Wood fuel is the
primary source of energy in many developing regions.
550 million ha Agricultural mismanagement: Loss of soil due to water erosion is
estimated at 25,000 million tonnes annually. Soil salinization, water
logging, chemical degradation and desertification affect about 40
million ha. of land globally.
19.5 million ha Industrialization and urbanization: Urban growth, road construction,
mining and industry are major factors in land degradation in different
regions. Valuable agricultural land is often lost.

Desertification in India consolidated for entire country as well

• In India, about 76.15% of the total
desert area has resulted from man-
made desertification process. Another
19.5% of the total area is subjected to
medium or slight desertification.
• This area is concentrated mostly along
the eastern Rajasthan in the north-
east to southwest zone parallel to the
foothills of Aravalis.
• The predominant processes of
desertification in this belt are the
expansion of sand cover and shifting
sand dunes by wind erosion.
• Desertification and Land Degradation
Atlas of India: It is one of the outcomes
of MoEFCC sponsored national
project entitled, “Desertification Status
Mapping of India”, executed by the
Space Applications Centre (SAC), Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• This Atlas presents Desertification /Land
Degradation Status Maps depicting
Land Use, Process of Degradation and
Severity Level along with area statistics
state-wise for 2011-13 and 2003-05 time
frame and reports the changes.
• It reveals that 96.40 mha area of the
country is undergoing process of land
degradation i.e., 29.32% of the Total
Geographic Area (TGA) of the country
during 2011-13.
• The most significant process of
desertification/ land degradation in
the country is Water Erosion (10.98%).
The second most significant process is
Vegetation Degradation (8.91%), which
is followed by Wind erosion (5.55 %).
Control Measures
• India is a signatory to the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD).
• In 2001, the National Action Plan
for Combating Desertification was
developed in order to take appropriate
action in resolving desertification
issues.

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• The following are some of the major
programmes currently in place to
address the issues of land degradation
and desertification:
» Integrated Watershed Management
Programme,
» National Afforestation Programme,
» National Mission for Green India,
» The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme,
» Soil Conservation in the Catchment of
River Valley Project and Flood Prone
River,
» National Watershed Development
Project for Rainfed Areas,
» Desert Development Programme,
» Fodder and Feed Development
Scheme-component of Grassland
Development including Grass Reserves,
Command Area Development and
Water Management programme etc.

Natural Desertification:
• In the Asia and pacific region an area of about 4.361 lakhs ha has resulted from
natural desertification. These areas can be classified as subtropical, cool coastal,
rain shadow and interior continental deserts.
• Polar regions of the world also represent a type of desert, where water is no doubt
present in plenty, but being in the form of ice, it is not available for plants and
animals.
• The Gobi desert of north western Asia is a cold desert. The Ladakh region of Jammu
and Kashmir covering an area of 0.7 lakh sq. km and located at an altitude of about
11,000 feet where extreme cold conditions prevail for about 5-6 months in a year, is
also a cold desert.

Coral Bleaching
• Coral is bright and colourful thanks to
zooxanthellae, a form of microscopic
algae. The zooxanthellae live in a
mutually beneficial relationship inside
the coral, each helping the other to
survive.
• When corals are stressed by changes in
conditions such as temperature, light,
or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic
algae living in their tissues, causing
them to turn completely white.

98
 I M A G E 5.2: C O R A L B L E A C H I N G
Causes
• Natural causes: Due to the outbreak
of reef destroying mechanisms,
“bleaching” and depletion of essential
symbionts. Natural disturbances which
cause damage to coral reefs:
» Rise in Sea Temperature: Most
coral species live in waters close to
the warmest temperature they can
tolerate i.e., a slight increase in ocean
temperature can harm corals. El Nino
elevates the sea temperature and
destroys coral reefs.
» Ocean Acidification: Due to rise in
carbon dioxide levels, oceans absorb
more carbon dioxide. This increases
the acidity of ocean water and inhibits
the corals ability to create calcareous
skeletons, which is essential for their
survival.
» Solar radiation and ultraviolet
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radiation: Changes in tropical weather
patterns result in less cloud cover and
more radiations which induce coral
bleaching.
» Infectious Diseases: Penetration of
bacterium like vibrio shiloi inhibits
photosynthesis of zooxanthellae. These
bacteria become more potent with
elevated sea temperatures.
» Chemical Pollution: Increased
nutrient concentrations affect corals
by promoting phytoplankton growth,
which in turn supports increased
numbers of organisms that compete
with coral for space.
» Increased Sedimentation: Land
clearing and coastal construction result
in high rates of erosion and a higher
density of suspended silt particles
which can:
− Smother corals when particles settle
 out (sedimentation),
− Reducing light availability (turbidity)
and
− Potentially reducing coral
photosynthesis and growth.
» Subaerial Exposure: Sudden exposure
of reef flat corals to the atmosphere
during events such as extreme low
tides, ENSO-related sea level drops or
tectonic uplift can potentially induce
bleaching.
» Fresh Water Dilution: Rapid dilution
of reef waters from storm-generated
precipitation and runoff has been
demonstrated to cause coral reef
bleaching. Generally, such bleaching
events are rare and confined to
relatively small, near shore areas.
• Anthropogenic causes (Human
induced causes): Due to chemical
pollution (pesticides, cosmetics,
etc.), industrial pollution, mechanical
damage, nutrient loading or sediment
loading, dredging, shipping, tourism,
mining or collection, thermal pollution,
intensive fishing etc.
» Recent accelerated coral reef
decline seems to be related
mostly to anthropogenic impacts
(overexploitation, overfishing,
increased sedimentation, and nutrient
overloading.
Measures for Protection
• The Ministry of Environment and
Forests provides financial support to
Union Territories/ Coastal States for
mangrove and coral reef protection
and management.
• The coral reef is classified in Schedule
I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972,
granting it the highest level of protection
possible.
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• Protected Areas, including 4 National
Parks, 96 Sanctuaries, and 3 Marine
Biosphere Reserves, have been
developed across the country to
preserve marine life, including coral
reefs, under the provisions of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau was
also formed to improve the enforcement
of the law in the fight against poaching
and illegal wildlife trade.
Eutrophication
• 'Eu' stands for 'good' or 'safe,' and 'trophy'
stands for 'nutrition.' Eutrophication is
the condition of a body of water that
has been enriched with nutrients.
• Land drainage, agricultural surface
runoff, domestic waste, and industrial
effluents discharged into a water body
cause rapid nutrient enrichment.
• It is mainly caused by phosphate and
nitrate-containing fertilisers leaching
into lakes and rivers from agricultural
fields.
• Excessive nutrient enrichment facilitates
the growth of algae, water hyacinth,
phytoplankton, and other aquatic
plants in a water body.
• The biological demand for oxygen
(BOD) rises as the number of aquatic
organisms expands. As more plants
grow and die, the dead and dying
plants, as well as organic matter acted
on by heterotrophic protozoans and
bacteria, deplete dissolved oxygen (DO)
in the water.
• A decrease in DO causes a large
number of fish and other aquatic
species, including plants, to die
abruptly, releasing an unpleasant odour
and making the water unfit for human
consumption.
 I M A G E 5.3: E U T R O P H I C AT I O N
• Water blooms, also known as "algal
blooms," are caused by the rapid
and explosive growth of algae and
phytoplankton, which give the water a
green colour.
• Since Algal Bloom covers the surface
layer, it prevents sunlight from entering
and gas from the atmosphere to diffuse.
• Due to reduced oxygen level, fishes and
other aquatic organisms suffocate and
they die.
• For example, in Powai lake, Mumbai due
to eutrophication the Government of
Maharashtra reports says that the lake
water is unfit for drinking water use.
• The discharge from untreated sewage
and garbage from nearby residential
and slum colonies to the Powai lake has
resulted in cultural eutrophication.
Oligotrophication
• The process of nutrient depletion, or
reduction in rates of nutrient cycling,
in aquatic ecosystems.
• It is a partial reversal of the
eutrophication process, in which
water becomes less nutrient-
enriched and supports less plant
and animal production.
• It arises as a consequence of
acidification, typically the result
of pollution and most notably
associated with air pollution and
acid precipitation.
101
• The anaerobic conditions can promote
growth of bacteria which produces
toxins deadly to aquatic organisms,
birds, and mammals.
• Types
» Natural: Deposition of nutrients (such
as depositional environments). When
the nutrients flow into the system
on temporal basics. It occurs over
centuries. E.g., Seasonally inundated
tropical flood plains.
» Manmade: This occurs in decades.
These inputs may come from untreated
sewage discharges, runoff of fertilizer
from farm fields, golf courses, parks etc.
and from animal wastes.
• More recently, it has come to mean
"cultural" eutrophication, in which
human activities that add nutrients to
the water, expedites the natural ageing
process.
Effects
Change in Ecosystem
• Eutrophication gradually causes a
detritus layer to form in ponds and
lakes, resulting in shallower levels of
surface water.
• Eventually, the water body becomes
a marsh, and the plant population
transitions from an aquatic to a familiar
terrestrial ecosystem.
Decreased Biodiversity New Species Invasion
• Algal blooms restrict the sunlight to • By transforming the normally limiting
penetrate & affect photosynthesizing nutrient to an abundant amount,
plants. Consequently, leading to plants eutrophication can cause the
death. environment to become competitive.
• Bacteria absorbs the oxygen during As a result, the ecosystem's species
decomposition, leaving the environment composition can alter.
devoid of oxygen. The living species in the
marine world eventually die as a result.

Red Tide
• “Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon where certain phytoplankton
species contain pigments and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the water
to be discoloured.
• Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish orange depending upon the
type of organism, the type of water, and the concentration of the organisms. The
term “red tide” is thus a misnomer’.

Toxicity
• Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) are
phytoplankton blooms that are toxic
or harmful. HABs have direct impacts
on human health and negative
influences on human wellbeing, mainly
through their consequences to coastal
ecosystem services (fisheries, tourism
and recreation) and other marine
organisms and environments.
• When certain algal blooms die or are
eaten, neurotoxins and hepatotoxins
are released, which can destroy aquatic
animals and pose a threat to humans.
(For instance) Poisoning from shellfish.
• Depletion of dissolved oxygen level.
• Fish kills are becoming more common,
as well as the loss of attractive fish
species and a decline in fishing. Coral
reefs are also being lost.
• Increased biomass of inedible toxic
phytoplankton.
• Increase in bloom of gelatinous
zooplankton.
• Increased biomass of benthic and
epiphytic algae.
Others
• Decrease in water transparency and
increased turbidity.
• Affects navigation due to increased
turbidity.
• Green, yellow, and red colour of water,
smell, and water treatment problems.
• Unsuitable for aesthetic recreation, and
reduction in value of water body.
Environmental Pollution
Pollution may be defined as addition of
undesirable material into the environment
as a result of human activities. The agents
which cause environmental pollution are
called pollutants. It can be described
as a chemical, biological, or physical
substance unintentionally released into
the environment which is directly or
indirectly harmful to humans and other
living organisms.
Classifications of pollutants
• Pollutants are classified based on

102
 varied criteria:
• Form of persistence after release into
the environment
» Those that remain in the environment
in the form in which they were added
are Primary pollutants. Example plastic,
DDT.
» Secondary pollutants are formed
as a result of interactions between
primary pollutants. The interaction of
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, for
example, produces peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN).
• Nature of existence
» Naturally occurring substances
that become pollutant when their
concentration exceeds a certain
threshold are quantitative pollutants.
For example, Nitrogen oxide and
Carbon dioxide.
» Qualitative Pollutants are man-made
and do not exist in nature. Herbicides,
Fungicides, DDT, and similar pesticides
are examples.
I M A G E 5.4: A C I D R A I N
103
• Disposal nature
» Waste products that microbial action
degrades are biodegradable pollutants.
For instance, sewage.
» Pollutants that do not decompose
due to microbial action are non-
biodegradable. Glass, Plastics, Heavy
metal salts, DDT, Toxic compounds, and
so on.
• Origin
» Natural
» Anthropogenic
Acid Rain
• Acid rain is described as rain or any
other type of precipitation that is
unusually acidic, containing high levels
of hydrogen ions (low pH). Acid rain
usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.
• Nitrogen oxide and Sulphur dioxide
emissions react with water molecules
in the atmosphere to create acids,
resulting in acid rain.
• Acid rain” is a general term that refers
to a combination of wet and dry
deposition (material type) from the
atmosphere.
» Wet Deposition: Acid chemicals in the
air will fall to the ground in the form of
snow, rain, mist, or fog if they are blown
into places where the weather is wet.
» Dry Deposition: Acid chemicals can
become incorporated into smoke or
dust and fall to the ground via dry
deposition, sticking to the houses,
ground, vegetation, vehicles, and other
objects in dry areas.
Sources
• Both man-made and natural sources
can result in acid rain.
• Sulphur: Natural (volcanic eruptions,
oceans, decomposition in soil) and
man-made (coal burning, smelting,
industrial process like fertilizer making).
• Nitrogen: Natural (lightening, volcanic
eruption, biological activity) and man-
made (forest fires, combustion of oil,
coal, and gas).
• Biomass burning because of fires in
forest produces formic acid.
• Phosphoric acid, Chlorine, carbon
monoxide, hydrochloric acid
(smokestacks) and carbon dioxide
(automobiles). These become carbonic
acid.

Difference between normally and anthropogenically acidified lakes

Lakes (acidic naturally) Lakes (acidified anthropogenically)

Humic substances cause the brown to Reduced primary production has resulted
yellow colour. in very clean water.
Dissolved organic carbon concentrations The concentrations of dissolved organic
are high, but transparency is poor. carbon are low. The transparency, on the
other hand, is quite high.
The pH is low, but it is well buffered. Buffering is inadequate.
Abound with aquatic life. Some of the more endangered taxa, such
as bacteria, blue-green algae, mussels,
snails, mayflies, crustaceans, and fish, have
seen their populations decline or vanish.

Impact alkaline and have a strong buffering

• Soil
» Causes leaching of the nutrients due
to exchange between hydrogen ions
and the nutrient cations, leading to
infertility of soil.
» The rate of decomposition is hindered
by a rise in ammonia in the soil due to a
reduction in other nutrients.
» Acid rain has a lower effect on soil in
India because Indian soils are mostly
capacity.
• Vegetation
» Acid rains affect trees and undergrowth
in forest by causing reduced growth or
abnormal growth.
• Micro organisms
» Most bacteria and protozoa prefer a
pH close to neutral; most fungi prefer
an acidic environment, whereas most

104
 blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline
environment. So, after a long period of
acid rain, microbial species in the soil
and water change from bacteria to
fungi, causing a microflora imbalance.
» As a result, the decomposition of soil
organic material is delayed, and fungal
disease in aquatic life and forests
increases.
• Wildlife
» Affects the eggs and tadpoles of frogs
and salamanders that breed in small
forest ponds.
» Metals bound on soils and sediments
when released into the aquatic
environment may be ingested by
animals, like birds, that feed in such an
environment.
» Food and habitat resources are reduced
or changed.
• Humans
» Bad odours, decreased vision, skin,
respiratory tract and eye inflammation,
pulmonary emphysema, chronic
bronchitis, and cancer.
Pollutant Sources
Particulate pollutants
Suspended Industrial and domestic Consequence
particulate smoke and soot from vehicles. composition
Fly ash A portion of the smoke It settles on vegetation and
emitted by factory and power buildings.
plant chimneys
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Types of Pollution
Pollution may be of the following types:
• Air pollution
• Noise pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil pollution
• Thermal pollution
• Radiation pollution
Air pollution
• Air pollution can be described as the
composition of any gaseous, liquid,
or solid substance in the atmosphere,
including noise and radioactive
radiation, in concentrations that
are harmful to humans, other living
organisms, property, plants, that
interfere with normal environmental
processes.
• Air pollution is caused by domestic
and industrial activities. Air pollution
has resulted from the increased use of
fossil fuels in industries, power plants,
transportation, building construction,
mining, and stone quarries.
• Air pollutants are of two types:
» Suspended particulate matter
» Gaseous pollutants like NOx, CO2, etc.
Effects
depends on
of it. Usually
sunlight and visibility is reduced,
Pneumoconiosis, corrosion
increases, cancer, asthma, and
other lung diseases.
SPM (suspended
particulate matter) in the air is
increased. Leachates contain
potentially dangerous substances.
Gaseous air pollutants
Carbon monoxide Carbon-based fuels, such as Reduces the amount of oxygen
(CO) gasoline, diesel, and wood, available to our bodies. Can cause
are burned incompletely. us to become confused and sleepy
Also, from the combustion by slowing our reflexes.
of natural and synthetic
products such as cigarettes.
Carbon dioxide Burning of coal, oil, and Greenhouse effect.
(CO2) natural gases.
Sulphur Power plants and refineries, Respiratory problems in humans,
compounds volcanic eruptions. loss of chlorophyll in plants
(SO2 and H2S) (chlorosis) and acid rain.

Nitrogen Motor vehicle exhaust, Irritation in eyes and infection in

Compound atmospheric reaction. lungs, low productivity in plants.
(NO and N2O) Acid rain damages material
(metals and stone).

Hydrocarbons Automobiles and petroleum Respiratory problem and Cancer-

(benzene, industries. causing properties.
ethylene)
Lead Present in diesel, petrol, lead, Affects children in particular and
paints, batteries, hair dye can cause nervous system damage
products etc. and digestive problems and, in
some cases, cause cancer.
Ozone Ground-level ozone emissions It irritates, burns, and makes our
are mostly caused by vehicles eyes water. It weakens our immune
and industries. system, making us more susceptible
to colds and pneumonia.

Indoor air pollution • Pathogens found in waste linger in the

air as spores in hospitals, posing a risk
• It refers to the biological, physical, and of hospital-acquired infections and
chemical characteristics of air in a posing an occupational health hazard.
home, an organisation, or a commercial
facility's indoor atmosphere.
• In congested areas, slums and rural
areas burning of firewood and biomass
• Poor ventilation caused by defective results in lot of smoke.
building design contributes to
contamination of the enclosed space.
• Children and ladies exposed to smoke
may suffer from acute respiratory
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) problems which include running nose,
may be released by paints, carpets, cough, sore throat, lung infection,
furniture, and other objects in rooms asthama, difficulty in breathing, noisy
(VOCs). Disinfectants, fumigants, and respiration, and wheezing.
other chemicals may release hazardous
gases.
• Indoor air pollution is caused by a

106
 variety of factors in both urban and
rural areas.
• Urban: In urban areas, exposure to
indoor air pollution has increased
due to a variety of reasons, such as
construction of more tightly sealed
buildings, reduced ventilation, the use
of synthetic materials for building and
furnishing and the use of chemical
products, pesticides, and household
care products. Other than nitrogen
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead,
there are a number of other pollutants
that affect the air quality.
• Rural: Burning traditional fuels such
as firewood, charcoal, and cow dung
for cooking and heating produces
large amounts of smoke and other air
pollutants in the confined space of the
home, resulting in high exposure. Carbon
monoxide, particulates, formaldehyde,
and polycyclic organic matter are the
four most dangerous contaminants.

Photochemical Smog
• Photochemical smog (smoke+ fog) is a term used to describe air pollution that
are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to
sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities.
• The two major primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and VOCs, combine to change
in sunlight in a series of chemical reactions, to create what are known as secondary
pollutants.
• The secondary pollutant that causes the most concern is the ozone that forms at
ground level. While ozone is produced naturally in the upper atmosphere, it is a
dangerous substance when found at ground level.
• Many other hazardous substances are also formed, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN).
• VOCs are produced from the evaporation of naturally-occurring compounds, such
as terpenes and incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.

Fly Ash • The flue gases enter the chimneys of

• Fly ash is often emitted as a by-product
of combustion of coal from the thermal
power plants. Fly ash is a fine powder
that can float a long distance through
the air. Bottom ash is described as ash
that does not rise.
• Nearly 73 percent of India's total
installed power generation capacity is
thermal, with coal accounting for 90
percent of that with wind, diesel, steam,
and gas making up the rest.
• Oxide-rich fly ash particles include
alumina, silica, calcium, iron, and
magnesium oxides, as well as harmful
heavy metals such as arsenic, lead,
copper, and cobalt.
coal-fired power plants, electrostatic
precipitators, or other particle filtration
devices trap fly ash.
• Effects on the environment: If fly ash is
not properly collected and disposed of
it can significantly pollute the air and
water. It causes problems with the lungs.
Fly ash in the air settles gradually on
leaves and crops in fields near thermal
power plants, reducing plant yield.
• Advantages:
» It can substitute cement up to
35% lowering building costs, road
construction costs, and so on.
» Fly ash bricks are lightweight and have
a high strength-to-weight ratio.

107
» For road embankments and concrete
roads, fly ash is a safer fill material.
» Wastelands can be reclaimed using fly
ash.
» Abandoned mines can be filled up with
fly ash.
» Fly ash can increase the crop yield and
it also enhances water holding capacity
of the land.
• Policy measures of MoEF: The Ministry
of Environment and Forests vide
its notification in 2009, has made
it mandatory to use Fly Ash based
products in all construction projects,
road embankment works and low-lying
land filling works within 100 km. radius
of Thermal Power Station. To use Fly
Ash in mine filling activities within 50
km. radius of Thermal Power Stations.
• Maharashtra became the first state
to adopt a policy for utilisation of fly
ash with an aim to use 100 percent
of the fly ash generated from thermal
power plants and biogas plants for
construction activities.
Impacts of Air Pollution
• Health: Air pollution is now the third-
highest cause of death among all
health risks, ranking just above smoking,
in India. An environment think tank
Centre for Science and Environment
in its report “At the crossroad” has
said that Life expectancy in India has
gone down by 2.6 years due to deadly
diseases caused by air pollution. It also
says that air pollution kills an average
8.5 out of every 10,000 children in India
before they turn 5.
• Environment: Pollution affects not
only the health of humans but of the
environment too. Birds and plants
are affected by air pollution and
phenomenon like urban heat island
resulting from it.
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• Economy: Increased healthcare costs,
reduced productivity, diversion of
resources towards responding to air
pollution are some of the economic
costs. According to WB estimate, air
pollution might have cost India 8.5% of
GDP
• Politics: Air pollution has caused major
political conflict in last few years, most
prominent of which is the recurring
conflict among Punjab, Haryana, and
Delhi
Prevention and Control of Air
Pollution
Industrial pollution
By the following ways Industrial pollution
can be reduced substantially:
• By promoting use of cleaner fuels,
such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) in
power plants, fertiliser plants, and other
facilities.
• Using environmentally safe
manufacturing methods to reduce
pollution and hazardous waste
emissions.
• Installing devices like filters,
electrostatic precipitators, inertial
collectors, scrubbers, gravel bed filters
or dry scrubbers which reduce release
of pollutants.
» Filters: Particulate matter is removed
from the gas stream by filters. A filter's
medium can be made of fibrous
materials (fabric) or granular materials
(sand) or rigid materials such as screen,
or any mat such as felt pad. The most
common type of filtration device is a
baghouse, which is made of cotton or
synthetic fibres (for cold temperatures)
or glass cloth fabrics (for higher
temperature up to 290 degree C).
» Electrostatic precipitators (ESP):
Ionized particulate matter is deposited
on an oppositely charged surface after
 the dust is charged with ions. The
particles are shaken or rapped away
from the sample surface on a regular
basis. Furnaces, boilers, and a number
of other systems in thermal power
plants, cement plants, steel plants, and
other facilities use ESPs.
» Inertial collectors: It operates on the
assumption that the inertia of SPM in
a gas is greater than that of its solvent,
allowing this system to capture heavier
particles more effectively. A popular
inertial collector used in gas cleaning
plants is the ‘Cyclone’.
» Scrubbers: They are wet collectors.
They extract aerosols from a stream of
gas by gathering damp particles on a
surface and then extracting them, or by
wetting the particles with a scrubbing
solvent and then removing them.
Particles become stuck as they move
from the supportive gaseous medium
to the liquid scrubbing medium through
the interface.
• Gaseous pollutants may be extracted
using a wet scrubber by absorption in
a liquid, depending on the type of gas
to be removed. For example, to remove
sulphur dioxide, an alkaline solution
is needed since it dissolves sulphur
dioxide. Gaseous pollutants can be
absorbed by activated solid surfaces
such as alumina, silica gel, cement, and
other similar materials.
Vehicular Pollution Reduction
Strategies
• Implementing BS VI norms.
• Use of efficient engines (e.g., multipoint
fuel injection engine).
• Catalytic converter filters in the vehicles
can convert nitrogen oxide to nitrogen
and reduce the potential hazards of
NOx.
• Use of good quality automobile fuels.
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• Use of lead-free petrol.
• Use of compressed natural gas (CNG).
Other Measures
• Green cover: increasing green cover
especially in the urban areas must be an
indispensable part of urban planning.
Other initiatives such as afforestation,
greening of highways etc. must also
pick up.
• Push to renewables: addressing the
problem of intermittence by adopting
smart grid technology, incentives for
decentralised power production via
biogas, rooftop solar and push to EVs as
has been done in Norway (exemptions
on tax, toll, parking fee, environment
tax on other vehicles, charging stations
powered by renewable).
• Urban governance: better urban
planning based on models like transit-
oriented development (TOD), integrated
and accountable transport authority,
empowered local bodies, scientific
waste management etc. can help bring
down pollution footprints of urban
areas.
• Market for agricultural waste: the
problem of crop burning can be
resolved only through financial and
technological support and incentives
for farmers. Access to technologies
like super seeder machines and
development of market for crop stubble
will push farmers to a cleaner method
of waste disposal.
• Better planning and coordination: a
single body on the lines of EPCA as
mandated by SC with clear targets
and accountability mechanisms is
necessary for effective environmental
governance.
• Forecasting systems for better
response: China has shown the way
in controlling the pollution by an
effective pollution forecasting (2-3 days
 in advance) and monitoring systems.
Its permanent odd-even policy during
severe pollution levels, early warning
systems, strict enforcement of GRAP like
action plan has significantly brought
down the pollution levels in Beijing.
Government Initiatives
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS): The Central Pollution Control
Board has the authority to set air quality
standards under the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act. The CPCB
announced the current NAAQS in 2009.
Pollutants covered under NAAQS are
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulphur Dioxide
(SO2), Ozone (O3), Particulate Matter
(PM 10, PM 2.5), Carbon Monoxide (CO),
Lead (Pb), Ammonia (NH3), Benzo(a),
Pyrene (BaP), Benzene (C6H6), Nickel
(Ni) and Arsenic (As).

Non-attainment cities
• Non-attainment cities are those cities marked by Central Pollution Control Board
that have fallen short of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for
PM 10 and NO2 over 5 years.
• There are 94 non-attainment cities in the country.
• These cities were asked as part of the National Clean Air Campaign (NCAP) to
implement measures aimed at mitigating air pollution.
• The aim of pollution mitigation measures was to cut overall pollution in these cities
by 35% in the next three years.

• National Air Quality Monitoring schemes like Faster Adoption and

Programme (NAMP): trends and status
of ambient air quality are determined.
• National Air Quality index: Measures
and monitors the levels of eight
pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO,
O3, NH3, and Pb).
• National Clean Air Programme
(NCAP): Achieve a national-level target
of 20-30% reduction of PM2.5 and
PM10 concentration by between 2017
and 2024.
• BS-VI norm: Early implementation of
BS-VI norm in 2020 to reduce emission
from vehicles (as much as 75pc in case
of NOx in diesel engine).
• Green India mission: part of NAPCC
it aims at protecting, restoring, and
enhancing India’s diminishing forest
cover which is crucial to reduce
pollution.
• Electric vehicle: The government is
pushing for EVs as a cleaner alternative
to vehicles run on fossil fuels with
Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles
(FAME) to incentivizing purchase of EVs.
• GRAP Delhi: Graded response action
plan as mandated by SC for Delhi
NCR to combat pollution aims to
institutionalize coordination among all
the concerned authorities to respond
according to the severity of pollution.
• Ban on Diesel vehicle and crackers:
Courts in the recent time have cracked
down upon Diesel vehicles and crackers
to reduce pollutant emissions.
• UJJWALA Yojana: the scheme
providing subsidized LPG connections
to BPL families will curb emissions from
fuelwood used for cooking.
• Odd even policy: the initiative by
reducing the load of personal vehicle
on road has helped in slight reduction
in PM levels in Delhi.
• Renewable energy plans: the aim of
government to increase RE capacity by
175GW by 2022 and share of RE in total

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 power generation to 40% by 2030 will
be crucial in reducing pollution from
power generation.
• Smart city, AMRUT: the urban
development scheme which seek
to ensure planned urban growth
including public transport and waste
management will address emission
from urban areas.
Water pollution
• Addition of certain substances
to water, such as inorganic, heat,
biological, organic, and radiological
substance which degrades the water's
consistency and renders it unfit for
human consumption.
• One of the most serious environmental
issues is water pollution. Human
activities such as agricultural, industrial,
and domestic activities all contribute to
water contamination. Agricultural run-
off containing unnecessary pesticides
and fertilisers, industrial effluents
containing hazardous chemicals, and
sewage water containing animal and
human wastes all pollute our water.
• Soil erosion, mineral leaching from
rocks, and organic matter degradation
are all-natural causes of water
contamination. Point and non-point
sources can pollute oceans, rivers,
estuaries, lakes, and groundwater
sources.
• Point source pollution occurs when
pollutants are discharged from a
particular location, such as a drainpipe
containing industrial effluents
discharged directly into a water body.
• Non-point sources, include waste
discharged from diffused sources or
over a broader area, such as drainage
from farm fields, pasture lands, building
sites, abandoned mines and dumps,
and roads and streets.
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Sources
Types of sources
Point Sources
• It is directly attributable to one
influence. Here pollutants travel directly
from source to water. Point sources are
easy to regulate.
Diffuse or Non-Point Source
It comes from a variety of ill-defined and
hazy sources. They are difficult to monitor
since they differ spatially and temporally.
The following are the primary sources of
water pollution:
• Community wastewater: Discharges
from commercial, residential, and
industrial facilities that are linked to the
public sewerage system are included.
Food residues animal and human
excreta, detergents, cleaning agents
and other wastes are all present in
sewage.
• Industrial Wastes: Industries emit
a range of inorganic and organic
contaminants that can be particularly
harmful to living things.
• Agricultural sources: Fertilizers are
rich in phosphorus, nitrogen, and
potassium, which are important plant
nutrients. Excess fertilisers can leach
into groundwater or mix with surface
water in reservoirs, rivers, and ponds
due to drainage and runoff.
» Fungicides, insecticides, herbicides,
rodenticides, nematicides and soil
fumigants are examples of pesticides.
Metallic salts, organophosphates,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, carbonates,
acetic acid derivatives, thiocarbonates,
and other chemicals are contained
in them. Many pesticides are non-
biodegradable, and their residues will
last for years.
» During the rainy season, animal
excreta such as urine, dung, wastes
from piggeries, poultry farms and
 slaughterhouses, and so on, enter
the water through runoff and surface
leaching.

Oil Spills
• Oil spills from tankers at sea or leaks from underground storage tanks on land are
very difficult to control as oil tends to spread very fast, affecting a large area in a
very short time.
• On land, crude is transported through pipelines or tankers which can get damaged
and spew out crude oil over the land, thereby contaminating it.
• Since crude oil is lighter than water, it floats on the surface and poses the threat of
swift-spreading fire.
• Oil spills at sea decrease the oxygen level in the water and cause harm to the
organisms.
• Oil spills are also a source of air and groundwater pollution.
• Thermal Pollution: Thermal and nuclear
power stations are the primary sources. ocean contamination.
Water is used as a coolant in the power
plants, and the hot waters are returned
to the source. Fish and other marine
Impacts of Water Pollution
creatures die when the temperature • Human health: Polluted water is a
increases abruptly. source of water-borne diseases such
• Underground water pollution: Many as cholera, jaundice, typhoid, and
people rely on ground water for amoebiasis since it includes pathogens
residential, drinking, agricultural such as bacteria, virus, worms, and
purposes and commercial all over the parasitic protozoa.
world. Groundwater is widely recognised
as a clean and healthy source of
» Mercury compounds in wastewater are
converted to highly toxic methylmercury
water. However, contamination of
by bacterial activity, which can cause
ground water is caused by human
numbness in the lips, arms, and tongue,
activities such as farmyard dumping,
as well as blurred vision, deafness, and
manures, excessive waste disposal, and
mental derangement.
agricultural chemicals, and industrial
effluents.The pollution of groundwater » Cadmium-contaminated water can
in many parts of India is a product of cause Itai-Itai disease, as well as lung
seepage from municipal wastes and and liver cancer.
industrial waste effluents, drainage » The compounds of lead cause
channels and agricultural runoff. headache, anaemia, bluish line around
• Marine pollution: Oceans are the largest the gum and loss of muscle power.
drain for all toxins, both natural and
man-made. Pollutants are discharged • Groundwater pollution: Excess nitrate
into the sea by rivers. Coastal cities' in drinking water is harmful to people's
sewage and trash are also pumped into health and can be lethal to children. It
the sea. Grease, navigational discharges reduces the ability of red blood cells
of tar, sewage, detergents, underwater to carry oxygen and causes blue baby
oil mining, hazardous wastes, and oil syndrome.
spills are some of the other causes of

112
» Too much fluoride in the water
causes neuromuscular disorders,
gastrointestinal issues, tooth deformity,
bone hardening, and stiff and painful
joints (skeletal fluorosis). Arsenic can
leach from soil and rock sources
when groundwater is overused,
contaminating it. Long-term arsenic
exposure causes black foot disease.
Side effects include peripheral neuritis,
diarrhoea, hyperkeratosis of the skin,
and lung cancer.
• Aquatic ecosystem: Polluted water
decreases the amount of dissolved
oxygen (DO), which kills sensitive
species like mollusks, plankton and fish.
» Biocides, heavy metals, and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) all
destroy vulnerable aquatic species
directly.
» Biological Magnification
» Eutrophication
Control Measures
• A riparian buffer is a forested vegetated
area (a "buffer strip") adjacent to a
stream that helps shade and partially
shield the stream from the effects of
adjacent land uses.
• Before introducing sewage water and
industrial effluents into bodies of water,
they must be treated. Before releasing
hot water from power plants, it should
be cooled.
• Usage of fertilisers and pesticides in
excess should be avoided. Chemical
fertilisers can be replaced by organic
farming and effective use of animal
waste as fertiliser.
• Water hyacinth (invasive species and
aquatic weed) can purify water by
removing certain harmful materials and
heavy metals.
• Oil spills in water can be washed using
bregoli, a by-product of the paper
113
industry that looks like oil zapper,
sawdust, and microorganisms.
• It has been proposed that eucalyptus
trees be planted all over sewage ponds.
These trees quickly absorb any excess
wastewater and release pure water
vapour into the air.
Bioremediation
The use of microorganisms (fungi and
bacteria) to degrade environmental
pollutants into less harmful types is
known as bioremediation. Using genetic
engineering techniques, microorganisms
can be explicitly engineered for
bioremediation.
• In situ bioremediation
» In situ: It entails treating the infected
substance on-site.
» Bioventing: supplying air and
nutrients to polluted soil through wells
to encourage the growth of native
bacteria.
» Biosparging: Increase groundwater
oxygen concentrations and the rate
of biological degradation of toxins
through naturally occurring bacteria by
injecting air under pressure below the
water table.
» Bioaugmentation: To speed up the
decomposition process, microorganisms
are brought into a polluted site.
» TERI developed the ‘Oilzapper and
Oilivorous-S' bacteria mixture, which
degrades the oil-contaminated sites
while leaving no harmful residues using
bioremediation techniques.
• Ex situ bioremediation
» Ex situ: It entails removing the infected
substance and having it processed
elsewhere.
» Landfarming: Excavated contaminated
soil is spread over a prepared bed
 and tilled on a regular basis before
contaminants are degraded. The
aim is to encourage indigenous
biodegradative microorganisms and
make it easier for them to degrade
pollutants aerobically.
» Bioreactors: It entails passing polluted
solid material (sediment, soil, or sludge)
and water through a containment
device that has been engineered.
» Composting: Nature's method of
recycling decomposed organic
materials into a fertile soil known as
compost is known as composting.
Phytoremediation
• Phytoaccumulation: Contaminants
accumulate in the roots and
aboveground shoots or leaves of plants.
• The use of plants to extract toxins
from soil and water is known
as phytoremediation. Estuarine
vegetation, mangroves and other
wetland vegetation are examples of
natural phytoremediation.
Flocculation/Coagulation
• The most popular coagulant used
for water purification is aluminium
sulphate (alum). Other chemicals, such
as sodium aluminate or ferric sulphate,
Designated best use
Drinking water source without
conventional treatment, but with
chlorination
Outdoor bathing (organized)
Drinking water source with conventional
treatment
Propagation of wildlife and fisheries
Irrigation, industrial cooling and
controlled waste disposal
114
may be used as well.
• When alum is applied to untreated
water, it allows the dirt particles in the
water to coagulate (stick together).
• Following that, clusters of dirt particles
clump together to form larger particles
known as flocs, which are easier to
extract by settling or filtration.
Measures taken by Government of
India
• To protect our water supplies, the
Government of India passed the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974, after it realised the value of
preserving the cleanliness of water
bodies.
• The Act vests regulatory authority
in State Pollution Control Boards to
establish and enforce effluent standards
for factories.
• The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), India's apex body for water
quality management, has established
the idea of "designated best use".
• On the basis (1) pH, (2) dissolved oxygen,
mg/1 (3) BOD, (20ºC) mg/l(4) total
coliform (MPN/100ml) (5) free ammonia
mg/l, (6) electrical conductivity,
and other factors, the water body is
designated as A, B, C, D, or E.
Quality class
A
B
C
D
E
• The CPCB has listed all water bodies
in the country, including coastal
waters, according to their "designated
best uses," in collaboration with the
concerned State Pollution Control
Boards.
• This classification aids planners and
water quality managers in setting water
quality goals and identifying needs and
priorities for water quality conservation
programmes throughout the country.
• National Plan for Conservation
of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) to
undertake various conservation
activities including interception,
diversion and treatment of wastewater,
pollution abatement, lake beautification,
biodiversity conservation, education
and awareness creation, community
participation etc.
Central Ground Water Authority:
Under the provision of Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986, the Central
Ground Water Authority (CGWA) was
formed to regulate and monitor ground
water production and management in
the country. The Authority is involved in
a variety of activities related to ground
water production control in order to
ensure its long-term sustainability.
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is defined as the introduction
of substances into the soil that have a
negative effect on the soil's chemical,
biological and physical properties, as well
as its productivity.
Sources of Soil Pollution
• Plastic bags: Low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) plastic bags are almost
indestructible, posing massive
environmental risks. Plastic being non-
biodegradable remains in soil and
keeps on releasing its toxins.
• Industrial sources: chemical residues,
fly ash, metallic and nuclear wastes
are included. A large number of dyes,
synthetic chemicals, acids, and other
harmful substances find their way into
the soil.
• Agricultural sources: The soil is polluted
by agricultural chemicals, particularly
fertilisers and pesticides. Excessive use
of chemical fertilisers decreases the
population of soil-borne species and
the crumb structure of the soil, as well
as its fertility and salt content.
• Radioactive wastes: nuclear power
plants and mining release radioactive
elements into the water, which then
enter the soil.
• Other pollutants: Many air
contaminants and water pollutants
end up in the soil, and certain harmful
chemicals are released into the soil
during the weathering of some rocks.

Effects of Soil Pollution

Agriculture • Reduced soil fertility, nitrogen fixation and crop yield
• Increased erosion and loss of soil and nutrients
Health • Many common soil contaminants are carcinogenic, which
means they can cause cancer in people who are exposed to
them.
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water can lead
to bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
• Release of pollutant gases and radioactive rays

115
Environment Vegetation reduction, environmental unbalance, unbalanced
flora, and fauna in the soil.
Control Measures
• Reducing chemical fertilizer and
pesticide use.
• Use of bio fertilizers, bio pesticides.
• Organic farming.
• Four R’s: Reduce, Refuse, Reuse, and
Recycle.
• Reforestation and Afforestation.
• Solid waste treatment.
• Reduction of waste from construction
areas.
Noise Pollution
Noise is described as “any sound that is
unwanted by the recipient.” It is simply
sound without value. It is an unpleasant
noise created by people or machines that
can be annoying, distracting, intrusive,
and/or physically painful.
Sources of Noise Pollution
• Engines, radio, electric fans, television, air
conditioners, various home appliances,
air coolers and family dispute are all
examples of indoor sources of noise.
Because of the higher concentration of
factories, residents, and activities such
as noise pollution, transportation is
more prevalent in cities.
• Outdoor sources of noise pollution
include indiscriminate use of
loudspeakers, industrial activities,
automobiles, rail traffic, aeroplanes, and
activities such as those at marketplace,
religious, social, and cultural functions,
sports, and political rallies. In rural
areas farm machines, pump sets are
116
main sources of noise pollution. During
festivals, marriage, and many other
occasions, use of firecrackers contribute
to noise pollution.
Impacts of Noise
• Annoyance: Because of the fluctuating
sound levels, it irritates the receptors.
Owing to its irregular occurrences,
a-periodic sound causes hearing
irritation and annoyance.
• Physiological effects: The physiological
features like blood cholesterol, blood
pressure, breathing amplitude, pulse
rate, heart-beat rate are affected.
• Loss of hearing: Long-term exposure
to loud noise triggers hearing loss. This
goes largely unnoticed, but it has a
negative effect on hearing.
• Human performance: Worker/human
performance would be impacted
because it distracts concentration.
• Nervous system: It induces discomfort,
ringing in the ears, and tiredness,
affecting the human system's
functioning.
• Sleeplessness: It has an effect on
sleeping patterns by making people
restless and causing them to lose
control and focus during their activities.
• Damage to material: It affects sleeping
by making people restless and causing
them to lose control and focus during
their tasks.
Control
Noise reduction strategies can be broadly
classified as follows:
Control at source
Control in the transmission •
path • Design of building.
Using protective equipment
• Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors.
• Maintenance of automobiles.
• Control over vibration.
• Prohibition on usage of loudspeakers.
• Selection and maintenance of machinery.
Installation of barriers.
• Use of sound proofing equipment.
• Green belt development (planting of trees).
• Noise abatement measures like creating noise
mounds, noise attenuation walls and smooth
surfacing of road.
• Job rotation reduces employee exposure to high
level noise.
• Reduced Exposure time.
• Use of hearing protection.

Thermal Pollution (DO) in water. As a result, the rate of

organic matter decomposition slows.
The fall or rise in temperature of a Green algae are being replaced by blue
natural aquatic environment caused by green algae, which are less attractive.
anthropogenic influence is known as Many species are unable to reproduce.
thermal pollution.
» It also boosts marine animals' metabolic
rates, allowing them to consume more
Major Sources food in less time than they would if their
environment remained unchanged. As a
• Power plants: By dumping hot water consequence of increased metabolic it
from factories and power plants. could lead to a scarcity of food sources,
• Deforestation of the shoreline: resulting in a population decline.
Removing trees and vegetation that » In-migration of fish that would usually
shade streams, permitting sunlight to only survive in warmer waters elsewhere,
raise the temperature of these waters. as well as migration of species to a new,
• Water as a cooling agent: Release more suitable climate. As a result, there
of cold water which lowers the is more competition for less resources.
temperature. As a consequence, biodiversity can
suffer.
» Higher water temperatures accelerate
Effects overpopulation of plants, resulting in
• On Warm Water shorter life spans and plant growth.
This may result in an algae bloom,
» Warm water contains less oxygen. lowering oxygen levels in the water
Elevated temperature typically (eutrophication).
decreases the level of dissolved oxygen

117
• On Cold Water
» This affects fish (particularly their eggs
and larvae), macro invertebrates and
river productivity.
Control Measures
• Power plants can be designed or refitted
to be more efficient and to produce less
waste heat.
• Passing the heated water through
cooling towers or cooling ponds before
discharging into lakes and stream.
• Cogeneration - process through which,
the excess heat energy from generating
electricity can be used in another
manufacturing process that needs such
energy. E.g., Scandinavian cities use
waste hot water for heating.
Radiation pollution
• Radiation is an energy form that passes
through space. Radioactive Pollution is
defined as the increase in the natural
radiation levels caused by human
activities. It is estimated that about
20% of radiation we are exposed to is
due to human activities.
• Radiation from the decay of radioactive
nuclides is one of the most important
causes of radiation emissions.
• Radiations can be categorized into two
groups:
» Non-ionising radiations: There are short-
wave radiations, such as ultraviolet rays,
that are emitted by the sun. They have
a low penetrating ability and have an
effect on the cells and molecules that
they absorb.
» Ionising radiations: X-rays, gamma rays
and atomic radiations are examples
of ionising radiations (radiations by
radioactive elements). These have a
high penetration power and cause
macromolecules to break apart.
118
• Types of radiation particles:
» A sheet of paper and human skin can
also block alpha particles.
» Beta particles can pass through skin
but are blocked by glass and metal.
» Gamma rays can quickly penetrate
human skin, killing cells along the way,
and can only be prevented by a very
thick, solid, huge piece of concrete.
Sources
• Natural: Cosmic rays from space and
terrestrial radiations from radionuclides
found in the earth's crust, such as
uranium-238, radium-224, potassium-40,
thorium-232, carbon-14, etc.
• Man-made: These include nuclear
power plants (nuclear reactor accident
at Chernobyl in 1986), nuclear weapons
(atomic explosions in Nagasaki and
Hiroshima), transportation of nuclear
material, disposal of nuclear waste,
uranium mining and radiation therapy.
Effects
• Radiation damage is the term used
to describe the biological effects of
ionising radiation.
• Radiation exposure can be classified
into two categories:
» Somatic damage (also called radiation
sickness): Damage to cells that are not
involved in reproduction is somatic
damage. Hair loss, reddening of the
skin, fibrosis of the lungs, ulceration,
a decrease of white blood cells, the
development of holes in tissue and
the induction of cataracts in the eyes
are all symptoms of somatic radiation
injury. Cancer and death may occur as
a result of this damage.
» Genetic damage: Damage to cells
involved in reproduction is referred to as
 genetic damage. This damage can lead
to genetic damage as a result of gene
mutation, resulting in abnormalities.
The effects of genetic damage are
passed on to the next generation.
Ocean acidification
• Ocean acidification is a shift in ocean
chemistry characterised by a decrease
in ocean pH (i.e., a rise in hydrogen ion
concentration) caused by the ocean's
absorption of carbon compounds from
the atmosphere.
• Ocean acidification is a mechanism in
which the hydrogen ions concentration
in the ocean increases, carbonate ions
concentration decreases, the pH of
the oceans decreases, and the oceans
become less alkaline as the absorption
of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the
ocean increases.
• H2O + CO2 = H2CO3 (Weak carbonic
acid).
• It has been identified over the last
20 years that anthropogenic carbon
dioxide emissions to the atmosphere
are lowering the pH of the world's
oceans.
• Lower pH seas and oceans are known
to cause major problems for marine
organisms and ecosystems.
Reasons
• The rate of carbon dioxide absorption
in the atmosphere is outpacing the
ocean's natural buffering ability. The pH
of ocean surface waters has decreased
by around 0.1 pH unit (corresponding
to a 26 percent rise in ocean hydrogen
ion concentration) since the industrial
revolution begun.
• Acid rain (pH between 4.0 to 4.6.) has
impact on surface ocean chemistry
locally and regionally.
119
• Large plankton blooms are caused by
eutrophication, and when these blooms
burst and fall to the seabed, bacteria
decomposing the algae respire, resulting
in a decrease in seawater oxygen and
an increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
Effect
• CO2 is dissolved by seawater, resulting
in bicarbonate (HCO3[-]), carbonic
acid (H2CO3) and carbonate ions
(CO3[-2]). These carbonate ions are
needed for the calcification process,
which enables marine organisms to
form calcium carbonate skeletons
and shells (e.g., cold water corals,
hard tropical corals, molluscs, sea
urchins, crustaceans, certain types of
lobsters, plankton etc). Increases in
atmospheric CO2 levels, cause a drop
in pH, an increase in carbonic acid
and bicarbonate ions, and a decrease
in carbonate ion concentration. As a
result, carbonate ions are less available,
making calcification more difficult, if
not impossible.
• In certain species, increasing acidity
decreases metabolic rates and
immune responses, and it exacerbates
coral bleaching because corals are
highly sensitive to changes in water
composition.
Ozone depletion
• When sunlight strikes oxygen molecules
(O2), it breaks them up into individual
atoms, creating ozone. Individual atoms
combine with O2 molecules to form O3,
also known as ozone.
• It is mostly found in the stratosphere, but
it can also be found in the troposphere.
• Tropospheric ozone: It is only about 10%
of the total amount of ozone contained
in a vertical column in the atmosphere.
» Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas,
absorbing some of the infrared energy
emitted by the earth.
» Tropospheric ozone is a short-lived
greenhouse gas,
» It is an atmospheric pollutant formed
by the reaction of sunlight on air
containing hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides
• Ozone layer: The stratosphere has a
high concentration of ozone molecules,
which are produced when sunlight
interacts with oxygen molecules. The
ozone layer is the name given to this
part of the atmosphere.
» By blocking some of the Sun harmful
Ultra-Violet (UV) rays, it protects life on
Earth.
Ozone hole
• The ozone hole is not technically a
“hole” where no ozone is present but
is actually a region of exceptionally
depleted ozone in the stratosphere over
the Antarctic region.
• It happens at the beginning of the
Southern Hemisphere spring (August–
I M A G E 5.5: O Z O N E D E P L E T I O N
120
October).
• 220 Dobson Units is the boundary of
the region representing ozone loss.
• Ozone-depleting Substances (ODSs):
» Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): These
are one of the main reasons for the
depletion of the layer. They are usually
used as a coolant in refrigerators and
air conditioners used in cars etc and as
industrial solvent, foam products and
as hospital sterilization equipment.
» Methyl chloroform: Finds its applications
usually in industries for chemical
processing etc.
» Carbon tetrachloride: Normally used as
a solvent.
» Bromine-containing halons and methyl
bromide
» HCFCs
• Effects on Health:
» UV exposure raises the risk of sunburn
and skin cancer.
» UV rays that are too strong will harm
your eyes.
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC)
• Polar Stratospheric Clouds present
at around 12-22km above the earth's
surface contain water, nitric acid and/
or sulphuric acid.
• They form mostly during winter
polar vortex events, which are more
pronounced at the south pole due to its
lower temperature than the arctic.
• They form mostly during winter
polar vortex events, which are more
pronounced at the south pole due to its
lower temperature than the arctic.
• In the presence of PSC, Chlorine-
catalysed ozone depletion has
increased significantly.
• Photo-dissociation of ozone-depleting
substances creates free chlorine atoms
that destroys ozone by dissociating
ozone into chlorine oxide and oxygen
molecules.
Reason for Ozone Depletion being
predominant at the Antarctic:
• The stratosphere in Antarctica is much
colder. Polar stratospheric clouds
(PSCs) will form below 20 km due to the
low temperature.
• Ozone absorbs sunlight, resulting
in the usual rise in temperature as
altitude in the stratosphere increases.
As ozone levels drop, the air becomes
colder, creating even more favourable
conditions for PSC formation.
• The longevity of the Antarctic vortex
enhances favourable conditions for the
depletion of ozone. The vortex remains
throughout the polar winter, well into
mid spring whereas the vortex in the
Arctic disintegrates by the time the
polar spring (March- April) arrives.
• In June, the Antarctic winter starts,
the vortex forms, and the temperature
drops to the point where clouds form.
• PSCs denitrify and dehydrate the
121
stratosphere by precipitation in July
and August, chlorine nitrate and
hydrochloric acid react on cloud
surfaces to produce free chlorine, and
winter temperatures plummet.
• As the austral spring starts in September,
sunshine returns to the centre of
the vortex, and PSCs vanish due to
rising temperatures. Ozone cyclone is
destroyed by ClO-ClO and ClO-BrO
catalytic cycles.
• The lowest ozone levels are reached in
October.
• The Polar Vortex breaks down in
November, allowing ozone-rich air
from the mid-latitudes to replenish the
Antarctic stratosphere while ozone-
poor air spreads throughout the
southern hemisphere.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
• Effects on Human:
» The amount of UV-B that enters the
Earth's surface increases as the ozone
layer depletes. Various Laboratory
and epidemiological studies reveal
that UV-B causes non-melanoma
skin cancer and plays a crucial role in
malignant melanoma development.
» In addition, UV-B has also been related
to the development of cataracts, a
clouding of the lens of the eye. Because
all sunlight comprises some UV-B, even
with normal stratospheric ozone levels,
it is always very crucial to protect your
skin and eyes from the sun.
• Effects on animals:
» It causes bacterial infections in animals.
It also causes bronchiolitis in them.
• Effects on Plants:
» Plants' physiological and developmental
processes are affected by UV-B
radiation. Despite various mechanisms
 to decrease or repair these effects and
an ability to adapt to increased levels
of UV-B, growth of the plant can be
directly influenced by UV-B radiation.
» UV-B's indirect effects (such as
changes in plant form, how nutrients
are distributed within the plant,
developmental process timing, and
secondary metabolism) may be
equally or sometimes more important
as compared to the damaging
effects of UV-B. Plant competitive
equilibrium, herbivory, plant diseases,
and biogeochemical cycles can all be
affected by these changes.
• Effects on terrestrial ecosystem:
» The effects of UV-B radiation on plants
are influenced by various abiotic and
biotic factors in ways that can have both
positive and negative consequences on
plant productivity and functioning of
ecosystems. Exposure to UV-B radiation
can speed up or slow down rates of
decomposition of dead plant matter
(litter), depending on prevailing climate
and the chemistry and structure of the
litter.
» UV radiation from the sun has the
ability to lead to climate change by
stimulating the production of carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane,
and other volatile organic compounds
in plants, plant waste, and soil surfaces.
» Although UV-B radiation does not
penetrate soil to any substantial
depth, it can disrupt a variety of
belowground procedures by causing
changes in aboveground plant
sections, microorganisms, and plant
litter. Terrestrial ecosystems situated
in the Southern Hemisphere are being
disturbed by the Antarctic ozone ‘hole’.
• Effects on aquatic ecosystem:
» Phytoplankton form the foundation
of aquatic food chains. Productivity
122
of Phytoplankton is limited to the
euphotic zone, the upper layer of the
water column in which there is enough
sunlight to support net productivity.
Phytoplankton have been shown to
be affected by solar UV-B radiation
in terms of orientation and motility,
resulting in lower survival rates.
» Various research of Scientists have
demonstrated a direct reduction in
production of phytoplankton because
of ozone depletion-related increases in
UV-B.
» UV-B radiation has been found to cause
destruction to early developmental
stages of fish, crab, amphibians, shrimp,
and other types of marine animals.
» The most important consequences
are a reduction in reproductive ability
and a disturbance in larval growth.
Small increases in UV-B exposure may
cause population declines in small
marine organisms, which could have
consequences for the entire marine
food chain.
• Impacts on air quality:
» Reductions in stratospheric ozone layer
allows more UV-B radiation to reach
the lower atmosphere, resulting in an
overall increase in the troposphere's
photochemical reactivity.
» These modifications are believed
to affect concentrations of major
tropospheric gases like ozone (the key
constituent of urban photochemical
smog), peroxides (crucial contributors
to the acidification of rain) and the
hydroxyl radical (OH), which is the
important oxidant responsible for the
atmospheric residence time of carbon
monoxide, methane, VOC, sulphur oxides
and nitrogen, and other constituents
comprising many substitutes for ozone-
depleting substances.
» Nevertheless,the magnitude and
even the sign of the tropospheric
 composition responses to increased
UV-B levels, are dependent on the
chemical environment, particularly the
local amounts of nitrogen oxides, VOC,
and water vapour.
Waste management
E-Waste
• Electronic waste, also known as e-waste,
is a term used to describe discarded
electronic or electrical equipment.
E-waste contains used electronics that
are destined for reuse, refurbishment,
salvage, resale, recycling via resource
recovery, or disposal.
• E-waste is particularly dangerous due
to toxic chemicals that naturally leach
from the metals inside when buried.
• E-waste is not harmful if it is stored in a
secure location, recycled using scientific
processes, or transported in parts or in
its entirety in the formal sector. However,
e-waste that is recycled using primitive
methods may be hazardous.
• According to a UN report, the world
generated 48.5 million tons of electronic
waste in 2018, but a mere 20% of this
waste is recycled.
Indian scenario
Production:
• Global E-Waste Monitor report (2017)
says India produces approximately 2
million tonnes (MT) of E-waste per year.
• After the United States, China, Japan,
and Germany, India is the fifth largest
producer of e-waste.
• Mumbai ranks first in generating
e-waste followed by Delhi, Bangalore,
Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad,
Hyderabad, Pune, Surat, and Nagpur.
• The 65 cities generate more than 60%
of the total generated e-waste, whereas
123
10 states generate 70% of the total
e-waste.
Management:
• Producers:
» The E-waste (Management) Rules (2016)
were enforced by the government,
enforcing the Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR).
» Under the EPR principle, manufacturers
are required to collect a certain
percentage of E-waste produced by
their products until they reach their
"end-of-life."
• Governments of the State:
» The government is also entrusted to put
in place policies to protect the health
and safety of staff who work in e-waste
dismantling and recycling facilities.
» The state government is in charge
of industrial space maintenance
for electronic waste recycling and
dismantling facilities.
Recycling:
• Most of India’s e-waste is recycled by the
informal sector and under hazardous
conditions.
• A report by the Union Environment
Ministry in 2018 found that many of
India’s e-waste recyclers did not have
the capacity to handle a large quantity
of waste.
E waste Management Rules 2016
• The rules' applicability has been
expanded to include consumables,
electric and electronic equipment (EEE)
materials, spares, and parts in addition
to equipment.
• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)
and other mercury-containing lamps,
as well as other related devices, will also
be protected by e-waste legislation.
• Penalty for violation of rules under
Environment protection Act 1986.
• The regulations now cover additional
stakeholders such as the distributor,
refurbisher, manufacturer and Producer
Obligation Organization (PRO).
• Producers will be subject to EPR, as well
as goals, under the new regulations.
• One system of authorization by CPCB
for dismantling and processing.
• Deposit Refund Scheme where an
extra amount is charged upfront and
refunded on return.
• Criticism: It ignores the unorganized,
small and medium sectors where 90
percent of the e-waste is generated. It
also do not recognize the magnitude of
trans-boundary movement of e-waste.
Solid waste
Solid wastes are materials that have been
discarded (or are called waste-like). Solid
or dissolved materials in domestic sewage,
as well as solid or dissolved materials
in irrigation return flows or industrial
discharges, are not included.
Types
Solid wastes are categorised into
• Municipal waste: It is defined as
any waste generated by household,
commercial and/or institutional
activities and is not hazardous.
• Hazardous waste: Household waste
that can be categorized as hazardous
waste include old batteries, shoe polish,
paint tins, old medicines, and medicine
bottles. In the industrial sector, the major
generators of hazardous waste are the
metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye,
refining, and rubber goods industries.
It could be highly toxic to humans,
animals, and plants and are corrosive,
highly inflammable, or explosive.
• Biomedical waste or hospital waste:
Hospital waste is generated during the
124
diagnosis, treatment, or immunization
of human beings or animals or in
research activities or in the production
or testing of biologicals. These are
highly infectious and can be a serious
threat to human health if not managed
in a scientific and discriminate manner.
Solid waste Management
• Landfills
» A pit is a hole dug in the ground,
typically in a city. Every day, waste is
spilled, and the pit is filled with dirt.
» Once the landfill is complete, the field is
covered in a dense layer of mud, which
allows the site to be developed as a
parking lot or park.
» As water seeps into them, it becomes
polluted and, as a result of leaching,
pollutes the surrounding environment.
• Open dumps
» An open dumping is defined as a land
disposal site at which solid wastes
are disposed. When the waste is not
processed, it is left out in the open, and
not separated in open dumps. Exposed
sites where solid waste of all sorts is
dumped is open dumps.
» Rainwater runoff from these dumps
contaminates local land and water,
causing disease to spread.
• Sanitary landfills
» These are constructed in a systematic
manner to address the issue of
leaching. These are constructed over
impermeable soil and packed with
impermeable materials such as plastics
and clay.
• Incineration plants
» In these plants, recyclable materials
are separated from the rest, which
is then burned, and ash is created. It
emits tonnes of radioactive ash into
 the atmosphere and pollutes the water
supply.
• Pyrolysis
» It is the method of burning a substance
in the absence of oxygen or in a
regulated atmosphere of oxygen.
» The resulting gas and liquid may be
used as fuel.
• Composting
» Composting is a biological process in
which micro-organisms, mainly fungi
and bacteria, decompose degradable
organic waste into humus-like
substances in the presence of oxygen.
» It recycles the nutrients and returns
them back to soil as nutrients.
• Vermiculture
» Earthworms are added to the compost
in this process. These worms break down
the waste, and the worms' excrement
enriches the compost with nutrients.
• Four R’s
» Reduce: This refers to the use of natural
resources in a sustainable manner while
avoiding waste. Ex: Using bucket for
bathing instead of taking shower bath.
» Reuse: Reuse items as much as you can
before replacing them. The process of
reusing starts with the assumption that
the used materials that flow through
our lives can be a resource rather than
refuse. Ex: Some easy-to-reuse items
include containers and packaging
materials such as bags and boxes.
» Recycle: This means things are
processed and may get converted into
some other product so that they can
be used again. For example, paper is
recycled.
» Recover: This means a safe and eco-
friendly alternative should be used in
place of a thing. For example, using a
125
clothing bag instead of a polythene
bag.
Solid Waste Management in India
• India generates over 150,000 tonnes of
municipal solid waste (MSW) per day.
• According to MoEFCC, 62 million
tonnes of waste is generated annually
in the country.
• Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016
govern the solid waste management in
India.
Solid Waste Management Rules 2016
• They concentrate on waste segregation
at the source, the manufacturer's
responsibility for sanitary and
packaging waste disposal, and
consumer fees for processing, disposal,
and bulk generator collection.
• The rules encourage the use of compost,
the conversion of waste into energy,
and the revision of criteria for landfill
location and capacity.
• The government has also formed a
Central Monitoring Committee, chaired
by the Secretary of MoEFCC, to oversee
the rules' overall implementation.
• The Rules for the Safe Treatment of
Legacy Waste prescribe bioremediation
and bio-mining in all open dumpsites
and existing operational dumpsites in
India.
• The rules emphasize promotion of
waste to energy plants.
Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules
2016
• Bio-Medical waste consists of: Human
anatomical waste like tissues, organs
and body parts, hypodermic needles,
syringes, scalpels, and broken glass.
• The rules' scope has been broadened to
include vaccine clinics, blood donation
clinics, surgical camps, and every other
type of healthcare operation.
• Within two years, phase out the use of
chlorinated plastic containers, gloves,
 and blood bags.
• Establish a bar-code system for
containers or bags containing bio-
medical waste for disposal.
• Bio-medical waste has been divided into
126
four groups rather than ten to facilitate
waste separation at the source.
• Criticism: It requires technological
infrastructure for bar coding waste
bags.
 CHAPTER - 6
CLIMATE CHANGE
• The climate of an area is the long-term
average of its weather events. The world
has shifted several times over billions of
years due to natural forces such as ice
age glaciations, sunspots and so on.
• “Climate Change” means a change
of climate which is attributed directly
or indirectly to human activity that
alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition
to natural climate variability observed
over comparable time periods.
• A change in long-term weather trends is
referred to as climate change. Climate
change is not a change of weather in
a particular day; it is the cumulative
change of long-term weather pattern
i.e., changes in climate.
• Climate change is the measurable
effects of the continual warming trend.
Climate change is typically measured
in decades-long changes in rainfall,
temperature, wind patterns and
snowfall.
I M A G E 6.1: H E AT B U D G E T
127
• Climate change is caused by humans
consuming vast quantities of fossil
fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas), as
well as deforestation (when forests
are cut down or burned, they can no
longer store carbon, and the carbon is
released to the atmosphere).
Global Warming and
Greenhouse Effect
Global warming
• Global warming is described as a rise
in the temperature of the atmosphere
near the Earth's surface and in the
troposphere, which can affect global
climate patterns. Global warming can
be caused by a range of factors, both
natural and man-made.
• In general, it is caused as a result of
increased emissions of greenhouse
gases from human activities.
OF EARTH
Greenhouse effect
• The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that warms and blankets
the earth's lower atmosphere, holding it at a temperature appropriate for life.

I M A G E 6.2: G R E E N H O U S E E F F E C T

Greenhouse gases Description

• Naturally present in the atmosphere. Overall biggest
Water Vapour contributor to the greenhouse effect but does not persist in
the air for too long.
• In addition, it is naturally present in the atmosphere. It is
the most common greenhouse gas generated by human
Carbon Dioxide
activities such as transportation, the burning of fossil fuels to
generate electricity and industrial processes.
• Naturally present in the atmosphere as well. It is emitted by
natural sources such as wetlands, as well as human activities
Methane
such as leakage from natural gas systems and the raising of
livestock.
• In addition, it is naturally present in the atmosphere. Fossil
fuel combustion, agriculture, manufacturing activities and
Nitrous Oxide
wastewater treatment all lead to the rise in N2O in the
atmosphere.

128
 • Main categories of fluorinated gases:
» Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
» Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (by-product in industrial processes
associated with aluminium product and semiconductors),
» Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) (used in magnesium processing).
Fluorinated Gases
• These gases have very high (GWP) global warming potentials.
They are removed only when they are destroyed by sunlight
in the far upper atmosphere.
• HFCs were developed as a replacement for CFCs and HCFCs
because they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer.
But they do act as potent greenhouse gases.
• Soot is a form of particulate air pollutant that is formed as
a result of incomplete combustion. It is made up of pure
carbon in various related forms.
Black Carbon
• It is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the air
directly.
• It stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
• It is a ubiquitous and unidentified component of organic
aerosol.
Brown Carbon • It is generally referred for particles resulting from impure
combustion, such as soot and dust.
• Brown carbon is emitted mainly by biomass combustion.

I M A G E 6.3: S H A R E OF GHG S IN GLOBAL WARMING

129
Greenhouse gas Chemical formula Global Warming Atmospheric
Potential, 100-year Lifetime (years)
time horizon
Carbon Dioxide CO2 1 100*
Methane CH4 25 12
Nitrous Oxide N2O 265 121
Chlorofluorocarbon-12 CCl2F2 10,200 100
(CFC-12)
Hydrofluorocarbon-23 CHF3 12,400 222
(HFC-23)
Sulfur Hexafluoride SF6 23,500 3200
Nitrogen Trifluoride NF3 16,100 500

Polar Vortex
• Polar vortex is an area of low-pressure Arctic air normally centered around the
north-pole.
• It is held in place by a jet stream passing around 65 degrees N, 25000-30000 feet
above the ground that divides the cold air from warm air, bending around high-
and low-pressure weather systems.
• A high pressure and low-pressure system push the jet stream in a wavy manner
leading to the polar vortex much south than normal.
• This brought a portion of the vortex into North America and caused temperatures in
the Midwest and the eastern United States to dive below zero. This event was called
Arctic Invasion.
• Generally, the polar vortex slips south when the jet stream weakens and the
temperature difference between the warm and cold air fronts decrease.

I M A G E 6.4: P O L A R V O R T E X

130
Impact of Climate Change
Agriculture and food security
• Rise in temperatures caused by
increasing greenhouse gases is likely to
affect crops differently from region to
region.
• For example, moderate warming
(increase of 1 to 3°C in mean
temperature) is expected to benefit
crop yields in temperate regions, while
in lower latitudes especially seasonally
dry tropics, even moderate temperature
increases (1 to 2°C) are likely to have
negative impacts for major cereal
crops.
• Warming of more than 3°C is expected
to have a negative effect on production
in all regions.
Sea levels, Oceans and Coastal
Areas
• The global average sea level has risen
by 10 to 20 cm over the past 100 years.
The rate of increase has been 1 – 2 mm
per year – some 10 times faster than the
rate observed for the previous 3,000
years.
• Related effects now being detected
include warming sea-surface
temperatures, melting sea ice, greater
evaporation, and changes in the marine
food web.
• Models project that sea levels will rise
another 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100. This
will occur due to the thermal expansion
of warming ocean water and an influx
of freshwater from melting glaciers and
ice.
• Small islands and coastal areas are
particularly vulnerable. Flooding and
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erosion of the coast will worsen.
• The quality and quantity of freshwater
sources would be affected as a result of
saltwater intrusion. Extreme events like
high tides, storm surges, and seismic
sea waves (tsunami) could all be
exacerbated by the sea levels.
Water stress and water insecurity
• Warming has resulted in decline in
mountain glaciers and snow cover in
both hemispheres and this is projected
to accelerate throughout the 21st
century.
• This will in turn lead to reducing water
availability, hydropower potential, and
would change the seasonal flow of
rivers in regions supplied by meltwater
from major mountain ranges (e.g.,
Hindu-Kush, Himalaya, Andes).
• Freshwater availability in South, Central,
East and Southeast Asia is expected to
decline by 2050, especially in large river
basins.
• A warmer atmosphere will hasten the
hydrologic cycle, impacting rainfall,
run-off severity, and timing.
• During the twentieth century, the
incidence of extreme flooding in large
river basins has increased. Flooding
is becoming more frequent, posing
problems for society, infrastructure, and
water quality.
• Rising temperatures would have a
greater effect on the chemical, physical
and biological properties of freshwater
rivers and lakes with the majority
of freshwater population, species
and water quality being negatively
impacted.
 I M A G E 6.5: W AT E R S T R E S S
Biological Diversity
• According to the International World
Wildlife Fund (WWF) species from the
tropics to the poles are at risk.
• Many species may be unable to move
to new areas quickly enough to survive
changes that rising temperatures will
bring to their historic habitats.
• One-fifth of the world's most
endangered natural areas, according to
WWF, could be facing a "catastrophic"
loss of biodiversity.
• It will have a catastrophic impact
on marine ecosystems. They will be
affected not only by an increase in
sea temperature and changes in
ocean circulation, but also by ocean
acidification, as the concentration of
dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonic
acid) rises.
• This is expected to negatively affect
shell forming organisms, corals, and
their dependent ecosystems.
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AND W AT E R I N S E C U R I T Y
Health
• A warmer and more variable climate
would result in higher levels of some
air pollutants, increased transmission
of diseases through unclean water and
through contaminated food.
• Human health is directly impacted by
climate change. For example, the risk
of a negative effect on human health
increases as the environment warms.
• Owing to the increased frequency and
intensity of heat waves and other severe
weather events, it is expected that the
number of deaths will rise.
• Climate change contributes significantly
to the spread of infectious diseases.
Diseases that were previously limited
to a single geographic region began to
spread to other regions.
Social Cost of Carbon:
• The social cost of carbon tries to add up all the quantifiable costs and benefits
of emitting one additional tonne of CO2, in monetary terms. This value can then
be used to weigh the benefits of reduced warming against the costs of cutting
emissions. The objective of putting a price on a ton of emitted CO2 is to assist
policymakers or other legislators in assessing whether a policy designed to curb
climate change is justified.
• The Social Cost of Carbon is generally estimated as the net present value of climate
change impacts over the next 100 years (or longer) of one additional tonne of
carbon emitted to the atmosphere today. It is the marginal global damage costs of
carbon emissions.

Climate Change Mitigation creating more sustainable transportation

Strategies
A mitigation strategy, by definition, is
taking steps to reduce the risk (the severity
of the impact and/or probability of the
occurrence).
Mitigating climate change entails lowering
the amount of greenhouse gas emissions
that contribute to global warming.
Retrofitting buildings to make them more
energy efficient; embracing renewable
energy sources such as wind, solar, and
small hydro; and assisting communities in
solutions such as electric cars, bus rapid
transit, and biofuels are all examples of
mitigation strategies; and promoting more
sustainable uses of land and forests.
The Special Report on 1.5 Degrees of
Warming released by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2018
stresses the urgency of climate action:
global emissions must peak by 2030 and
quickly fall to zero by 2050 if we are to
remain within the Paris Agreement's safety
limits.

Carbon • Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing carbon

Sequestration dioxide (CO2) gas in the atmosphere.
• It is also the process of capturing CO2 from new and existing
power plants and factories before they are released into the
atmosphere.
• Once the CO2 gas has been contained it is placed into long-
term storage.
• It can be of two types.
» Terrestrial Sequestration plants and trees store CO2 in their
bodies and in their roots.
» Geologic Sequestration bury the CO2 thousands of feet
underground.
• Carbon sequestration aims to eliminate harmful human
introduced carbon from our atmosphere by disrupting the
carbon cycle.
Carbon Sink • A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon than it
releases as carbon dioxide.

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Carbon Credit • A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate representing the
right to emit one tonne of CO2 equivalent.
• An organisation can earn carbon credit if it produces one
tonne less of CO2 equivalent than the standard level of
carbon emission allowed for its activities.
• Green Carbon: It is the carbon removed by photosynthesis
and stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
• Coastal, terrestrial, and marine carbon sinks retained by
the indicated plants, marine organisms, and sediments are
referred to as blue carbon.
Carbon Offsetting • Carbon offsetting is the process of compensating for one's
carbon dioxide emissions by stopping the same amount of
pollution from occurring somewhere.
• One carbon offset involves compensating for the release of
one tonne of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere by
stopping another tonne of CO2 from entering the atmosphere
anywhere else on the earth (e.g., investing in renewable
energy) or by eliminating a tonne of CO2 that is already in
the atmosphere (by promoting tree planting, which pulls
CO2 from the air as it grows).
• Governments are allowed to assist one another in reducing
their collective emissions under the Kyoto Protocol (the key
global piece of legislation addressing climate change). This
is known as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The
basic principle is that developed countries pay developing
countries to minimise global pollution on their behalf.
Carbon Tax • It is a kind of pollution tax. It charges a fee for the sale,
production and use of fossil fuels depending on the amount
of carbon released during combustion.
• The government imposes a carbon price per tonne, which is
then translated into a tax on natural gas, electricity, or oil.
The tax encourages companies, utilities, and individuals to
reduce consumption and boost energy efficiency by making
dirty fuels more costly.
Geo-engineering • Aims at modifying and cooling Earth’s environment through
a variety of engineering technologies.
• It is a group of hypothetical technologies that could, in
theory, counteract temperature rise by reflecting more
sunlight away from the Earth’s surface.
• From sending a mirror into space to spraying aerosols in the
stratosphere, the range of proposed techniques all come
with unique technical, ethical, and political challenges.

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 I M A G E 6.6: G E O - E N G I N E E R I N G TO C O M B AT C L I M AT E C H A N G E

Global response to Climate which pay for costs of developing

countries.
Change
• Non-Annex I countries: Developing
UNFCCC- United Nation Framework countries.
Convention on Climate Change • India is a Non-Annex party (refers to
• Came into force from 1994. countries that have ratified or acceded
to the UNFCCC but are not included in
• Secretariat is located in Bonn, Germany.
Annex) to UNFCCC.
• Ratified: 197 countries.
• Kyoto Protocol was negotiated under
• The convention is legally non-binding, this framework.
but makes provisions for meeting called
‘protocols’ where negotiating countries
can set legally binding limits. Kyoto Protocol
• What it does? It aims to stabilize • Adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and
greenhouse gas concentrations in the came into force in 2005.
atmosphere.
• Parties: 192 (Canada withdrew).
• Annex I countries: industrialized
countries and economies in transition. • It set binding goals for Annex I countries
and aims to reduce greenhouse gas
• Annex II countries: developed countries emissions to combat global warming.

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 The Protocol is based on the concept
of common but differentiated
responsibilities.
• The following GHGs are included in the
protocol's goal:
» Methane (CH4), Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) and Nitrous
Oxide (NO2).
» Two groups of gases: Hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
• It contains "flexible mechanisms" that
enable Annex I economies to reach
their GHG targets by:
» Financial exchanges (International
Emissions Trading Scheme)
» From projects which reduce emissions
in non-Annex I countries under the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
» In other Annex I countries under the
Joint Implementation (JI)
• This method can only be used to buy and
sell CDM Executive Board-accredited
Certified Emission Reductions (CER).
• India has ratified the Kyoto Protocol's
second commitment, also known as the
Doha Amendment.
• The Paris agreement is not an
upgradation of Kyoto Protocol rather a
separate instrument alt.
• Criticism of Kyoto Protocol
» Many countries were permitted to raise
emissions under CBDR.
» The most polluting nations, such as
China and India, were exempted.
UN-REDD
• REDD stands for "Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation in Developing
countries"
• The tropical deforestation and forest
degradation through destructive
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logging, agricultural expansion,
conversion to pastureland, fires, etc.,
accounts for nearly 20 percent of global
greenhouse gas emission. It is larger
than the entire global transportation
sector and second only to the energy
sector.
• It is an effort to value the carbon stored
in standing forests as a way to create
incentives for developing countries to
protect forests.
• In response to the Bali UNFCCC
COP13 decision on REDD (2008), FAO,
UNDP, and UNEP launched the UN-
REDD Programme (United Nations
Collaborative Programme on Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation in Developing
Countries).
• Objectives:
» To assist developing countries prepare
and implement national REDD
strategies and mechanisms.
» To support the development of
normative solutions and standardized
approaches based on sound science
for a REDD instrument linked with the
UNFCCC.
• India did not participate in UN-REDD
as India had stressed that forest
conservation and their sustainable
management must go hand-in-hand
with the efforts to reduce deforestation.
REDD+
• REDD+ (or REDD-plus) stands for
"reducing emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation in developing
countries, and the role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests,
and enhancement of forest carbon
stocks in developing countries".
• REDD+ is essentially a vehicle to
financially reward developing countries
for their verified efforts to reduce
 emissions and enhance removals of
greenhouse gases through a variety of
forest management option.
• India favours REDD+. As it offers a
broad range of social, environmental,
and economic benefits to developing
countries and forest communities.
• REDD+ aims to incentivize developing
countries to contribute to climate
change mitigation actions in the forest
sector by:
» Reducing carbon emissions
deforestation.
» Reducing carbon emissions from forest
degradation.
» Conservation of forest carbon stocks.
» Sustainable management of forests.
» Enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
• Countries interested in REDD+ are
required to progress through three
phases, which are closely linked with
one another:
» Readiness phase, involving the
development of national strategies or
action plans, REDD+ mitigation actions,
and capacity building.
» Implementation of national strategies
and results-based demonstration
activities, enacting REDD+ actions
from and national strategies or plans that
could involve further capacity building,
technology development and transfer,
and results-based demonstration
activities.
» Results-based actions that must be
fully measured, reported, and verified.

REDD+ is a climate change mitigation solution being developed by Parties to the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
United Nations
Framework REDD+
Convvetion on results-based payments for actions to reduce or remove forest carbon emissions.
Climate change

The UN-REDD Programme assists contries to develop the capacities needed to

meet the UNFCCC’s REDD+ requirements, so that they can qualify to receive
results-based payments under the Convention.

The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally-led REDD+ processes and

promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders,
including indigenous peoples and other forst-dependent communities.

I M A G E 6.7: REDD V S REDD +

Global Environment Facility-GEF protection.

(1992)
• GEF was established on the eve of the
1992 Rio Earth Summit to help tackle our
planet’s most pressing environmental
problems.
• The GEF supports programmes in the
fields of climate change, biodiversity,
soil loss, international waters, persistent
organic pollutants, and ozone layer
• It provide funds to developing countries
and countries with economies in
transition to meet the objectives
of the international environmental
conventions and agreements.
• GEF support is provided to government
agencies, civil society organizations,
private sector companies, research
institutions, among the broad diversity
of potential partners, to implement

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 projects and programs in recipient
countries.
• The GEF also functions as a funding
source for environmental conventions
given below:
» Minamata Convention on Mercury.
» Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
» UN Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD).
» United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
» Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs).
Green Climate Fund- GCF
• It is a UNFCCC-sponsored fund that
was developed to assist developing
countries with climate change
adaptation and mitigation strategies.
• The general concept for GCF is first
proposed in 2009, at the UNFCCC
COP-15 in Copenhagen, Denmark.
• It was established under the Cancún
Agreements in 2010 at COP-16 in
Mexico.
• The World Bank is appointed as the
fund's temporary trustee.
• Incheon, South Korea is the
headquarters.
• A core GCF principle is to follow a
country-driven approach, which means
that developing countries lead GCF
programming and implementation.
• GCF is mandated to invest 50% of its
resources to mitigation and 50% to
adaptation in grant equivalent.
• At least half of its adaptation resources
must be invested in the most climate
vulnerable countries ( least developed
countries (LDCs), small island
developing states (SIDS), and African
States).
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• It is expected to be the centrepiece of
attempts to raise $100 billion in annual
climate finance by 2020. However, this
is not an official figure for the size of the
fund itself.
• Developed countries even after
pledging has contributed very less to it.
IPCC
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) is the international
body for assessing the science related
to climate change.
• The IPCC was set up in 1988 by the
World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) and United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
• IPCC assessments provide a scientific
basis for governments at all levels
to develop climate related policies,
and they underlie negotiations at the
UN Climate Conference – the United
Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• Assessment Report (AR) is published by
IPCC.
Paris Agreement
• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding
international treaty on climate change.
It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP
21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015 and
entered into force on 4 November 2016.
• The agreement addresses greenhouse
gas emissions reduction, adaptation,
and financing.
• The Paris Agreement works on a 5- year
cycle of increasingly ambitious climate
action carried out by countries. By 2020,
countries submit their plans for climate
action known as nationally determined
contributions (NDCs).
• Targets will not be binding as it is not
possible to enforce them.
• NDCs will be revised after 5 years in
2023.
• India has signed it. India's contribution
in global greenhouse gas was 4.10% in
2015.
• Holding global average temperature
rises well below 2 degrees Celsius above
pre-industrial levels and following
attempts to restrict temperature
increases to 1.5 degrees Celsius above
pre-industrial levels.
• India’s proposed targets:
» Reduce emissions intensity of its GDP
by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005 level.
» Achieve about 40% electric power
installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-
based energy resources by 2030 with
help of transfer of technology and low-
cost international finance.
» Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5
to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent
through additional forest and tree
cover by 2030.
International Solar Alliance
• The ISA was launched at the 2015 Paris
Climate Change Summit by Prime
Minister Narendra Modi and the then
French President Francois Hollande.
• Headquarters at Gurugram, India.
• It seeks to empower solar-rich countries
located between the tropic of Cancer
and the tropic of Capricorn to make
collaborative efforts to harness solar
energy to generate electricity.
• Its main goals include the global
deployment of over 1,000 GW of
solar generation capacity and the
mobilisation of over $1000 billion in
solar energy investment by 2030.
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Alliance of Small Island States
(AOSIS)
• It is an intergovernmental organisation
of low lying coastal and small island
nations.
• Established in 1990.
• AOSIS has a membership of 44 states
• The alliance's goal is to bring together
the voices of Small Island Developing
States (SIDS) to counter global
warming. Since many AOSIS states' life
is threatened by climate change, AOSIS
has threatened lawsuits.
• In Indian ocean 4 states are member:
» Comoros
» Maldives
» Mauritius
» Seychelles
• India is not a member. The Talanoa
Dialogue was launched at COP 23
under the Presidency of the Republic
of Fiji. The dialogue will help countries
implement their Intended National
Determined Contributions and reduce
imapct of cliamte change on SIDS.
Indian Initiatives
National Action Plan on Climate
Change (NAPCC)
• On June 30th, 2008, the NAPCC was
formally released. It defines policies
that advance development goals while
also providing co-benefits for effectively
addressing climate change.
• There are eight “National Missions”
which form the core of the National
action plan.
• They focus on promoting understanding
of climate change, adaptation and
mitigation, energy efficiency and
natural resource conservation.
 National Missions Description

• The mission’s objective is to expand the share of solar

energy in the total energy mix of the country, while also
expanding the scope of other renewable sources.
• Mission has set the ambitious target of deploying 20,000
National Solar Mission MW of grid connected solar power by 2022, which was
revised to 1,00,000 MW by 2022 during June 2015.
• The target will primarily be 40 GW of rooftop solar and
60 GW of large and medium-scale grid-connected solar
power projects.
• To improve the energy efficiency market by developing a
favourable regulatory and policy setting.
• Initiatives:
National Mission for » Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT).
Enhanced Energy
Efficiency (NMEEE) » Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency.
» Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEP).
» Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development
(FEEED).
• The aim of the Mission is to make habitats more sustainable
through a threefold approach that includes:
National Mission on » Improvements in energy efficiency of buildings in
Sustainable Habitat residential and commercial sector.
» Management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW).
» Promote urban public transport.
• Ensuring integrated water resource management for
conservation of water, minimization of wastage and
equitable distribution developing a framework for
National Water Mission optimum water use.
• The Water Mission will develop a framework to increase
the water use efficiency by 20%.
• The mission's main goal is to build a long-term national
capacity to assess the health of the Himalayan Ecosystem
National Mission on a regular basis.
for Sustaining the • Assist States in the Indian Himalayan Region with
Himalayan Ecosystem the implementation of actions chosen for sustainable
development by enabling policy bodies in their policy-
formulation functions.

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 • Increased forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares (ha) of
forest/non- forestlands.
National Mission for a • Improved forest cover quality on another 5 million
Green India hectares of forest/non-forest lands. Improved ecosystem
services such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and
hydrological service.
• It has identified 10 key dimensions for adaptation and
mitigation:
» Improved Crop Seeds, Livestock and Fish Culture
» Water Efficiency
» Pest Management

National Mission for » Improved Farm Practices

Sustainable Agriculture » Nutrient Management
» Agricultural Insurance
» Credit Support
» Markets
» Access to Information
» Livelihood Diversification
• To gain a better understanding of climate science,
impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate
National Mission on
Science Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and
Strategic Knowledge
increased international collaboration. It also encourages
for Climate Change
private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and
mitigation technologies through venture capital funds.

Intended Nationally Determined » By 2030, non-fossil fuel dependent

Contribution (INDC)
• India's INDC to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate
Change has been submitted. Significant
points of the INDC are:
» To create an additional carbon sink of
» By 2030, the emissions rate of its GDP
would be decreased by 33 to 35 percent
compared to 2005 levels.
energy resources will account for
around 40% of total installed capacity,
with the aid of technology transfer and
low-cost foreign funding, including from
the Green Climate Fund.
2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent
through additional forest and tree cover
by 2030.

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 Initiatives Description

Indian Network on • Launched in 2009, under MoEFCC.

Climate Change • It is a network-based programme, which consists of over 120
Assessment institutions and over 250 scientists countrywide.
• National Communication (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC was
initiated in 2002 funded by the Global Environment Facility.
• The project is implemented and executed by the Ministry of
National Environment and Forests (MoEF).
Communication • All GHGs not regulated by the Montreal Protocol require a
(NATCOM) national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by source
and removal by sink.
• To communicate the information to the Conference of Parties
Secretariat.
• In 2006, the Integrated Energy Policy was introduced.
• Promotion of energy efficiency in all industries, with a focus
India’s Policy on public transportation and renewables, such as biofuel
Structure Relevant plantations.
to GHG Mitigation • The Rural Electrification policy 2006 promotes renewable
energy technology where grid connectivity is not possible or
cost-effective.
• Buildings are a significant source of contaminants that
degrade air qualities in urban region and contribute to
global warming.
• A green building costs a little more to plan and install.
Green Building However, operating a green building is less expensive.
• It aims to minimize the demand on non-renewable resources
and maximize the utilization efficiency of these resources
when in use, and maximize reuse and recycling of available
resources.
• GRIHA is a Sanskrit word meaning – ‘Abode’ or ‘Home’.
Devised by the MNRE and TERI it is a voluntary scheme.
• To assist in the construction of green buildings and, as a result,
GRIHA
to assist in the assessment of the buildings' "greenness."
• GRIHA is a rating system that allows people to evaluate their
building's efficiency.

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National Initiative • In 2011-12, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
on Climate Resilient launched the National Initiative on Climate Resilient
Agriculture Agriculture (NICRA), with a budget of Rs.350 crores for the
XI Plan.
• It will primarily enhance the resilience of Indian Agriculture
covering crops, livestock, and fisheries.
• Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation.
• Technology demonstration on farmers’ fields to cope with
current climate variability.
• Vulnerability assessment of major production zones.
BSE-GREENEX • Cap Weighted Free-Float Market Capitalization Weighted
Index comprising from the list of BSE-100 Index.
• 1st October 2008 (Base Date) with the base index value of
1000.
• Gtrade Carbon Ex Ratings Services Private Limited (gTrade)
is a company based in India, which has co-developed the
BSE-GREENV Index in close association with the BSE.
Faster Adoption • Recently the Government removed subsidies for mild hybrid
and Manufacturing vehicles.
of (Hybrid &) • The Phase-II of the (FAME-India) Scheme proposes to give a
Electric Vehicles push to electric vehicles (EVs) in public transport and seeks
(FAME) -India to encourage adoption of EVs by way of market creation
Programme and demand aggregation.
• Aims to support hybrid/electric vehicles market development
and manufacturing ecosystem.
• Focus areas: Technology development, Demand Creation,
Pilot Projects, and Charging Infrastructure.
• FAME India Scheme is aimed at incentivizing all vehicle
segments i.e., 2-Wheeler, 3-Wheeler Auto, Passenger
4-Wheeler Vehicle, Light Commercial Vehicles and Buses.
Long Term • LTEO to study Climate Change is one of the components
Ecological of the ‘Climate Change Action Program,' which received a
Observatories budget of Rs. 40 crores during the 12th Plan Period.
(LTEO) • Via a network of scientific institutions, the aim is to understand
the anthropogenic and biophysical drivers of ecosystem
change in the selected biomes, as well as their impact on
social-ecological responses.
• Assessing changes in natural ecosystem structure and
function, as well as recognising trends and drivers of change
in natural ecosystems.

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National Adaptation • NAFCC was operationalized in 2015-16.
Fund for Climate • This scheme has been taken as Central Sector Scheme with
Change the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) as National Implementing Entity (NIE).
• The fund's aim is to support state and national-level activities
and cover the costs of adaptation initiatives in areas that are
especially vulnerable to climate change's negative effects.
• The overall aim of the fund is to support concrete adaptation
activities which are not covered under ongoing schemes of
State and National Government.
National Bio-Energy • In India, biomass from agricultural and agro-industrial waste
Mission has the capacity to produce 25,000 MW of electricity.
• To increase the use of biomass, a renewable energy source
abundant in India, for power generation.
• Proposed a National Biomass Resource Atlas based on GIS
to map potential biomass regions across the country.

Energy Efficiency in • Super critical technologies.

Power • Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC).
Generation
Renewable Energy • Natural Gas based Power Plants.
Technologies • Closed Cycle Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme.
Programmes
• Efficient Transmission and Distribution.
• Hydropower.
• RETs for power generation.
• Biomass based popup generation technologies.
• Small scale Hydropower.
• Wind Energy.
• Grid connected systems.
• RETs for transportation and industrial fuels.

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Protection of • Undertake measures for coastal protection and setting up
Coastal Areas Early Warning System.
• Development of a regional ocean modelling system.
• High resolution coupled ocean-atmosphere variability
studies in tropical oceans.
• Development of a high-resolution storm surge model for
coastal regions.
• Development of salinity-tolerant crop cultivars.
• Community awareness on coastal disasters and necessary
action.
• Timely forecasting, cyclone, and flood warning systems.
• Enhanced plantation and regeneration of mangroves and
coastal forests.
Disaster • Reducing risk to infrastructure through better design.
Management • Strengthening communication networks and disaster
Response management facilities.
to Extreme Climate
Events
Health Sector • Providing improved public health care facilities and
evaluating the increased disease burden caused by climate
change.
Creating • Building capacity in the Central, State, and other at the local
appropriate level to assimilate.
capacity at • Facilitating the implementation of the activities of national
different levels of plan.
Government

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 CHAPTER - 7

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

• For our everyday needs, most of us
depend heavily on non-renewable
energy resources such as oil, coal, and
natural gas, but we all know that these
resources are limited in nature and
will inevitably disappear forever. They
would become prohibitively costly and
environmentally harmful before then.
We will have to consider alternative
energy options, which are renewable
and will last indefinitely.
• Energy resources are in high demand
as the world's population grows and
our lifestyles shift. This ever-increasing
demand places significant strain on
non-renewable conventional energy
sources, necessitating the search for
alternative energy sources. Sources
such as the wind and sun can never
be depleted, making them renewable
energy sources; they emit no harmful
gases and are readily available. They
are a readily accessible and practically
unlimited source of renewable energy.
You will hear about renewable energy
sources in this class.
Sources of Energy:
The following is a general classification
of energy sources based on consumption
times.
(a) Traditional energy sources that are
readily accessible and have been in use for
a long time.
(b) Non-conventional energy sources,
which are not commonly used or are
different from what is commonly used.

Sources of energy

1.Solar energy
renewable energy energy 2.Hydro power
Mostly fossil fuels Mostly non-fossil fuels 3.Wind energy
found under the seen above the ground. 4.Nuclear energy
ground. 5.Hydrogen energy
Coal,oil,natural gas from vegetable 6.Geothermal
etc. are the wastes,wood charcoal energy
examples. etc. are the examples. 7.Bio gas
8.Tidal energy
I M A G E 7.1: SOURCES OF ENERGY

146
Conventional Sources
Energy:
• These sources of energy are also called
non-renewable sources. These sources
of energy are in limited quantity except
hydro-electric power.
• Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and
natural gas, are important non-
renewable sources of energy. These
are the primary sources for generating
electrical energy in the world today.
Over 85% of our energy demands are
met by the combustion of fossil fuels.
• Carbon is the main constituent of these
fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are excellent
sources of energy for our transportation
needs.
of Coal:
Nearly around 300 million years ago the
earth had very dense forests in low lying
wetland regions. Because of natural
procedures, such as flooding, these dense
forests got buried under the soil. As more
amount of soil deposited over them, they
were condensed and compressed.
As they sunk deeper and deeper, the
temperature rose as well. Dead plants
were slowly converted to coal under
high pressure and high temperature. As
coal includes mostly carbon, the gradual
process of conversion of dead vegetation
into coal is known as carbonization.
Coal is known as a fossil fuel because it
was made from the remains of plants. As
coal is heated in the presence of air, it
burns and emits predominantly carbon
dioxide gas. In industry, coal is processed
to manufacture valuable goods such as
coke, coal tar, and coal gas.

Phases of Coal Formation:

• Peat: The first kind of coal is peat which is merely a mass of dead and decomposing
plant matter. Peat has been used as fuel in the past, as an alternative to wood.
• Lignite: Next, the peat becomes lignite, a brownish rock that contains recognizable
plant matter and has a relatively low calorific value. Lignite is basically the halfway
point from peat to coal. It is distributed in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Bituminous: The next phase is sub-bituminous which is a shade of dull black with
very little visible plant matter. This type of coal has a less than ideal calorific
value. Bituminous coal is the best quality of coal. Metallurgical coal is high grade
bituminous coal which has a special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. Most
of bituminous coal is found in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and
Madhya Pradesh.
• Anthracite: It is the highest quality coal. It is a hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal,
often referred to as hard coal, containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a
low percentage of volatile matter. It is found in Jammu and Kashmir.

Coal found in India belongs to two Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand).

geological ages: Gondwana, which is
about 200 million years old, and tertiary
deposits, which are just about 55 million
years old.
The major resources of Gondwana coal,
which are metallurgical coal, are situated in
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important
coalfields. The Godavari, Son, Mahanadi
and Wardha valleys also contain coal
deposits. Tertiary coals occur in the north
eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland.

147
Natural Gas: decay.

• Natural gas is considered a fossil fuel • By itself, methane is odorless, colorless,

because natural gas was formed from
the remains of tiny sea animals and
plants that died 300 to 400 million
years ago.
• Raw natural gas is a mixture of different
gases. The main ingredient is methane,
a natural compound that is formed
whenever plant and animal matter
and tasteless. As a safety measure,
natural gas companies add a chemical
odorant called mercaptan (it smells like
rotten eggs) so escaping gas can be
detected.
• Natural gas should not be confused
with gasoline, which is made from
petroleum.

Liquefied Natural Gas:

• As a liquid, natural gas is called LNG, or liquefied natural gas. LNG is made by
cooling natural gas to a temperature of -260°F.
• At that temperature, natural gas becomes liquid, and its volume is reduced 600
times.
• LNG is easier to store than the gaseous form since it takes up much less space and
also easier to transport.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG):

• CNG is a fossil fuel substitute for other auto fuels such as petrol, diesel, Auto LPG etc.
• The use of CNG significantly reduces harmful vehicular exhaust gas emissions like
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other suspended particles.
• It protects the environment by reducing the effects of global warming.
• It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-carcinogenic and hence improve public health.
• CNG is lighter than air and hence disperses quickly without any dangerous
accumulation.
• It has a narrow flammability range making it much safer than other fuels.
• It has a higher ignition temperature than other fuels, reducing chances of accidental
and spontaneous ignition.

Shale Gas:
• Shale gas is natural gas that is trapped in shale formations. Shale is a common form
of sedimentary rock. It is formed by the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral
particles. Shale formations are found all over the world.
• In 2016, shale gas accounted for 52 percent of U.S. natural gas production, and
those numbers continue to rise.
• The Energy Information Administration had projected that 53 percent of the U.S.
natural gas would come from shale gas by 2040.
India has identified six basins as areas for shale gas exploration: Cambay (Gujarat),
Assam-Arakan (North East), Gondwana (Central India), Krishna Godavari onshore (East
Coast), Cauvery onshore, and Indo-Gangetic basins.

148
Advantages of Energy from Fossil
Fuels:
• Generation of energy from the fossil
fuels technology-wise is easy and
relatively cost effective.
• Fossil fuels have a very high calorific
value.
• Fossil fuels can generate huge amounts
of electricity in just a single location.
• Transportation of fossil fuels like oil and
gas to the power stations can be made
through the use of pipe-lines, making it
an easy task.
• Power plants that utilize gas are very
efficient.
• Construction of power plants that
work on fossil fuels is relatively easy
technology-wise and they can be
constructed in almost any location.
Disadvantages of Energy
Fossil Fuels:
Renewable energy in India1
1 Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy as on December 17, 2019
149
• Pollution is a major disadvantage of
using fossil fuels as source of energy.
During the process of combustion of
fossil fuels a lot of toxic gases (and fly-
ash in case of coal) are generated which
cause pollution of the atmosphere.
These gases include carbon dioxide,
which traps the Sun’s heat and causes
global warming. Besides carbon dioxide,
coal also gives off sulphur dioxide which
may cause acid rain.
• The supply of fossil fuels is limited and
cannot be replenished. The rate at
which they are being consumed, their
reservoirs are sure to run out soon.
• Extraction of fossil fuels including coal
has resulted in the destruction of wide
areas of land and has endangered the
environmental balance in some areas.
• Mining of fossil fuels including coal
is difficult and rated as one of the
most dangerous jobs. Many a times, it
endangers the lives of miners.
from
• Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant
smell in the area.
 • The effectiveness of passive solar energy
Renewable or depends on good building design; no

Non-Conventional mechanical means are employed in

passive use of solar energy.
Sources of Energy • Solar energy for cooking:

• The rapidly depleting fossil fuel sources

of energy, combined with increasing
energy demand, has necessitated the
quest for sustainable or inexhaustible
energy sources.
• Inexhaustible energy resources can
be described as "those resources that
can be harnessed without depletion."
The bulk of these resources are
pollution-free, and some of them can
be used anywhere. Non-conventional,
inexhaustible, and alternative energy I M A G E 7.2: S O L A R C O O K E R
sources are all concepts used to
describe renewable energy.
Solar energy’s active source:

Energy from the Sun • Solar collectors, which are normally

installed on roofs, are used in active
• Solar energy, in its broadest sense, solar heating and cooling systems.
sustains all life on Earth and serves as Pumps and motors (moving parts) are
the foundation for almost all forms of often needed in such systems to transfer
energy we use. The Sun is abundant fluids or blow air by fan to deliver the
and endless source of energy. captured heat.
• Direct energy from the Sun:
• Solar energy is plentiful, never-ending,
and completely free. Solar energy can
be harnessed directly through a range
of devices that fall into three categories:

» Passive,
» Active
» Photo-voltaic.
• Some of the first solar energy
applications were passive in nature,
such as drying food, evaporating
sea water to produce salt, etc. Solar
energy is still used for these purposes
today. Cooling, heating, cooking and
daylighting of buildings and homes are
some of the more recent passive uses
of solar energy.
I M A G E 7.3: S O L A R H E AT I N G S Y S T E M

150
Electricity produced from solar
energy:
• High-temperature heat or electricity
are produced using solar energy. Solar
collectors in sunny deserts can generate
high-temperature heat that can be
used to spin turbines and generate
electricity, but the cost of such devices
is prohibitive. Several solar thermal
systems can absorb and convert
the sun's radiant energy into high-
temperature thermal (heat) energy,
which can then be used to generate
electricity. Heliostats are large arrays
of computer-controlled mirrors that
monitor the sun and concentrate it on
a central heat collection tower.

Cooling from solar energy I M A G E 7.4: P H OTOVO LTA I C C E L L

• A solar collector can be used for both
heating and cooling. In this device,
sunlight drives a small heat engine that
operates similarly to a refrigerator's
electric motor. The heat engine powers
a piston that compresses a special
vapour into a liquid, which then
revapourizes and removes heat from
the atmosphere.
Photovoltaic technology/Solar cells
• Solar cells also described as Photovoltaic
(PV) cells, can transform solar energy
directly into electrical energy (direct
current, DC). Silicon and other materials
are used to make photovoltaic cells.
Electrons are ejected from silicon atoms
as radiation hits them. A typical solar
cell is a transparent wafer with a very
thin semi-conductor embedded inside
it. The semiconductor is energised by
sunlight, which allows electrons to flow,
resulting in an electrical current. Solar
cells have the potential to power remote
villages. India is the world's largest solar
cell market.
The following are the uses of PV cells:
• Domestic lighting.
• Street lighting.
• Village lighting.
• Water pumping.
• Electrification.
• Desalination of salty water.
• Powering of remote telecommunication
repeater stations and
• Railway signals.
Indirect Solar Energy
• Solar energy is used by a variety of
energy sources, including tide, wind,
and hydroelectric power. out of the
various type of indirect solar energy
sources the following are discussed (a)
wind energy, (b) tidal energy and (c)
hydroelectric energy and (d) biomass
energy.
Wind Energy
• As a result of the sun's rays, a pressure

151
 imbalance exists on Earth. Around
2% of the sunlight that hits the Earth
is transformed into wind, which is
the kinetic energy of moving air. The
unequal absorption of solar radiation
by the earth's surface creates variations
in density, temperature, and pressure,
resulting in air movements driven by
wind energy at regional, local, and
global levels. Wind kinetic energy can
be harnessed by transforming it into
mechanical or electrical energy with
the help of appropriate instruments.
• Wind is used to turn the shaft of a turbine,
which is connected to a generator that
generates energy, in order to generate
electricity. Wind turbines convert wind
energy into mechanical energy that
can then be used to produce electricity.
I M A G E 7.5: W I N D M I L L
Tidal Energy
• Tidal power plants aim to absorb the
energy of the tides as they come in and
out. The key requirement for a tidal
power generation site is that the mean
tidal range exceeds 5 metres.
• The tidal power is harnessed by
152
constructing a reservoir by building a
dam across the entrance to an estuary
or bay. Water is initially stopped from
entering the bay when the tide rises.
The dam is then opened when the tides
are high enough to power the turbines,
and water flows through it into the
reservoir (the bay), turning the turbine
blades and producing electricity.
• When the reservoir (the bay) is full, the
dam is locked, restricting the flow, and
storing the water in the reservoir. When
the tide goes out (ebb tide), the water
level in the reservoir is higher than the
water level in the ocean. The dam is then
opened to enable the turbines (which
are reversible) to operate, generating
electricity as the water is released from
the reservoir.
I M A G E 7.6: T I D A L E N E R G Y
Hydropower Energy
• Moving water energy is one of the most
commonly used green energy sources.
Waterpower has been harnessed by
humans since the Roman Empire. Water
wheels were used to grind grain, saw
timber, and produce textiles in the past,
absorbing the kinetic energy of flowing
 rivers and streams. The energy of water
was only transformed into electricity
in the 1800s. In 1882, the world's first
hydroelectric power plant began
operating in the United States along
the Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin.
• Hydroelectricity, also known as hydel
power, is the generation of electricity
using the force of falling water. It is
less expensive than either thermal or
nuclear power. Dams are designed
to keep water at a higher level, which
is then released to turn turbines that
produce electricity.
• The basic principle behind hydropower
energy is the damming of rivers to
create artificial in waterfalls, sometimes
natural waterfalls are also used.
Turbines that drive electrical generators
are turned by falling water. One of the
most significant benefits of hydropower
is that it is a relatively inexpensive and
renewable source of energy once the
dam is constructed, and the turbines
are operational.
Geothermal Energy
• We exist between two enormous
energy sources: the hot rocks under the
earth's crust and the sun in the sky. Our
forefathers appreciated geothermal
energy because they bathed and
cooked in hot springs. Today, we realise
that this resource has a much wider
application potential. Natural heat
State wise share of renewable energy2
Small
Hydro
S.
STATES / UTs Power
No.
(MW)
1 Andhra Pradesh 162.11
2 Data as given by PIB. https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1564039
153
from the earth's interior that can be
used to produce electricity is known as
geothermal energy.
• Geothermal resource falls into three
major categories:
» Geo-pressurized zones,
» Hot-rock zones and
» Hydrothermal convection zones. Of
these three only the first is currently
being exploited on a commercial basis:
Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen gas is thought to be the
fuel of the future. As hydrogen gas
is burned in the air or in fuel cells, it
reacts with oxygen to create non-
polluting water vapour, and fuel cells
turn hydrogen directly into electricity.
Since there would be no CO2 emissions,
widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel
will significantly reduce air pollution
and the threat of global warming.
• While hydrogen is a clean source of
energy, obtaining large amounts of
pure hydrogen for commercial purposes
is difficult due to the presence of other
elements such as carbon, oxygen, and
nitrogen, so hydrogen must be derived
from either water or organic compounds
such as methane. etc. requiring large
amounts of energy that is hydrogen as
a fuel has to be produced using energy
present. This is a very costly proposition.
Wind Solar Total
Bio Power
Power Power Capacity
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
4076.45 500.34 2641.76 7380.66
 Arunachal
2 107.100 5.39 112.49
Pradesh

3 Assam 34.11 16.68 50.79

4 Bihar 70.70 121.20 142.45 334.35

5 Chhatisgarh 76.00 230.50 231.35 537.85

6 Goa 0.05 1.69 1.74

7 Gujarat 35.10 5955.07 77.30 1827.38 7894.85

8 Haryana 73.50 205.66 217.09 496.25

Himachal
9 860.61 7.20 3.89 871.70
Pradesh

Jammu &
10 179.03 9.85 188.88
Kashmir

11 Jharkhand 4.05 4.30 32.41 40.76

12 Karnataka 1230.73 4682.8 1799.80 5255.11 12968.44

13 Kerala 222.02 52.50 0.72 138.49 413.73

14 Madhya Pradesh 95.91 2519.890 120.75 1586.25 4322.8

15 Maharashtra 375.570 4788.13 2528.69 1607.79 9300.18

16 Manipur 5.45 2.59 8.04

17 Meghalaya 31.03 13.80 0.08 44.91

18 Mizoram 36.47 0.20 36.67

19 Nagaland 30.67 1.00 31.67

20 Odisha 64.625 59.22 389.4 513.25

21 Punjab 173.55 326.35 905.62 1405.52

22 Rajasthan 23.85 4299.72 121.30 3130.99 7575.86

154
 23 Sikkim 52.11 0.01 52.12

24 Tamil Nadu 123.05 8631.19 1003.88 2228.44 11986.56

25 Telangana 90.87 128.10 177.60 3410.26 3806.83

26 Tripura 16.01 5.09 21.10

27 Uttar Pradesh 25.10 2117.51 891.01 3033.62

28 Uttarakhand 214.320 130.50 303.18 648.00

29 West Bengal 98.50 319.92 42.32 460.74

Andaman &
30 5.25 6.56 11.81
Nicobar

31 Chandigarh 32.40 32.40

Dadar & Nagar

32 5.46 5.46
Haveli

33 Daman & Diu 13.38 13.38

34 Delhi 52.00 124.21 176.21

35 Lakshwadeep 0.75 0.75

36 Pondicherry 1.73 1.73

37 Others 4.30 4.30

Total (MW) 4517.445 35138.15 9918.54 25212.26 74786.4

• The most popular types of fuel cells

Fuel Cell Technology
• Fuel cells are very efficient power-
generating systems that produce
electricity by combining fuel (hydrogen)
and oxygen in an electrochemical
reaction or Fuel cells are electrochemical
device that transform a fuel's chemical
energy into electricity (DC) and heat,
directly and efficiently, eliminating the
need for combustion.
are hydrogen and phosphoric acid, but
ethanol, methanol and natural gas fuel
cells are also available.
• Hydrogen or a combination of
hydrogen-containing compounds is the
best fuel for such cells.
• A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte
sandwiched between two electrodes.
Oxygen passes over one electrode
and hydrogen over the other, and they

155
 react electrochemically to generate
electricity, water, and heat.
• Traditional methods generating
electricity require combustion of fuel
and the resultant heat is used to produce
steam to run turbines which generate
electricity. This method involves loss
of heat and thus not very efficient. In
chemical fuel cells on the other hand,
chemical energy is converted directly
into electricity, thus are more efficient
and do not produce harmful gases.
• Basic components of a hydrogen-
burning fuel cell are shown in the fig
below: Both oxygen and hydrogen are
added to the fuel cell in an electrolyte
solution. The reactants remain
separated from one another and,
upon ionization, migrate through the
electrolyte solution from one electrode
to another.
• The flow of electrons from the negative
to the positive electrode is diverted
along its path into an electrical motor,
supplying current to keep the motor
running. In order to maintain this
reaction, hydrogen and oxygen are
added as needed. Waste products are
only oxygen and water when hydrogen
is used in a fuel cell. Using natural gas
methane (CH4) in fuel cells produces
some pollutants, but the amount is only
about 1% of what would be produced
by burning fossil fuels in an internal
combustion engine or a conventional
power plant Additionally, the efficiency
of a fuel cell is largely independent of
its size and energy output. For these
reasons, fuel cells are well-suited for
automobiles, homes, and large-scale
power plants. They can also be used to
store energy to be used as needed.

I M A G E 7.7: H Y D R O G E N F U E L C E L L

Biofuels present edition of the National Policy

on Biofuels was approved by the Union
• Biofuels are energy sources made from Cabinet in May 2018. The objective of
recently grown biomass (plant or animal policy is targeted at taking forward
matter). Biofuels have been around for the indicative target of achieving 20%
a long time, but petroleum and coal mixing of biofuels with fossil-based
have been used primarily as energy fuels by 2030.
sources due to their high abundance,
high energy value, and cheap prices.
Salient Features of National Policy
on Biofuels, 2018:
National Policy on Biofuels, 2018
• This Policy classifies biofuels as "Basic
• Introduced in the year 2009, the

156
 Biofuels" viz. 1st Generation (1G)
bioethanol & biodiesel and "Advanced
Biofuels" – 2nd Generation (2G) ethanol,
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-
in fuels, 3rd Generation (3G) biofuels,
bio-CNG etc. to facilitate extension of
suitable financial and fiscal incentives
under each category.
• This Policy enlarges the scope of raw
material for production of ethanol
by permitting use of Sugarcane
Juice, Sugar containing materials like
Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch
containing materials such as Cassava,
Corn, Damaged food grains such as
wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes,
not suitable for human consumption.
• Cultivators are at a risk of not getting
appropriate price for their produce at
the time of surplus production phase.
Taking this into account, the Policy
permits usage of excess food grains for
ethanol production for blending with
petrol with the consent of National
Biofuel Coordination Committee.
• With a focus on Advanced Biofuels, the
Biofuel Policy indicates a viability gap
funding (VGF) scheme for 2G ethanol
Bio refineries of Rs.5000 crore in 6 years
along with additional tax incentives,
higher purchase price as compared to
1G biofuels.
• The Policy also encourages
establishment of supply chain
mechanisms for production of biodiesel
from used Cooking Oil non-edible
oilseeds, short gestation crops.
• Responsibilities and roles of all the
related Ministries/Departments with
respect to biofuels has been captured
in the Policy document to synergize
efforts.
With the help of the National Policy
on Biofuels, 2018, from time to time
the government will undertake several
financial as well as fiscal measures to
ensure effective development, adoption,
and promotion of biofuels in the country.
R&D in the sector will also be supported
through this policy.

First Generation Biofuels:

• 1st generation biofuels also known as conventional biofuels. These are made from
sugar, starch, or vegetable oil.
• 1st generation biofuels are produced through technologies and processes, like
fermentation, distillation, and transesterification. Ex: Sugars and starches are
fermented to produce primarily ethanol.
• Another example is biodiesel, which is produced when plant oil or animal fat goes
through a process called transesterification.

Second Generation Biofuels:

• The biomass sources for 2nd generation biofuels include wood, organic waste, food
waste and specific biomass crops.
• These biofuels also generate higher energy yields per acre than 1st generation fuels,

Third Generation Biofuels:

• Third generation biofuels use specially engineered crops such as algae as the
energy source. These algae are grown and harvested to extract oil within them. The
oil can then be converted into biodiesel through a similar process as 1st generation

157
 biofuels, or it can be refined into other fuels as replacements to petroleum-based
fuels.

I M A G E 7.8: 3 R D G E N E R AT I O N B I O F U E L S P R O D U C T I O N

158
 CHAPTER - 8
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
• Humans have made tremendous
economic progress, especially in the last
two centuries, in terms of developing
material and luxuries of life. This
development, however, has come at a
substantial environmental expense.
• The ever-increasing exploitation of
natural resources, combined with
environmental destruction, has reached
a point where humanity's well-being
and future are now in jeopardy.
• Environmentalists and even ordinary
people around the world are looking
for answers to questions like: "Can
we maintain industrial and economic
growth without depleting or diminishing
our natural resources?" Should forests
be cleared permanently for agriculture
and human habitation? Is it possible
to use agricultural land for towns,
construction, shopping centres and
factories on a regular basis? Is it possible
to farm intensively during the year? Is
it possible to keep pumping out fossil
fuels indefinitely? At the current rate of
exploitation and use, how long will our
natural resources last?
• The answer to the above questions will
explain the “concept of sustainable
development”.
• In United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the
“Earth Summit”) held in Rio de Janerio
in year 1992, the world leaders signed
Framework Convention on Climate
Change and Biological Diversity. The
“Rio Summit” adopted Rio Declaration
for achieving Sustainable Development
in the 21st Century. It was here that the
idea was originated.
• Sustainable development stresses the
need for a balance in the rate of use
159
and usage of natural resources. The
speed at which these resources can be
replaced or substituted. Economic and
industrial growth must proceed in such
a way that no irreversible environmental
harm is caused.
• The World Commission on Environment
and development defined sustainable
development as “Development that
meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own needs.”
• Two primary points are illustrated in
this description. One, natural resources
are critical for our current survival as
well as future generations' survival. Two,
any current developmental intervention
or initiative must consider the long-
term implications. The key cause of
unsustainable development is the
ever-increasing human population and
resource overexploitation. In developing
countries, resource exploitation occurs
mainly to meet the needs of human
population for food, fodder, fuel, wood,
and shelter. Human activities affect the
sustainability of biosphere. The various
human activities meant to improve the
quality of life are usually accompanied
by environmental degradation. Such
activities as overfishing, agriculture,
overuse of fresh water supply,
deforestation and industrialization
cause environmental degradation
and social stress because of negative
changes in the ecosystem.
Development
without demolition
• The environmental degradation and
 damage are now more apparent
than ever before. We see empty and
barren mountain slopes that were once
covered in green forests, we see rivers
choked with muddy water and trash, we
gasp for air in toxic air, we are unable
to control our wastes, and we pay the
price in our health.
• In short, in the name of progress, we
have harmed and ruined our world.
We have very little time left to talk and
debate the issue; we must do and act
now to restore the environment and
protect natural resources.
• Some steps in that direction are:
» Adoption of energy and resource saving
methods.
» New technology for minimization of
wastes and toxins.
» Biodegradable, renewable, and
recyclable products.
» Education and awareness about
environment in people.
Think globally and act locally
• Any environmental problem either
local or regional can become a
gigantic global issue if not addressed
in time. If communities address their
local problem (issues) then bigger
problems, get solved. Thus, our motto
should be thinking globally and act
locally.
• Environmental problems must be
approached at all three levels:
» Immediate local problems like water
pollution and waste management can
be taken up at community level.
» Regional problems like acid rain, floods,
air pollution and deforestation can be
dealt with at national or regional level.
» Global issues like climate change,
depletion of ozone layer and the
associated problems should involve
world bodies for the participating of
160
the nation around the world.
Effort at Individual Level
The least we can do to ensure
development remain sustainable:
• As responsible members of society,
each of us will play a part in conserving
resources and protecting or saving the
environment.
Conserve fossil fuels:
• Switch off fans and lights when not
needed.
• Let the breeze in by switching off the
air-conditioning.
• Avoid the use of electrical gadgets as
much as possible.
Conserve water:
• Use only as much as you need.
• Repair leaking taps and pipes.
• Do not pollute water bodies like rivers,
lakes, canals etc.
• Do not wash your cars every day.
• Harvest rain water.
• Join river cleaning programmes like
“Yamuna Bachao Andolan”.
Save the trees:
• Reduce use of paper and paper
products.
• Recycle used papers.
• Make full use of writing papers.
• Plant trees and care for trees.
Keep the air clean:
• Stop smoking.
• Do not burn papers, dry leaves, and
other wastes.
• Drive vehicles with a catalytic converter.
• Keep your vehicle well maintained.
• Implement pollution control and
treatment facilities in your factory.
Reduce garbage: Spread awareness:
• Buy goods with less/recyclable • Show your family and friends how to be
packaging. eco-friendly or environment friendly.
• Reuse/ recycle paper, metal, glass, • Support environmental issues like
plastic items. cleaning of rivers, cleaning of air etc.
• Carry your own shopping bag and say • Write to government representatives
no to plastic bags. demanding action on environmental
• Convert kitchen and garden waste into issues.
compost. • Set an example by following eco-
• Use natural products for cleaning, friendly life style.
fertilizing, and getting rid of bugs and
insects.

161
 CHAPTER - 9
AGRICULTURE
• In the last century, agriculture has
changed significantly. The use of
emerging technology, mechanisation,
increased use of fertilisers and
pesticides, and the expansion of
irrigation facilities have all increased
food and fibre productivity. Farmers
with lower labour demands were able
to produce the majority of food and
fibre as a result of these reforms. While
these developments have had a positive
impact, they have also resulted in some
significant environmental and social
issues, such as topsoil degradation and
groundwater contamination, as well as
the unemployment of farm labourers
due to the increased use of farm
machinery in agricultural operations.
• Over the last two decades, a growing
movement has arisen to challenge the
agricultural establishment's position in
promoting practises that lead to these
social problems. There is an increasing
demand to encourage "sustainable
agriculture" in light of the growing
negative consequences of modern
agriculture. Sustainable agriculture
integrates a range of environmentally
sustainable farming practises while
also offering creative and economically
viable opportunities for workers,
producers, politicians, consumers, and
those involved in the food system.
Soil
• Soils are complex combinations of
water, organic materials, minerals, air,
and uncountable organisms that are
the decaying remains of once-living
things. Soil forms at the surface of land
– it is also considered as the “skin of the
162
earth.” Soil is capable of assisting plant
life and is essential to life on earth.
• The major important aspects
influencing the formation of soil are
climate, vegetation and other types of
life-forms, parent material, relief, and
time. Along with these factors, human
activities also impact it to a large
extent. Important elements of the soil
are humus, water, mineral particles, and
air. The actual amount of each of these
elements depend upon the nature of
soil. Some soils are lacking in one or
more of these elements, while there
are some other soils that have varied
combinations.
Structure of the soil
• Three layers which are called horizons
are as follows:
• ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost layer of the
soil, where various organic materials
have got integrated with the water,
nutrients, and mineral matter, which
are essential for the plants growth.
• ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone in the
middle of the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon
C’, and includes matter originated from
below as well as from above. This layer
has some organic matter in it, although
the mineral matter is noticeably
weathered.
• ‘Horizon C’ is comprised of the loose
parent material. This layer is the 1st
stage in the soil formation procedure
and eventually forms the above two
layers.
• This arrangement of layers is called as
the soil profile. Underneath these three
horizons is the rock which is also called
 as the bedrock or parent rock.
LITTER
HUMAS
HUMAS
MIXED
WITH
MINERALS
HUMAS
WITH VERY
LITTLE HUMUS
I M AG E : S O I L P RO F I L E
Essential Elements for Plant
Growth
• The essential elements can be divided
into macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are mostly present in
tissues of plants in large amounts (in
excess of 10 mmole Kg-1 of dry matter).
• The macronutrients consist of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous,
sulphur, potassium, calcium, nitrogen,
and magnesium. Amongst these
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are
mainly obtained from CO2 and H2O,
while the other macronutrients are
absorbed from the soil as mineral
nutrition.
• Trace elements or Micronutrients are
required in very small amounts (less
than 10 mmole Kg –1 of dry matter).
These include iron, manganese, copper,
molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine, and
nickel. In addition to the 17 essential
elements named above, there are some
beneficial elements such as sodium,
silicon, cobalt, and selenium. They are
required by higher plants.
• Plant growth is slowed when the
availability of an integral element
becomes scarce. The concentration of
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the essential component below which
plant growth is retarded is known as
critical concentration. The element is
said to be deficient when present below
O (ORGANIC) the critical concentration.
HORIZON
A HORIZON
(SURFACE)
Tillage
B HORIZON
(SUBSOIL) • It is the basic operation in farming.
Tillage is the systematic mechanical
manipulation of soil to provide favourable
C HORIZON conditions for crop production. It is
(SUBSTRATUM)
done to create a favourable condition
BEDROCK
for seed placement and plant growth.
Tillage operations include ploughing,
harrowing and mechanical destruction
of weeds and soil crust etc. There are
two types of tillage, Primary tillage,
and Secondary tillage. The purpose of
ploughing is to obtain seed bed of good
texture, to increase the water holding
capacity of the soil, to improve soil
aeration, to destroy weeds and grasses,
to destroy insects and pests, to prevent
soil erosion and to add fertility to the
soil by covering vegetation.
Tillage can be classified into two
types:
• Primary Tillage: It is the initial and
primary major soil working operation
to reduce soil strength, to remove and
cover plant materials and to rearrange
aggregates in a view to prepare seed
bed, implements may be animal drawn
or tractor drawn, some of the primary
tillage implements are: a) Mould board
plough or MB Plough b) Disc Plough c)
Sub-soiler d) Chisel plough.
• Secondary Tillage: It is the tillage
operation performed after primary
tillage to create proper soil tilth for
seeding and planting. These are lighter
and finer operations performed on the
soil, the implements include:
» Cultivators: Spring tine, Spring loaded,
 Rigid tine and Duck foot cultivators.
» Harrows: Spike tooth, spring tooth,
animal drawn disc harrow, Tractor
drawn disc harrows, acme harrow,
Triangular harrow, Zigzag harrow, Blade
harrow. Circular harrow, Power harrow,
Chain types.
» Levellers: As a measure used in surface
irrigation, such as basin and furrow
irrigation.
» Rotovator: Used for seed bed
preparation in dry and garden lands,
and also for puddling in standing water.
» Puddler: Used for churning the soil in
standing water for the preparation of
field for paddy cultivation.
» Ridger & furrow opener: Used for
opening ridges and furrows for line
sowing watering.
» Bund former: Used to make bunds in
and around the field, to conserve the
top fertile soil, and rain water.
Different methods of minimum
tillage practiced
Row Zone Tillage
• After primary tillage with mould board
plough, secondary tillage operations
like disking and harrowing are reduced.
The secondary tillage is done in the row
zone only.
Plough-plant Tillage
• After the soil is ploughed, a special
planter is used and in one run over the
field, the row zone is pulverised and
seeds are sown.
Wheel Track Planting
• Ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is
used for sowing and the wheels of the
tractor pulverise the row zone.
Zero Tillage:
• It is defined “as a system of planting
(seeding) crops into untilled soil by
164
opening a narrow slot trench or band
only of sufficient width and depth to
obtain proper seed coverage. No other
soil tillage is done.”
Advantages of zero tillage
• Reduces the number of field operations
from an average of seven to one,
translating into 8-12 hours per ha saved
in tractor time (a 60-90% saving);
farmers can save 36 litres of fuel
per ha of land, an 80% saving over
conventional wheat cultivation.
• Reduces water usage by about 1 million
litres per ha (a saving of 20-35%).
• Improves soil structure, fertility, and
biological properties.
• Typically reduces the incidence of
weeds, primarily due to the earlier
emergence of wheat and reduced soil
disturbance.
• Improves the population dynamics of
certain wheat pests and diseases.
• Increases wheat yield by 6-10% and
reduced production costs by 5-10%.
Zero tillage has increased wheat yields
by 5-7% for Indian farmers.
Sustainable
Agriculture
• It is a type of farming that aims to
produce enough food to meet the
needs of today's population without
depleting soil fertility or causing
irreversible environmental harm. Low
input agriculture or organic farming
are examples of sustainable farming
systems that are less harmful and
energy intensive while also preserving
efficiency and profitability.
• The following are the traits of
sustainable agriculture:
» Will last for generations to come.
» Uses natural resources efficiently.
» Supports profitable production.
» Provides consumers with affordable,
high-quality products.
» Protects environmental quality.
» Improves the quality of life for farmers
and rural communities by reducing
reliance on non-renewable resources.
Methods of Sustainable
Agriculture
• A variety of methods are used in
sustainable production activities. Soil
condition, local geography (topography),
local climate, nature, local inputs,
pests, and the farmer's goals must all
be addressed at the planning point.
Following that, the grower (farmer) must
choose acceptable practises. There are
many approaches used in sustainable
agriculture. They are:
» Increasing economic and biological
stability through cultivation practises.
» Selection of improved varieties to suit
the need.
» Soil management by proper method of
tillage.
• Many farmers in India and other
developing countries practise mixed
cropping or varied cropping and crop
rotation as a common practise.
Diverse or mixed cropping:
• It is a long-standing custom in our
country. In a field, two or more crops
are grown at the same time. If one
crop fails by accident, the other crops
would cover the risk of a complete crop
failure. Typically, a long-duration crop is
grown alongside a short-duration crop
so that both receive enough nutrition
165
when they reach maturity. Then there
is the difference in water and nutrient
requirements.
• In most instances, a leguminous crop
is planted alongside the main crop. By
fixing atmospheric nitrogen, legumes
help to improve soil fertility. Chemical
fertiliser costs are lowered as a result
of this. The different cropping plans
used in mixed cropping practises are as
follows:
• Polyvarietal cultivation is the planting
of several genetic varieties of the same
crop. Intercropping is when two or more
crops are grown on the same plot at
the same time, such as a carbohydrate-
rich cereal that uses soil nitrogen and
a nitrogen-fixing legume that returns
nitrogen to the soil.
• Polyculture is a form of gardening
in which different plants mature at
different times and are planted together.
Since the fertiliser and water needs of
plants vary, this approach has many
benefits. As a result, these inputs are
used less frequently. Pests are naturally
regulated, and their natural predators
seek out a variety of environments to
survive. This method has been found
to produce a much higher yield per
hectare.
• When only one cultivator is planted in
a wide field, large-scale mechanisation
leads to the spread of monoculture,
which is when only one crop variety
is sown in the entire area. This device
consumes a significant amount of
pesticide, fertiliser, and water. This
practise can be profitable for a while,
but it has negative environmental and
economic consequences.
Rotation of crop:
• It is the method of planting several crops
in a row in the same area. Insects and
diseases are regulated, soil fertility is
increased, and soil erosion is minimised.
 In general, soil cannot support
continuous cropping with a high yielding
single crop because certain nutrients
needed by the crop are depleted while
others go unused, resulting in nutrient
imbalance and encourages certain
pests and diseases. Sowing leguminous
crops as a rotational crop (e.g., green
gram) is beneficial because legumes
increase nitrogen levels in the soil by
fixing atmospheric nitrogen, reducing
the need for chemical nitrogen fertiliser.
As a result, costs are decreased, and the
soil is spared the adverse effects of high
yielding varieties and the application of
vast quantities of fertiliser and pesticide.
Multiple cropping is when two or three
separate crops are grown in succession
on the same piece of land in the same
year. This practise will continue for a
while, but the land will not be able to
sustain a high yield in the long run.
• It considers the following aspects:
» After non-leguminous crop, legumes
should be planted.
» Crops that need less water (irrigation)
should be planted after one that does.
» Crops that need less fertiliser should be
planted after crops that require more.
Soil Management:
• A healthy soil is important for long-term
agriculture. Healthy soil, combined
with nutrients and water, results in
healthy crop plants that are less
vulnerable to diseases and pests. To
ensure long-term growth and stability,
soil must be preserved and nurtured.
Use of compost, cover crops, use of
dead mulches and reduced tillage to
conserve soil moisture increases the
soil's water holding ability.
• We need to increase production of
fodder, food grains, oil, sugar, fabrics,
fruits, and vegetables because we
have limited space. One of the most
166
important ways to do this is to use plant
breeding, genetics, and other related
sciences to develop established plant
varieties. Using traditional methods of
selection and plant breeding, major
improvements in crop production have
been achieved.
• The following are some of the varietal
improvement goals:
» development of high yielding varieties
of crop plants.
» food crops developed for better and
higher nutritional quality like protein
quality in pulses, baking quality in
wheat, preserving quality in fruits
and vegetables, oil quality in oil seed
producing plants.
» Development of crop varieties
resistance to diseases and pests.
» Improving varieties for resistance
against heat, cold, frost, drought, and
water logging.
Fertigation
• Fertigation is a fertilizer application
process in which fertilizer is dissolved
in irrigation water by a drip irrigation
device. The fertilizer solution is uniformly
distributed in irrigation in this method.
Since The availability of nutrients is
very high hence the efficiency is more.
In this process liquid fertilizer as well as
water soluble fertilizers are utilized. By
this procedure, efficiency of fertilizer
use is improved from 80 to 90 percent.
Advantages of fertigation method
• Water and Nutrients are supplied near
the active root region with the help
of fertigation which results in better
absorption by the crops.
• As water and fertilizer are supplied
uniformly to every crop with the help of
fertigation there is possibility for getting
 25-50% higher yield.
• Efficiency of fertilizer use through
fertigation method ranges between
80-90%, which facilitates to save a
minimum of 25% of nutrients.
• By this method, along with less amount
of water and saving of fertilizer, labour,
time, and energy use is also decreased
substantially.
Fertilizer used in fertigation process
• Potash, urea, and highly water-soluble
fertilizers are available for applying
through fertigation method.
• Application of super phosphorus with
the help of fertigation must be avoided
as it makes precipitation of phosphate
salts. Therefore, phosphoric acid is more
suitable for fertigation as it is available
in liquid form.
• Special fertilizers such as mono
ammonium phosphate (Nitrogen and
Phosphorus), poly feed (Nitrogen,
Phosphorus and Potassium), Multi K
(Nitrogen and Potassium), Potassium
sulphate (Potassium and Sulphur) are
very suitable for fertigation as they
are highly soluble in water. Fe, Zn, Cu,
Mn, B, Mo are also supplied along with
special fertilizers.
Use of Bio-Fertilizers in Agriculture
• Renewable inputs (pesticides, fertiliser,
water, etc.) that support the plant while
causing no or minimal environmental
damage are necessary for a sustainable
agriculture system. Reducing the use
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides is
one choice.
• Exploiting the ability of certain
microorganisms such as algae, bacteria,
and fungi to fix atmospheric nitrogen,
decompose organic material, solubilize
phosphorus, or oxidise sulphur in the
soil is one of the most energy efficient
167
and pollution-free methods.
• They improve soil fertility, increase
crop growth, and yield, and minimise
emissions when added to the soil. They
are described as “bio fertilizers”.
• Bio-fertilizers are biologically active
products or living microbial inoculants of
algae, bacteria, and fungi (individually
or in combination) that can enrich soil
with phosphorus, nitrogen, organic
matter, and other nutrients.
The following are some of the most popular
forms of bio fertilisers that can be used in
agriculture.
• Rhizobium biofertilizer: Rhizobium
is a symbiotic bacterium that helps
legume plants develop root nodules. In
the field, these nodules serve as mini-
nitrogen factories. The bacteria in the
nodules fix more nitrogen (N2) than the
legume plant and bacteria need. The
excess fixed nitrogen is then secreted
into the soil, fertilising it. Rhizobium is a
more effective nitrogen-fixing bacteria
than free-living bacteria, and it can fix
up to 200 times more nitrogen 200 kg
N/ha/yr.
• Azotobacter biofertilizer: Azobacter
are nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live
in an aerobic environment. They grow
in the rhizosphere (the area around
the roots) and fix nitrogen from the
atmosphere in a non-symbiotic way,
making it accessible to the cereals.
These bacteria generate growth-
promoting hormones, which aid in the
plant's growth and yield.
• Azospirillium biofertilizer: This is an
associative symbiosis of aerobic free-
living nitrogen fixers. Bacteria live on
the root surface of the host plant in
this type of association and do not
form any nodules with grass roots. It
boosts crop yield and benefits crops
with its inoculation. They also provide
growth hormones and vitamins to the
host plants. These bacteria are widely
used in the manufacture of industrial
 inoculants.
• Blue green algae: Anabaena and
Nostoc are examples of blue green
algae (BGA or cyanobacteria), which
are free-living photosynthetic species
that can also fix nitrogen from the
atmosphere. Blue green algae acts as
a nitrogen biofertilizer in flooded rice
fields.
• Azolla biofertilizers: The nitrogen-fixing
blue green algae Anabaena grows
within the Azolla water fern. When wet,
it absorbs 2-3% nitrogen and produces
organic matter in the soil. Biofertilizers
of the Azolla-Anabaena combination
type are used all over the world. This
is a plant that can be cultivated in
colder climates. However, a strain that
can withstand high temperatures,
salinity, and pests and diseases must
be created. Rice farmers can easily
implement production technology
because it is easy. The only limitation
in growing Azolla is that it is an aquatic
plant, so water becomes a limiting
factor, particularly in the summer.
• Phosphorus solubilising biofertilizer:
Phosphorus is an important nutrient for
plant development. This element is also
necessary for rhizobium nodulation.
Some microorganisms can solubilize
immobilised phosphorus, making it
usable for absorption by plants.
• Mycorrhizal fungi is known to occur
naturally on the roots of forest trees
and crop plants, acting as a biofertilizer.
Plants infected with Mycorrhiza have a
higher rate of nutrient absorption in soils
poor in usable nutrients. The fungus can
dissolve and absorb phosphorus that is
difficult for plant roots to absorb.
168
Biochar:
• Biochar is produced from heating
organic materials like crop waste,
grass, woodchips and manure in a
high temperature, low oxygen process
known as pyrolysis. It has the potential
to increase soil carbon content, which
can help reduce overall greenhouse
gas emissions and mitigate future
climate change. Biochar may also
provide additional agricultural
benefits such as increased soil fertility
and crop productivity.
Gypsum: It is a Source of calcium and
sulfur for plant nutrition. Gypsum will
change soil pH very slightly, yet it can
promote better root development of crops,
especially in acid soils.
Irrigation and Its Techniques
• Irrigation is the process of applying
water to soil, primarily to meet the
water needs of growing plants. Water
from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, or aquifers
is pumped or flows by gravity through
pipes, canals, ditches, or even natural
streams.
• According to the FAO, irrigation
contributes to about 40% of the world’s
food production.
• Intensity of irrigation is defined as the
percentage of the irrigation proposed
to be irrigated annually.
Surface Irrigation Methods:
• In this system of field water application
the water is applied directly to the soil
from a channel located at the upper
reach of the field. Ex: Flooding method
where the water is allowed to cover the
surface of land in a continuous sheet of
water.
• Furrows Irrigation: Furrows are small
channels, which carry water down the
 land slope between the crop rows.
Water infiltrates into the soil as it moves
along the slope. The crop is usually
grown on ridges between the furrows.
• The application of water to fields in this
type of irrigation system is below the
ground surface so that
Subsurface irrigation methods:
• In this water is supplied directly to
the root zone of the plants. The main
advantages of these type of irrigation
is reduction of evaporation losses and
less hindrance to cultivation works
which takes place on the surface.
Subirrigation is not often used in arid
or semi-arid irrigated areas where
irrigation is often needed to germinate
crops. It is typically used in conjunction
with subsurface drainage, or controlled
drainage.
Micro irrigation methods:
• Sprinkler Irrigation: Sprinkler irrigation
is a method of applying water which
is similar to natural rainfall but spread
uniformly over the land surface just
when needed and at a rate less than
the infiltration rate of the soil so as to
avoid surface runoff from irrigation.
• Drip Irrigation: Drip Irrigation system is
sometimes called trickle irrigation and
involves dripping water onto the soil
at very low rates (2-20 litres per hour)
from a system of small diameter plastic
pipes filled with outlets called emitters
or drippers. Water is applied close to
the plants so that only part of the soil
in which the roots grow is wetted.
Organic Farming and Its
Benefits
• Organic farming is a form of agriculture
or farming that does not use synthetic
fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators,
or feed additives in livestock. Crop
residues, crop rotation, legumes,
169
livestock manures, off-farm organic
wastes, green manure and biofertilizers,
mechanical agriculture, and mineral
bearing rocks are all used in organic
farming systems. To maintain soil fertility
in order to provide plant nutrients and
biological pest control (insects, weeds,
and other pests). Poultry, grain, eggs,
dairy, fibres like, jute, cotton flowers,
and other agricultural products can
all be grown organically. As a result,
organic farming ensures a long-term
healthy lifestyle for future generations.
• Such major advantages of organic
foods and organic farming include:
» Organic farming is a science in and of
itself, which any traditional farmer can
easily learn.
» It has been discovered that converting
to organic farming will save traditional
farmers over 25% on their production
costs as compared to conventional
farming. This reduces soil erosion by up
to 50% by eliminating the use of costly
synthetic fertilisers and pesticides and
increase crop yields five-fold.
» Conventional farmers can be able
to quickly implement modern, more
sustainable organic farming practises
if they have a well-planned transition
strategy.
» Organic farms can support significantly
more wildlife, especially in low-lying
areas where animals can roam freely
in pastures or graze on grassland. Not
only does organic farming support
biodiversity, but it also benefits whole
habitats and groundwater.
» Organic farming activities favour not
only producers and customers, but also
dairies. When they feed their cows with
organic feed and allow them to graze
on organic fields, the cows are healthier,
have less illnesses, and produce better-
tasting milk for consumers.
» Organic farming encourages the
creation of fertile soils that are rich
 in micronutrients and can be used to
grow crops for decades without being
depleted.
» Organically produced foods are tastier
for customers. Consumers will smell,
taste, and see the difference in quality
of organically produced food items,
regardless of minor price differences.
» Organically grown products are free
from harmful chemicals, artificial
flavours and preservatives that
ultimately cost consumers more money
than non-organically grown products.
You can always taste the difference
between organically grown and
conventionally grown products.
Four Pillars of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)
Jeevamrutha
• It is the first and important pillar of
ZBNF. It is a mixture of aged cow
urine and fresh cow dung from India’s
indigenous jaggery, pulse flour, soil,
water, and cow breed. This mixture is
kind of natural fertilizer which utilized
in the farmland.
Bijamrita
• It is the second pillar of ZBNF. It is a
mixture of green chilies, tobacco, and
neem leaf pulp, utilized for insects and
170
Zero Budgeting Natural
Farming (ZBNF):
• Zero Budgeting Natural farming is
a method of chemical free farming
drawing from traditional Indian
practices. The cost of growing and
harvesting plants is zero which
means that the farmers need not to
buy fertilizers and pesticides. In this
technique Biological pesticides are used
instead of chemical fertilizers. Farmers
use cow dung, plants, cow urine, human
excreta, earthworms etc. for crop
protection. It intends to bring down the
cost of production to nearly zero and
return to a pre-green revolution style of
farming.
pest control. It is applied to treat seeds,
and it gives natural protection to seeds.
Acchadana (Mulching)
• It is the third pillar of ZBNF. It facilitates
to maintain the overall soil moisture
content. This pillar supports to protect
the cover of soil cultivation and does
not ruin it by tilling.
Whapasa
• It is a condition where water molecules
and air molecules are present in the soil.
 It helps to reduce the extra irrigation
requirement.
These are the basic and essential pillars of
zero budget farming.
Features of ZBNF:
• As per the zero budget natural farming
principles, crops get around 98% of their
supply of nutrients from the sunlight,
water, and air. And the remaining 2%
can be achieved by good quality with
lots of favourable microorganisms.
» Microclimate of soil– The soil always
covers an organic mulch, which forms
humus and promotes and encourages
good microorganisms.
» Cow – The cultivation system requires
cow urine and cow dung acquired by
only Indian breed cows.
Advantages of Zero Budget Natural
Farming
• It decreases the initial cost of farmers.
• Farmer’s income automatically
improves due to reduction in investment.
• The ecosystem of soil improves.
• Cow dung adds soil value. It is available
locally and full of nutrients value.
• Bacteria found in cow dung decompose
the various organic matter in soil and
make soil for the plants.
• It needs less water and electricity.
• ZBNF improves the overall productivity
of the soil.
• It reduces the disease attack risk on the
crop.
• In ZBNF, farming production quality
improves due to less utilization of
chemical fertilizer.
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System of Rice Intensification
(SRI)
• The System of Rice Intensification
(SRI) is a climate-smart, agro-
ecological methodology for increasing
the productivity of rice and more
recently other crops by changing the
management of plants, soil, water, and
nutrients.
• This method was originated in
Madagascar in the 1980s and is based on
the cropping principles of significantly
reducing plant population, improving
soil conditions and irrigation methods
for root and plant development,
and improving plant establishment
methods.
• The principles and practices of SRI
have been adapted for rainfed rice as
well as for other crops (such as wheat,
sugarcane and tef, among others),
with yield increases and associated
economic benefits.
• Benefits of SRI:
» 20%-100% or more increased yields.
» Up to a 90% reduction in required seed.
» Up to 50% water savings.
Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative
(SSI)
• It aims to boost water, property, and
labour productivity at the same time
as reducing the total demand on water
supplies.
• It is a realistic approach to sugarcane
production based on the principle of
‘more with less' in agriculture, similar to
the Rice Intensification System (SRI).
• It supports intercropping in sugarcane
with crops like wheat, potato, chickpea,
watermelon, etc.
• This practice would reduce weed growth
by 60% and provide additional income
 to farmers, in addition to efficient land » Reduction in the plant mortality rate.
utilization. » Increases in the length and weight of
• Overall Benefits: each cane.

» In conventional method, cost of setts » It is easy to transport the young

seedlings for longer distance.
occupies a major part of cost of
cultivation. » Intercultural operations can be carried
out easily due to wider spacing.
» By practicing SSI, this seed cost can be
reduced up to 75%.

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 CHAPTER - 10

GLOBAL CONSERVATION EFFORTS

• At a global scale, there is no • It provides a framework to be respected

international legislative body with
authority to pass legislation similar
to national legislations, nor are there
international agencies with power to
regulate resources.
• As a result, international legislation
must depend on the agreement of the
parties concerned.
• Agreements: These are generally
finalized through international
conventions or treaties. Most of
the international legislations are
international agreements to which
nations adhere voluntarily.
by each party, which has to adopt its
own national legislations to make sure
that convention is implemented at the
national level.
• Protocol: It is an international
agreement that stands on its own but
is linked to an existing convention.
Protocols are builds on convention by
adding new commitments-which are
stronger and far more complex and
detailed than those in the convention.
Ex: The climate protocol shares the
concerns and principles set out in the
climate convention.

• Convention: It is an arrangement • There have been a number of climate

between States to regulate issues that conferences, the timeline for which is
concern them both. presented below:

1971 Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance)

1972 Stockholm Declaration

1973

1982 Nairobi Declaration

1985 Vienna convention for the protection of ozone layer.

1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

1987 Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development ("Brundtland Report")

1992 Agenda 21

173
 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

1992 Convention on Biological Diversity

1997 Protocol to the UNFCCC ("Kyoto Protocol")

1998 Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade ("Rotterdam Convention")

2000 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety ("Cartagena Protocol")

2001 Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants ("Stockholm Convention")

2010

2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development – _RIO +20

2015 Paris Agreement (To replace Kyoto Protocol)

2016 Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol.

Convention Details

• It is an international treaty.
• It was signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971.
• It establishes a basis for national and international action to
conserve and wisely use of wetlands and their resources.
Ramsar
Convention on • Provides for international cooperation in the provision of
Wetlands wetland restoration and wise use through the management of
transboundary water resources and wetlands.
• The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty
that deals with a particular ecosystem.
• In India, there are 42 Ramsar sites.

174
 • Also known as United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment.
• It was the first international declaration on environmental
protection, held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5–16, 1972.

Stockholm • One of the main topics that arose from the conference was the
Conference 1972 acceptance of poverty alleviation as a means of environmental
protection.
• The United Nations Environment Programme was founded
by the United Nations General Assembly in response to the
Stockholm Conference, and it has provided a basis for modern
environmentalism.
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora.
• It is also known as the Washington Convention. It is a voluntary
agreement that is legally binding on the parties, but it does not
supersede national laws.
• Parties:182.
• Aims to protect endangered plants and animals.

CITES • It divides plants and animals into three groups, or appendices,

depending on how endangered they are:
• Appendix I: It lists species that are in danger of extinction.
Commercial trade prohibited.
• Appendix II: They are those that are not threatened with
extinction but that might suffer a serious decline. Their trade is
regulated by permit.
• Appendix III: They are protected in at least one country that is
a CITES member states.
• CMS is an international treaty concluded under the aegis of
UNEP.
• It is also called the Bonn Convention.
Convention on
• It was signed in 1979.
the Conservation
of Migratory • Headquarters are in Bonn, Germany.
Species of Wild • CMS seeks to protect migratory species throughout their entire
Animals (CMS) range, including aquatic, avian and terrestrial species. Its
membership has gradually expanded to over 120 Parties from
Africa, Asia, Central and South America, Oceania, and Europe
since its entry into force.

175
 • The Declaration was adopted in 1982 (10th anniversary of
Stockholm) and endorsed by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) Governing Council in 1987.
Nairobi
Declaration • The Declaration called for the establishment of a special
commission to develop long-term environmental strategies for
achieving sustainable development in the years leading up to
and beyond the year 2000.
• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is
a multilateral environmental agreement that has been ratified
Vienna
by 197 countries.
Convention for
the Protection of • It serves as a foundation for international attempts to preserve
the Ozone Layer the ozone layer.
• It does not provide any legally binding reduction targets for
the use of CFCs, the primary chemical agents that deplete the
ozone layer. These are spelled out in the Montreal Protocol that
accompanies it.
• Also called: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer.
• It is a protocol to Vienna Convention for the Protection of
Ozone Layer.
• It is an international treaty.
• Came into force in 1989.
• Ratifies: 197 (Universal treaty).
• It is legally binding.
• It aims to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production
of numerous substances.
• The agreement is built around many forms of halogenated
hydrocarbons that have been related to ozone depletion.
Chlorine or bromine is present in many of these ozone-depleting
Montreal Protocol compounds. (substances containing only fluorine do not harm
the ozone layer).
• It aims at phasing out:
• Chlorofluorocarbons.
• Hydrochloro fluorocarbons.
• Hydrofluoro carbons are included under it (HFCs do not
harm Ozone but are harmful as a Greenhouse gas) by Kigali
Agreement.
• India’s Stand: India wants HFCs to be under Montreal Protocol
as it will help India as a part Common But Differentiated
Responsibilities (CBDR) and puts less onus to eliminate HFCs
immediately.
• An international deal is helping to minimize the ozone hole in
Antarctica. According to climate projections, the ozone layer
will recover to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.

176
 • Formerly known as the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) formed in 1987.
• Brundtland Report, also known as 'Our Common Future'.

Brundtland • The term "sustainable development" was coined to concentrate

Report attention on strategies for promoting economic and social
development while avoiding environmental degradation, over-
exploitation, or pollution.
• It also served to side-line less fruitful discussions about whether
to prioritise development or the environment.
• The Montreux Record was created by the Conference of the
Contracting Parties' Recommendation (1990).
• As part of the Ramsar List, it is maintained.
• Montreux Record under the Convention is a register of wetland
sites.
• It is a list of Wetlands of International Importance where
Montreux Record changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring,
or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments,
pollution, or other human interference.
• Sites can only be added to or removed from the Record with
the consent of the Contracting Parties in whose territory they
are located.
• In India – _Keoladeo National Park and Loktak Lake. Chilka
lake was removed from the list.
• Earth Summit 1992, Rio Summit, the Rio Conference.
• Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:
» Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,
United Nations » Agenda 21 and
Conference on
» Forest Principles
Environment and
Development- • Important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were
UNCED opened for signature:
• Convention on Biological Diversity,
• Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

177
 • Formally called: The Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their
Disposal.
• It is an international treaty, UN Treaty that became effective
from 1992.
• Parties: 183.
• It aims:
Basel Convention • To help LDCs handle the hazardous and other wastes they
produce in an environmentally sustainable manner by reducing
the amount and toxicity of wastes produced and ensuring their
environmentally sound management as close to the source of
generation as possible.
• Its objective was to stop dumping of hazardous waste from
developed countries in developing nations.
• It does not address the movement of radioactive waste.
• It is a multilateral treaty that entered into force in 1993.
• Parties: 196.
• It is legally binding.
Convention • Convention has 3 main goals:
on Biological − Conservation of biological diversity.
Diversity
− Sustainable use of its components.
− Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic
resources.
• India is a party to convention.
• The United Nations General Assembly convened a special
session in 1997 to assess the status of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
Rio+5 (1997) • The Assembly labelled progress as "uneven" and described
key developments such as increased globalisation, widening
income gaps, and continued environmental degradation.
• In 2002, Rio+10, also known as Earth Summit 2002 or World
Summit on Sustainable Development, was held in Johannesburg,
Rio+10 (2002) or South Africa.
Earth Summit • The United Nations' commitment to Agenda 21 and the
2002 Millennium Development Goals was reaffirmed at Rio+10.
• The Johannesburg Declaration commits the world's nations to
sustainable development.

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 • Rio+20 (2012), also known as the United Nations Conference
on Sustainable Development, was a 20-year follow-up to the
1992 Earth Summit and a 10-year follow-up to the 2002 Earth
Summit.
• Rio+20 was the 3rd international conference on sustainable
development, and it was hosted by Brazil in Rio de Janeiro in
Rio+20 (2012) 2012. It reaffirmed the commitment to Agenda 21.
• PAGE, launched in 2013, is a direct response to the Rio+20
Declaration. Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE)
• To assist interested countries in designing, adopting, and
implementing green economy policies and strategies, the
Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) was created.
• Became effective from 1995 (Canada withdrew).
• Parties: 196.
United Nation • HQ: Bonn, Germany.
Convention • It is the only convention that arose directly from Rio Agenda
to Combat 21's direct recommendations.
Desertification
• It is a convention aimed at combating desertification in countries
that are suffering from severe drought and/or desertification,
especially in Africa.
• Formally called: Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and
Pesticides in International Trade.
• It is a multilateral UN Treaty, that went into effect in 2004 and
has 155 signatories.
Rotterdam • It aims to encourage mutual responsibility in the importation
Convention of hazardous chemicals by encouraging open knowledge
exchange between importers and exporters of hazardous
chemicals.
• Calls on hazardous chemical exporters to use proper labelling,
provide safe handling instructions, and notify buyers of any
known restrictions or bans.
• The Biosafety Protocol, was adopted in 2000 and entered into
force in 2003.
Cartagena
• It aims to protect biological diversity from the risks posed by
Protocol on
living modified organisms as a result of modern biotechnology.
Biosafety
• Genetically Modified Organisms can be regulated under this
protocol.

179
 • It is an International Environmental Treaty, UN Treaty.
• Became effective in 2004.
• Parties: 180.
• Its aim is to reduce or eradicate the production and use of
persistent organic pollutants.
• The Dirty Dozen is a list compiled by the Intergovernmental
Stockholm Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International
Programme for Chemical Safety (IPCS). They are:
Convention on
• Eight organochlorine pesticides: chlordane, aldrin, DDT, endrin,
Persistent
dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene and mirex.
Organic
• Two industrial chemicals: Hexa chlorobenzene (HCB), the
Pollutants
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) group; and
• Furans and dioxins are two types of industrial by-products, and
India is a signatory to the treaty.
• The United States is not a signatory to this treaty.
• There is provision that developed countries provide new and
additional financial resources and measures to minimise/
regulate POPs to developing nations.
• It was adopted by the Conference of Parties 10 (CoP10) in 2010
and deals with access to genetic resources as well as the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use under
the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Nagoya Protocol
• It is an addendum to the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
• The Strategic Plan consists of 20 new biodiversity targets for
2020, termed the 'Aichi Biodiversity Targets'.

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 • It amends the 1987 Montreal Protocol.
• Under the Kigali Amendment, all 197 nations, including India,
have agreed to reduce HFC use by approximately 85% of their
baseline levels by 2045.
• From 2019, countries will be bound by the agreement.
• Penalties for non-compliance are included as well.
• It aims to phase out Hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs), a family of
potent greenhouse gases by the late 2040s.
• Developed countries will also expand their financial support
under it.
• Different timelines:
Kigali
Amendment » First group: It includes the world's wealthiest nations, such as
to Montreal the United States, as well as others in the European Union (EU).
Protocol By 2018, the generation and use of HFCs will be halted. By 2036,
they intend to reduce them to around 15% of 2012 levels.
» Second group: The second category comprises countries such
as China, Brazil, and all of Africa, among others. By 2024, they
intend to freeze HFC usage and reduce it to 20% of what it was
in 2021 by 2045.
» Third group: It includes countries India, Pakistan, Iran, Saudi
Arabia etc. They will be freezing HFC use by 2028 and reducing
it to about 15% of 2025 levels by 2047.
• NOTE: HFCs (Hydrofluoro carbons) are not Ozone Depleting
Substances but still they are included in Montreal Protocol via
Kigali Agreement because they are potent global warming
substances.
• It is a United Nations Treaty signed in 2013 that seeks to protect
human health and the environment from anthropogenic
mercury and mercury compound emissions and releases.
Minamata • The convention is yet to come to force.
Convention on
Mercury • It aims to phase down or phase down usage of mercury in a
number of process and products.
• Regulation of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in the
informal sector.

181
Global Environmental Organisations
Organisation Description

• It is an UN agency headquarter in Kenya (Nairobi).

• UNEP was established in 1972 as an outcome of the
Stockholm Conference (United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment). It is also one of several Implementing
Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the
Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal
United Nations Protocol.
Environment • UNEP has also contributed to the creation of
Programme (UNEP) recommendations and treaties on topics such as
contamination of international waterways, international
trade in potentially hazardous substances, trans-boundary
air pollution, etc.
• Under UNEP's auspices, the International Cyanide
Management Code, a collection of best practises for the
chemical's use in gold mining operations, was developed.
• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is an
intergovernmental organisation with 191 member states
World Meteorological
and territories that provides a forum for international
Organization (WMO)
cooperation in meteorology and operational hydrology
development and implementation.
• Founded in 2010.
• It addresses the critical challenging of global threat to soil,
oceans, forests, water and air.
World Nature
Organization • The organisation is dedicated in supporting environmentally
sustainable practises, technology, economies, and
renewable energy sources, as well as reducing the effects of
climate change.
• Organization was founded in 1961, named the World Wildlife
Fund.
• In 1986, the organization changed its name to World Wide
Fund for Nature, retaining the WWF initials, to better reflect
the scope of its activities.
• Mission: “to halt and reverse the destruction of our
World Wide Fund for
environment”.
Nature
• It is an international non-governmental, working in the
field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of
humanity’s footprint on the environment.
• It is a charity, with approximately 60% of its funding coming
from voluntary donations by private individuals. 45% of the
fund’s income comes from the US, UK, and Netherlands.

182
 • The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations
(ECOSOC), established the UNFF in October 2000, as
subsidiary body.
• The Forum is open to all UN Member States and specialist
agencies, with the main goal of promoting “the management,
United Nations protection, and sustainable growth of all types of forests,
Forum on Forests as well as strengthening long-term political commitment
(UNFF) to this end” based on the Rio Declaration and the Forest
Principles.
• Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through
sustainable forest management (SFM).
• Enhance forest-based economic, social, and environmental
benefits.
• Founded in 1948 in Fontainebleau, France.
• HQ: Gland, Switzerland.
• It publishes the IUCN Red List, which assesses the
conservation status of species around the world. IUCN
is active in data collection and analysis, research, field
International Union
projects, activism, lobbying, and education. It has observer
for Conservation of
and consultative status at the United Nations.
Nature (IUCN)
• IUCN has broadened its emphasis beyond conservation
ecology in recent decades, and now includes topics such
as poverty alleviation, gender equality, and sustainable
business in its program.
• Both Governments and NGOs are its members.
• GTF was established in 1994 and has its secretariat in New
Delhi.
• It is the only intergovernmental and international
organisation working to save the TIGER all over the world.
Global Tiger Forum • To save the remaining five subspecies of tigers in the wild, a
(GTF) worldwide initiative, a popular strategy, and the promotion
of effective programmes and controls are required.
• Global Tiger Initiative- An alliance of governments,
international, agencies, civil society, and the private sector
united to save wild tigers from extinction.

183
 • It is an international body set up by the terms of the
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
(Signed in Washington, 1946).
• Aims to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks
and thus make possible the orderly development of the
whaling industry.
• The IWC allows non-zero whaling quotas for aboriginal
International subsistence and also member nations may issue.
Whaling Commission • Designate specific areas as whale sanctuaries.
• Capture of suckling calves and female whales with calves
is prohibited.
• In 1982 the IWC adopted a moratorium on commercial
whaling.
• Japan, Russia etc., oppose this moratorium due to their
traditional big game hunting rights, many tribes consider it
as their culture.
• Initiated in 2005, CAWT is a unique voluntary public-private
coalition.
Coalition Against
Wildlife Trafficking • Reduces market demand for illegally traded animals by
(CAWT) raising awareness and concentrating public and political
attention and resources on ending the illegal trade in
wildlife and wildlife products.
• International Tropical Timber Organisation.
ITTO
• ITTO is an intergovernmental organisation that promotes
the conservation, environmental management, use, and
exchange of tropical forest resources under the auspices of
the United Nations.
• The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) is
an inter-disciplinary committee of the International Council
SCAR for Science (ICSU).
• SCAR is charged with initiating, developing, and coordinating
high quality international scientific research in the Antarctic
region (including the Southern Ocean), and on the role of
the Antarctic region in the Earth system.

Blue Flag Beaches • Applicants must meet and maintain

stringent environmental, safety,
• The ‘Blue Flag' is an environmental educational, and accessibility
certification or award that can requirements. It is provided to beaches
be earned by a beach, marina, or and marinas in FEE member countries
sustainable boating tourism operator. on an annual basis.
The certification is provided by
• The Blue Flag initiative began in France
the Foundation for Environmental
in 1985 and expanded to include areas
Education (FEE), a non-profit
outside of Europe in 2001. This initiative
organization based in Denmark.

184
 encourages sustainable development
in freshwater and marine areas with
the help of 33 criteria’s under four
important major heads: environmental
education water quality, environmental
management, and safety.
• On the lines of Blue Flag Certification,
India has also initiated a similar
programme known as BEAMS (Beach
Environment & Aesthetics Management
Services) under ICZM (Integrated
Coastal Zone Management) for
development of world class Beaches in
India.
• This programme is launched by Society
of Integrated Coastal Management
(SICOM) and the Union Ministry of
Environment, Forest, and Climate
Change (MoEFCC).

What is ICZM Project?

• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project seeks to build national
capacity for implementation of comprehensive coastal management approach in
the country. This project is assisted by the World Bank. The concept of ICZM was
born in 1992 during the Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro.

185
 CHAPTER - 11

NATIONAL CONSERVATION EFFORTS

• Since the dawn of civilization, India has
been conscious of the need to preserve
and restore the environment. This is
supported by Vedic and post-Vedic
tradition. However, because of the high
priority put on economic growth in
modern times, particularly in the post-
independence period, the environment
has taken a back seat.
• It is only in 1972 steps were initiated
with the formation of the National
Committee on Environmental
Planning and Coordination (NCEPC)
that gradually evolved as a separate
department of environment and
reached the full-fledged stage of the
Ministry of Environment and Forests in
1985.
• Initially, there was no clause in the
Indian Constitution to promote or
protect the environment. However,
in 1977, the 42nd amendment to the
Constitution added some key clauses
entrusting the government with the
duty of maintaining a safe and well-
protected environment.
• The position of the national government
is crucial for environmental pollution
control, environmental protection,
and environmental change in order
to promote sustainable growth. To
address a variety of environmental
concerns, the United Nations, national
governments, and civil society have
developed a range of environment-
related institutions and organisations
at the international and national levels.

Constitutional Provisions:
• Our constitution, originally, did not contain any direct provision regarding the
protection of natural environment. However, after the UN Conference on Human
Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, Indian Constitution was amended to include
protection of the environment as a constitutional mandate.
• Article 51A (g) of the Indian constitution made it a fundamental duty to protect and
improve the natural environment. “It shall be duty of every citizen of India to protect
and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life
and have compassion for living creatures.”
• In DPSP Article 48A states “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.

186
Biodiversity Conservation
Project Name Context
• Project Tiger is a centrally
sponsored scheme launched
in 1973.
• Tiger population reduced
from 40000 in 1900 to 1800
in 1972.
• The project aims to protect
Bengal tigers from extinction
Project Tiger by maintaining a stable
population in their natural
• The
habitats.
• India is home to 50 reserves
which are all run by the
Project Tiger.
• Number of tigers- Madhya •
Pradesh>Karnataka>
Uttarakhand.
• Project Elephant was
started in February 1992. It •
is a Central Government-
sponsored scheme and
offers technical and financial •
assistance to states with a
free-ranging population of
Project Elephant wild elephants.
• Mainly implemented in
16 states which includes
Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh Jharkhand,
Kerala, Karnataka, etc.
187
Efforts
• The core/buffer technique
is used to establish the
tiger reserves. The core
areas is usually accorded
legal status of a sanctuary
or national park, while the
buffer or peripheral areas
are a combination of forest
and non-forest land that
is managed as a multi-use
area.
National Tiger
Conservation Authority
(NTCA) conducts a tiger
census in every four years
across India.
According to results of the
fourth Tiger census, the total
count of tigers has risen by
33% in four years.
• 88 Elephant corridors were
set up to enhance species
survival and birth rate.
Monitoring of Illegal
Killing of Elephants (MIKE)
programme under CITES.
Haathi Mere Saathi by
MoEFCC in partnership with
Wildlife trust of India.
• The species is included
in the list of protected
species according to the
Schedule I of the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972 and in the Convention
on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Flora
and Fauna (CITES).

• Vultures are present in India
in nine different species, but
the majority of them are
endangered.
Project Vulture • The medication Diclofenac, •
which was given to cattle
to relieve inflammation, was
a major factor in the near
• Vulture Safety Zones.
extinction of the vulture
population. • Vulture Restaurants started
• Rhinos are poached for their
Horns.
One horned
• Last Male White Northern
Rhinoceros
Rhino Sudan died last year
bring its species closer to
extinction.
• An Indian initiative started in
Jan 2009 for strengthening
wildlife conservation in
Himalayan High altitudes.
Project Snow
Leopard • Conservation above 3000
metres in western and trans
Himalayas, above 4000 •
metres in eastern Himalayas.
188
• Nine Vulture Conservation
and Breeding Centres
(VCBC) have been set up in
India.
• The VCBCs' main goal was
to care for the vultures and
breed them in captivity
before releasing them into
the wild.
Diclofenac was banned in
2008 and alternative drug
Meloxicam is being used.
by Maharashtra and Punjab.
• SAVE- Save Asia’s vultures
from Extinction for White
backed, slender billed and
Long billed Vulture.
• Indian Rhino Vision 2020
was launched to increase
rhino population from 2000
to 3000 by 2020 in seven
protected areas of Assam.
• Seven protected areas
are Kaziranga, Pobitora,
Orang National Park,
Manas National Park,
Laokhowa wildlife
sanctuary, Burachapori
wildlife sanctuary and Dibru
Saikhowa wildlife sanctuary.
• Global endangered species
found in Himalayan and
Central Asian mountains.
• Most snow leopards are
found in China followed by
Mongolia and India.
In India it is found in all 5
Himalayan states above
3000 metres altitude.
 • Vulnerable in IUCN Red List
• Olive Ridley turtle visits
Indian coasts during winter
for hatching. • The
• MoEFCC in collaboration
Sea Turtle Project with UNDP started the
project in 1999.
• Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun is the •
implementation agency.
• The Indian Crocodile •
Conservation Project was
launched in 1975 in different
States.
• It has taken the once- •
threatened crocodilians
back from the verge of
Crocodile extinction and set them on a
• Captive
Conservation sound recovery path.
Project • Central Crocodile Breeding
and Management Training
Institute in Hyderabad
• National
was set up to increase the
number of qualified staff
for the project's long-term
success by providing training
at project sites.
• The Kashmir stag, also
known as the Hangul, is a
subspecies of the Central •
Asian Red Deer that is native
to northern India and is the
Project Hangul state animal of Jammu and
Kashmir (now UT).
• At an elevation of 3,035 •
metres, it can be found in
Dachigam National Park.
• The project started in 1970s.
189
and is listed in Appendix I of
CITES.
Krishna Wildlife
Sanctuary (KWS) in Andhra
Pradesh is committed to the
protection of Olive Ridley
turtles.
Yanadi tribes are directly
involved in the conservation
bid.
Creating sanctuaries to
preserve the remaining
population of crocodilians in
their natural habitat.
Gharial is listed as Critically
Endangered on the IUCN
Red List.
breeding of
crocodilian species is
established at Nandankanan
Zoo, Orissa.
Chambal
Sanctuary, Madhya
Pradesh protects Critically
Endangered Gharial species.
The UT of Jammu and
Kashmir, in collaboration
with the IUCN and the WWF,
established a project to
protect these animals.
Population increased to over
340 by 1980 from 150 in 1970.
 • The Ganges River Dolphin,
which lives in the Ganges- • The ‘baiji' found in the Yangtze
Brahmaputra-Meghna and River (China), the ‘bhulan' of
Karnaphuli-Sangu river the Indus (Pakistan), and the
systems of Nepal, India, ‘boto' of the Amazon River
and Bangladesh, has been are the other three “obligate”
designated as the National freshwater dolphins found in
Dolphin Aquatic Animal by the the world.
Ministry of Environment and • India's first Gangetic Dolphin
Forests. sanctuary, Vikramshila
• Listed in Schedule I of the Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary
Wildlife Protection Act (1972). is located in Bhagalpur
• Chinese River Dolphin was District of Bihar.
declared functionally extinct
in 2006.
• Started in 2017 is a six-year
project.
• By MoEFCC in association
with UNDP.
• Aim: Securing livelihoods, • SECURE project aims
conservation, sustainable at securing livelihoods,
use, and restoration of conservation, sustainable
high range Himalayan use, and restoration of
SECURE ecosystems. high range Himalayan
Himalaya • It is a part of “Global ecosystems.
Partnership on Wildlife • Focus areas of the project is
Conservation and Crime protection of snow leopard
Prevention for Sustainable and other endangered
Development” (Global species and their habitats.
Wildlife Program) funded by
the GEF.
• Four states: Uttarakhand,
J&K, Sikkim, and Himachal
Pradesh.

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 • Snake: Katraj Snake Park,
Pune.
• Crocodile: Madras Crocodile
• Captive breeding refers to Bank, Chennai.
the capture and breeding • Lion: Devaliya Safari Park,
of wild animals in a special Gujarat.
facility under the supervision
Captive Breeding of wildlife biologists and • Gharial: National Chambal
other experts. Sanctuary, Chambal.
Programs
• Bringing an animal into • Vulture: Ramanagara Vulture
captivity may be the last Sanctuary, Karnataka.
opportunity to save a species • Dolphin: Vikramshila
from extinction in the wild. Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary,
Bhagalpur.
• Macaque: Arignar Anna
Zoological Park, Chennai.

Legal measures power of entry for examination, testing

The Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act of 1974
• Objective: To provide prevention
and control of water pollution
and maintaining or restoring of
wholesomeness and purity of water in
the streams or wells or on land.
• Important provisions of this Act:
• The Act vests regulatory authority in
State Pollution Control Boards and
empowers these Boards to establish
and enforce effluent standards for
factories discharging pollutants into
water bodies.
• A Central Pollution Control Board
performs the same functions for Union
Territories and formulate policies and
coordinates activities of different State
Boards.
• The State Pollution Control Boards
control sewage and industrial effluent
discharges by approving, rejecting
or impose conditions while granting
consent to discharge.
of equipment and other purposes
and power to take the sample for the
purpose of analysis of water from any
stream or well or sample of any sewage
or trade effluents.
• The 1988 amendment:
• It empowered SPCB and CPCB to
close a defaulting industrial plant or
withdraw its supply of power or water
by an administrative order.
• It also provides for the more stringent
penalties, and a citizen’s suit provision
supports the enforcement machinery.
The Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977:
• Objective: To generate financial
resources to meet expenses of the
Central and State Pollution Boards.
The Act creates economic incentives
for pollution control and requires local
authorities and certain designated
industries to pay a cess (tax) for water
effluent discharge.

• It grants power to the Board to ensure • These revenues are used to implement
compliance with the Act by including the the act.

191
• The Central Government, after
deducting the expenses of collection,
pays the central board and the state’s
such sums, as it seems necessary.
• To encourage capital investment
in pollution control, the Act gives a
polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable
cess upon installing effluent treatment
equipment.
The Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act of 1981
• To implement the decisions taken at
the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment held at Stockholm
in June 1972, Parliament enacted
the nationwide Air Act. The Air Act’s
framework is similar to that of the
Water Act of 1974.
• Objective: To improve the quality of
air and to prevent, control and abate
air pollution in the country. Important
provisions of this Act:
• To enable an integrated approach to
environmental problems, the Air Act
expanded the authority of the central
and state boards established under
the Water Act, to include air pollution
control.
• States not having water pollution
boards were required to set up air
pollution boards.
• Under the Air Act, all industries operating
within designated air pollution control
areas must obtain a “consent” (permit)
from the State Boards.
• The states are required to prescribe
emission standards for industry and
automobiles after consulting the
central board and noting its ambient
air quality standards.
• Act granted power to the Board to ensure
compliance with the Act including the
power of entry for examination, testing
of equipment and other purposes
and power to take the sample for the
192
purpose of analysis of air or emission
from any chimney, fly ash or dust or any
other outlet in such a manner as may
be prescribed.
• The 1987 amendment:
• Prior to its amendment in 1987, the Air
Act was enforced through mild court
administered penalties on violations.
• The 1987 amendment strengthened the
enforcement machinery and introduced
stiffer penalties. Now, the boards may
close down a defaulting industrial plant
or may stop its supply of electricity or
water.
• A board may also apply to the court
to restrain emissions that exceed
prescribed limits.
• It also introduced a citizen’s suit
provision into the Air Act and extended
the Act to include noise pollution.
Wildlife Protection Act 1972
• The Act protects plants, wild animals,
and birds, throughout India and is
divided into six schedules that have
different levels of protection.
• Schedule I and part II of Act cover
animals which are in the category of
endangered species. Harming these
endangered species listed in Schedule
I of the Act is prohibited throughout
India.
• Ex: Tiger, Himalayan Brown Bear, Brow,
Blue whale, Common Dolphin, Cheetah,
Clouded Leopard, hornbills, Indian
Gazelle, etc. are protected under this
list.
• The schedule II of the act covers the list
of animals accorded high protection
and their trade is prohibited. Animals
under this schedule cannot be hunted
except under threat to human life.
• Ex: Assamese Macaque, Bengal
Hanuman Langur, Kohinoor (insect),
Large Indian Civet, Indian Fox, Larger
 Kashmir Flying Squirrel, etc. are covered
under this schedule.
• Species specified under Schedule III
and IV are also protected, but these are
not endangered. So, the penalties are
less serious.
• Schedule V includes vermin wild
mammals and birds which are harmful
to crops, farm animals or which carry
disease, can be hunted with permission
of chief wildlife warden (recently Nilgai,
Rhesus Monkey culled under it).
• Cultivation and planting of the
endemic plants mentioned in Schedule
VI is prohibited. Ex: Blue vanda Pitcher
plant, Kuth, etc.
• The 1982 amendment to the Act: It
introduced a provision permitting the
capture and transportation of wild
animals for the scientific management
of animal population.
Environmental Protection Act 1986
• The Environment Protection Act of 1986
was enacted by the Indian government
in the aftermath of the Bhopal gas
tragedy, also known as the Bhopal
disaster.
• The Act's aim is to put the decisions of
the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment into action. They
are concerned with the preservation
and enhancement of the human
ecosystem, as well as the prevention of
hazards to humans, other living beings,
plants, and property.
• The Central Government or any other
person duly authorized is empowered
to collect the samples of air, water,
soil, or other substances as evidence
of the offences under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
• The Environment (Protection) Act of
1986 relaxed the “Locus Standi” clause,
allowing even a common citizen to
approach the court if he has given a
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sixty-day notice of the alleged offence
and his intention to file a complaint with
the Central Government or another
competent authority.
• The Act prohibits the Civil Courts from
hearing any suit or proceeding arising
out of a Central Government or other
legislative authority's direction, action
or order issued under the Act.
• Central Ground water Board is created
under EPA.
The Ozone Depleting Substances
Rules
• The laws, which come under the
authority of the Environment
(Protection) Act, forbid the use of CFCs
in the manufacture of various products
after January 1, 2003, with the exception
of metered dose inhalers and other
medical uses.
• Similarly, except for necessary use, the
use of halons is banned after January
1, 2001.
• These Rules regulate the manufacture,
exchange, import and export of Ozone-
Depleting Substance (ODSs), as well
as products containing ODS, and set
deadlines for phasing out various ODSs.
• Other ODSs, such as methyl chloroform
and carbon tetrachloride, as well as
CFC for metered dose inhalers, can
be used until January 1, 2010. Methyl
bromide can also be used until January
1, 2015.
• Further, the use of methyl bromide has
been allowed upto 1st January 2015.
• Since HCFCs are used as interim
substitute to replace CFC, these are
allowed up to 1st January 2040.
National Forest Policy, 1988
• It was launched with the principal aim
of ensuring environmental stability and
 maintenance of ecological balance,
including atmospheric equilibrium
which is essential for the sustenance of
all life forms - plant, animal, and human.
• Aims to bring about one-third of the
total geographical area of the country
under forest cover.
• Since, inception of the Forest Policy
1988 the forest and tree cover in the
country has increased from 19.7 % of
geographical area (State Forest Report,
1987) to 23.4 % of the geographical
area (State Forest Report, 2005) and to
24.56% of the geographical area of the
country (State Forest Report, 2019).
• Joint Forest Management Programme-
Under JFM programme both the
State forest department, as well as
the local communities, are involved
in the conservation, protection, and
management of forest lands under
their jurisdiction.
• Major achievements of National Forest
Policy, 1988, inter alia, are as follows:
» Increase in the forest and tree cover.
» Involvement of local communities
in the protection, conservation, and
management of forests through Joint
Forest Management Programme.
» Meeting the requirement of fuel wood,
fodder minor forest produce and
small timber of the rural and tribal
populations.
» Conservation of Biological Diversity
and Genetic Resources of the country
through ex-situ and in-situ conservation
measures.
» Significant contribution in maintenance
of environment and ecological stability
in the country.
Biological Diversity Act 2002
• It establishes a framework for a fair
distribution of the benefits derived
from the use of conventional biological
194
resources and information.
• The Act primarily addresses:
» Issues of conservation, sustainable use
of biological resources in the country.
» Issue related to access to genetic
resources and associated knowledge
and fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from utilization of
biological resources to the country and
its people.
• The Act was enacted to meet the
obligations under Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), to which
India is a party.
• The Biodiversity Management
Committee, National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA), National and State
Biodiversity Funds, State Biodiversity
Boards and other legislative bodies are
formed under this act.
• To acquire biological resources from
India, all foreign nationals must first
obtain NBA approval.
• All Indian individuals/entities are
required to seek NBA approval before
transferring knowledge / research and
material to foreigners.
• Under the Act, the State Government
in consultation with local bodies
may notify in the official gazette,
areas of biodiversity importance as
Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS).
Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS) are
well-defined, ecologically vulnerable
habitats –coastal, terrestrial, and
inland waters, as well as marine – with
rich biodiversity, including components
such as high endemism, richness of wild,
domesticated organisms, and so on.
• Biodiversity Management Committees
have been mandated to prepare
People’s Biodiversity Register in
consultation with local people. This
register would have information on
knowledge of local biological resources.
• The legislation provides for the following
exemptions:
» Exemption to local people and
communities of the area for free access
» Exemption for collaborative research
to use biological resources within India.
» Exemptions to growers and cultivators
of biodiversity and to Vaids and Hakims
to use biological resources.
» Exemption through notification of
normally traded commodities from the
purview of the Act only when used as
commodity.
through government sponsored or
government approved institutions
subject to overall policy guidelines and
approval of the Central Government
and conforms to the central government
guidelines.

India’s Biodiversity in Comparison with the World:

• India is one of the 17-mega biodiversity countries of the world. With only 2.4% of
the land area, India already accounts for 7-8% of the recorded species of the world.
• Over 46,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals have been recorded
in the country so far by the Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of
India, respectively.
• India is a recognised centre of crop diversity, and it is home to many wild relatives
and breeds of domesticated animals and fish, as well as millions of microbial
diversity, insects, and other organisms.
• The ecosystem diversity of India is also unparalleled in comparison with other
countries in the world.

Biodiversity hotspots in India:

1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan,
Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2. Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman
group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern
China)
3. Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, Philippines)
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)

Scheduled Tribes and other forest subsistence needs.

dwellers act 2006
• The Act is applicable for Tribal and
Other Traditional Forest Dwelling
Communities and Ministry of Tribal
Affairs (MoTA) is the nodal agency to
implement the act.
• The act recognises the rights of forest
dwellers who, for three generations prior
to 13.12.2005, predominantly resided in
and relied on the forests for legitimate
• National Parks and Sanctuaries, as
well as Protected Forests and Reserve
Forests, have been included in the
recognition of rights on forest land with
a maximum limit of 4 ha.
• Tribal have the right to collect, use, and
dispose of minor forest produce (MFP-
all non-timber forest produce such
as bamboo, honey, and tendu leaves)
under the act.

195
• Gram Sabha has been appointed as the
competent authority for deciding the
existence and extent of community or
individual forest rights.
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
• The Coastal Regulation Zone
notification was issued by the Ministry
of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
under the Environment Protection
Act of 1986 to control activities in the
coastal region.
• The coastal land up to 500 metres from
the High Tide Line (HTL) and a stage of
100 metres along the banks of creeks,
estuaries, backwaters, and rivers subject
to tidal fluctuations is designated as a
CRZ, according to the notification.
• CRZ has been categorised into four
categories across the region, as follows:
» CRZ I - Ecologically Sensitive Areas.
They are located between the high and
low tide lines. Natural gas exploration
and salt extraction are also allowed.
» CRZ II - Shore Line Areas. The land
that has been built up to or developed
near shoreline. Structures that are not
approved are not permitted to be built
in this region.
» CRZ III - Undisturbed Area. Rural and
Urban localities which fall outside I and
II. Only agriculture-related operations,
as well as some public facilities, are
permitted in this region.
» CRZ IV - Territorial Area. An area
covered between Low Tide Line and
12 Nautical Miles seaward. In this
region, fishing and related activities
are permitted. In this zone, solid waste
should be disposed of.
• The Union Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change has notified
the 2019 Coastal Regulation Zone
(CRZ) norms, replacing the existing CRZ
norms of 2011.
196
• The new CRZ norms aim to promote
sustainable development based on
scientific principles.
CRZ classification – For the purpose of
conserving and protecting the coastal
areas and marine waters, the CRZ area
shall be classified as follows, namely: -
CRZ-I areas are environmentally most
critical and are further classified as under:
• CRZ-I A: (a) The following
ecologically sensitive areas (ESAs)
and geomorphological features that
contribute to the coast's integrity will
be included in CRZ-I A: (i) Mangroves
(If the area of mangroves exceeds 1000
square metres, a buffer of 50 metres
must be given along the mangroves,
and this area must also be designated
as CRZ–I A).
(ii) Nesting grounds of birds.
(iii) Sea grass beds.
(iv) Turtle nesting grounds.
(v) Marine parks, reserve forests,
sanctuaries, national parks, wildlife
habitats, and other protected areas,
including Biosphere Reserves, created
under the provisions of the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972 (53 of 1972), Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980 (69 of 1980), or
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29
of 1986).
(vi) Biologically active mudflats.
(vii) Salt marshes.
(viii) Sand dunes.
(ix) Horse shoe crabs’ habitats.
(x) Corals and coral reefs.
(xi) Areas or structures of archaeological
importance and heritage sites.
• For those ecologically vulnerable areas
in respective territories as mapped out
by the National Centre for Sustainable
Coastal Management, states, and
Union territories (NCSCM) must
 develop a comprehensive environment
management plan.
• CRZ-I B: It is defined as the intertidal
zone, which is defined as the region
between the High Tide Line and the
Low Tide Line.
• CRZ-II: The established land areas up
to or near the shoreline within existing
municipal limits or in other existing
legally designated urban areas, which
are significantly built-up with a ratio
of built-up plots to total plots of more
than 50% and have been provided with
drainage and approach roads, as well
as other infrastructural facilities such as
sewerage, water supply shall be referred
to as CRZ-II.
• CRZ-III: Land areas that are relatively
undisturbed (viz. rural areas, etc.) and
those which do not fall under CRZ-II,
shall constitute CRZ–III, and CRZ-III
shall be further classified into following
categories: -
» CRZ-III A: Such heavily populated CRZ-
III areas, with a population density of
more than 2161 people per square
kilometre as of the 2011 census, will
be known as CRZ–III A, with an area
up to 50 metres from the HTL on the
landward side designated as the ‘No
Development Zone (NDZ)', NDZ of 200
metres shall continue to apply unless the
CZMP as per this notification, framed
with proper consultative process, has
been authorised.
» CRZ-III B: All other CRZ-III areas with
a population density of less than
2161 people per square kilometre, as
determined by the 2011 census, will
be known as CRZ-III B, with the area
up to 200 metres from the HTL on the
landward side designated as the NDZ.
Land area up to 50 meters from the HTL,
or width of the creek whichever is less,
along the tidal influenced water bodies
in the CRZ III, shall also be earmarked
as the NDZ in CRZ III.
197
• Note: The NDZ shall not be applicable
in the areas falling within notified Port
limits.
• CRZ- IV: The CRZ- IV shall constitute
the water area and shall be further
classified as under-
• CRZ- IVA: CRZ-IV A is described as the
water and seabed region between the
Low Tide Line and twelve nautical miles
on the seaward side.
• CRZ- IVB: The water area and bed area
between LTL at the bank of a tidally
affected water body and LTL on the
opposite side of the bank, ranging from
the mouth of the water body at the sea
up to the influence of tide, i.e., salinity
of five parts per thousand (ppt) during
the driest season of the year, shall be
included in the CRZ-IV B areas.
Organizations
National Green Tribunal
• It is a statutory body established under
the National Green Tribunal Act 2010.
• With establishment of NGT India
became third country in the world to
full-fledged green tribunal followed by
New Zealand and Australia.
• It consists of one full time Chairperson,
and not less than ten but subject to
maximum of twenty full time Judicial
Members as the Central Government
may, from time to time, notify.
• Objective: For effective and
expeditious disposal of cases relating
to environmental protection and giving
relief and compensation for damages
to persons and property and for matters
connected therewith or incidental
thereto.
• It is a specialized body equipped with
the necessary expertise to handle
environmental disputes involving multi-
disciplinary issues
• The NGT is guided by principles of
 natural justice. It is not bound by the
procedure laid down under the Code of
Civil Procedure, 1908.
• The Tribunal is mandated to make and
endeavour for disposal of applications
or appeals finally within 6 months of
filing of the same.
• New Delhi is the Principal Place of
Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune,
Kolkata, and Chennai shall be the other
four place of sitting of the Tribunal.
• NGT deals with the following acts:
» The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974.
» The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Cess Act, 1977.
» The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
» The Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981.
» The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
» The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
» The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• It does not deal with:
» Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972,
» Indian Forest Act, 1927,
» Various laws enacted by States relating
to forests, tree preservation etc.
The Animal Welfare Board of India:
• It is a statutory advisory body
established in 1962 under Section 4 of
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Act, 1960.
• The board was started under the
stewardship of Late Smt. Rukmini Devi
Arundale, well known humanitarian.
• It is the first of its kind to be established
by any Government in the world.
• Purpose:
» Ensuring that animal welfare laws in
198
the country are diligently followed.
» To provide grants to Animal Welfare
Organizations and advising the
Government of India on animal welfare
issues.
• Mandate: To prevent the infliction
of unnecessary pain or suffering on
animals, in terms of the provision of the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA)
Act, 1960.
Functions:
• To keep the law in force in India for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
and to advise the government on the
amendments to be undertaken in any
such law from time to time.
• To advise the Central Government on
the making of rules under the Act with
a view to preventing unnecessary pain
or suffering to animals generally, and
more particularly when they are being
transported from one place to another
or when they are used as performing
animals or when they are kept in
captivity or confinement.
• To advise the Government or any
local authority or other person on
improvements in the design of vehicles
so as to lessen the burden on draught
animals.
• To take all such steps as the Board may
think fit for (amelioration of animals)
by encouraging or providing for, the
construction of sheds, water troughs
and the like and by providing for
veterinary assistance to animals.
• To advise the Government or any local
authority or other person in the design
of slaughter houses or the maintenance
of slaughter houses or in connection
with slaughter of animals so that
unnecessary pain or suffering, whether
physical or mental, is eliminated in the
pre-slaughter stages as far as possible,
and animals are killed; wherever
 necessary, in as humane a manner as
possible.
• To take all such steps as the Board may
think fit to ensure that unwanted animals
are destroyed by local authorities,
whenever it is necessary to do so, either
instantaneously or after being rendered
insensible to pain or suffering.
• To encourage by the grant of financial
assistance or otherwise, (the formation
or establishment of Pinjrapoles, rescue
homes, animals shelters, sanctuaries,
and the like), where animals and birds
may find a shelter when they have
become old and useless or when they
need protection.
• To co-operate with, and co-ordinate
the work of, associations or bodies
established for the purpose of preventing
unnecessary pain or suffering to
animals or for the protection of animals
and birds.
• To give financial and other assistance
to Animal Welfare Organisations
functioning in any local area or to
encourage the formation of Animal
Welfare Organisations in any local area
which shall work under the general
supervision and guidance of the Board.
• To advise the Government on matters
relating to the medical care and
attention which may be provided in
animal hospitals, and to give financial
and other assistance to animal hospitals
whenever the Board thinks it necessary
to do so.
• To impart education in relation to
the humane treatment of animals
and to encourage the formation of
public opinion against the infliction of
unnecessary pain or suffering to animals
and for the promotion of animal welfare
by means of lectures, books, posters,
cinematographic exhibitions, and the
like.
• To advise the Government on any matter
connected with animal welfare or the
199
Prevention of infliction of unnecessary
pain or suffering on animals
Central Zoo Authority:
• In 1972 'the Expert Group on Zoos'
was constituted by the Indian Board
for Wildlife to make detailed study for
setting up and maintenance of zoos in
the country.
• In 1973 the group recommended for
setting up of a central agency (Zoo
Grants Commission).
• To give effect to this recommendation,
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was
amended through an amendment Act
in the year 1991.
• Central Zoo Authority was established
as a statutory body under the Ministry
of Environment & Forests by the
Government of India in the year 1992.
• A separate chapter, Chapter IVA
(Section 38 A to 38 J) was added to
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for
establishment of the Central Zoo
Authority in India.
• The Authority consists of a Chairman,
ten members and a Member Secretary.
Objectives:
• To complement and strengthen the
national effort in conservation of the rich
biodiversity of the country, particularly
the fauna as per the National Zoo
Policy, 1998.
• Enforcing minimum standards and
norms for upkeep and healthcare of
animals in Indian zoos and to control
mushrooming of unplanned and ill-
conceived zoos.
Vision:
• The zoo will have healthy animals in
ecosystem based naturalistic enclosure,
be supportive to in-situ conservation
 with competent and content staff, good
educational and interpretative facilities,
have the support of people and be self-
sufficient.
Mission:
• The Central Zoo Authority’s mission is
to provide better upkeep and veterinary
care to the wild animals housed in zoos
in India to ensure their conservation
through best practices of management
and bringing education & awareness
among the people.
Functions:
The Authority has been assigned following
functions under Section 38 (C) of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972:
• To specify the minimum standards for
housing, upkeep and veterinary care of
the animals kept in zoos.
• To evaluate and assess the functioning
of the zoos with respect to the prescribed
standards or norms.
• To recognize or derecognize zoos.
• To identify endangered species (listed
under Schedule- I and II of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972) of wild animals
for purposes of captive breeding and
assigning responsibility in this regard to
a zoo.
• To coordinate the acquisition, exchange,
and loaning of animals for breeding
purpose.
• To ensure maintenance of studbooks
of endangered species of wild animals
bred in captivity.
• To identify priorities and themes with
regard to display of captive animals in
zoos.
• To coordinate training of zoo personnel
in India and outside India.
• To coordinate research in captive
breeding and educational programmes
200
for the purposes of zoos.
• To provide technical and other
assistance to zoos for their proper
management and development on
scientific lines.
• To perform such other functions as may
be necessary to carry out the purposes
of this Act with regard to zoos.
National Biodiversity Authority
(NBA)
• The NBA is a Statutory body established
in 2003 by the Central Government to
implement India’s Biological Diversity
Act (2002).
• The Biodiversity Act – 2002 provides for
three-tiered structure:
1. At the local level, the Biodiversity
Management Committees (BMCs) are
to be established by institutions of local
self-government for implementation of
specific provisions of the Act and Rules.
2. At the state level, the State Biodiversity
Boards (SBBs) are established to
deal with all matters relating to
implementation of the Act and the
Rules.
3. At the national level, the National
Biodiversity Authority (NBA) is
established to deal with all matters
relating to implementation of the Act
and the Rules.
• All of these institutions are statutory,
autonomous bodies established under
the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
Functions:
• It performs facilitative, regulatory, and
advisory function for Government of India
on issue of Conservation, sustainable use
of biological resource and fair equitable
sharing of benefits of use.
• Give advice the Central Government
 on matters relating to the conservation
of biodiversity, sustainable use of its
components and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of the utilisation of
biological resources.
• Give advice the State Governments in
the selection of areas of biodiversity
importance to be notified as heritage
sites and measures for the management
of such heritage sites.
201
• The authority may, on behalf of
the Central Government, take any
measures necessary to oppose the
grant of intellectual property rights
in any country outside India on any
biological resource obtained from India
or knowledge associated with such
biological resource which is derived
from India.
 CHAPTER - 12
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
• In the past, development schemes were
conducted without regard for their
environmental implications. As a result,
rivers and lakes became contaminated,
air pollution reached dangerous levels,
and land destruction resulted from the
piling of toxic waste. Industrialization
and economic development brought
material comforts and luxuries, but they
also lowered the quality of life.
• Environmental Protection and
Sustainable Development has been
the cornerstones of the policies and
procedures governing the industrial
and other developmental activities in
India.
• EIA is one of the tools available to
achieve the goal of harmonising
development activities with the
environmental concerns.
• EIA allows finding out potential
harmful environmental consequences
in any project. This allows for course
correction/alteration/cancellation of
project design in early phase of project
cycle.
• Objective: To enable the planners to
foresee the potential environmental
problems that would arise out of a
proposed development and address
them in the project’s planning and
design stage.
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Need of EIA
• The ecosystem has suffered as a result
of industrial development. The majority
of development activities, such as the
construction of dams, bridges, airports,
factories, railway tracks, and towns, use
vast quantities of natural resources as
raw materials and may produce waste
that is disposed of into the atmosphere.
Waste disposal pollutes the air, soil, and
water, resulting in nature’s degradation.
• It is in the best interests of all of us
who live on this planet to protect the
global climate. Various national and
international steps have been taken
to address a variety of environmental
issues.
• In view of the above, it is vital to predict
future environmental concerns and risks
that can occur as a result of planned
construction activities and human
acts. The term “Environmental Impact
Assessment” (EIA) is used to describe
this form of anticipation.
• EIA is a method that aids decision-
making and guarantees that the
proposal under consideration is a viable
choice.
• The important aspects of EIA are:
» Risk assessment,
» Environmental management
» Post product monitoring
EIA is a cost-effective way to mitigate or
reduce the negative effects of development
and growth projects.
 I M A G E 12.1: E N V I R O N M E N TA L I M PA C T A S S E S S M E N T
Steps in EIA process
The steps outlined below are part of the
EIA method. The EIA mechanism, on the
other hand, is cyclical, with interactions
between the various phases.
• Screening: The project plan is
scrutinised for its size, location, and
form of construction, as well as whether
it requires legislative approval.
• Scoping: The project's possible effects,
impact zones, mitigation strategies, and
monitoring criteria. The EIA agency must
adhere to the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
published guidelines.
• Collection of baseline data: The study
area's environmental status is the
baseline data.
• Impact prediction: Reversible and
irreversible, positive, and negative,
immediate, and permanent effects
must be expected, which requires
the evaluation agency to provide a
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thorough understanding of the project.
• Mitigation measures and EIA report:
The EIA report should provide actions
and measures for avoiding, reducing, or
mitigating the impacts, as well as the
extent of compensation for potential
environmental harm or failure.
• Public hearing: On completion of the
EIA report, public and environmental
groups living close to project site may
be informed and consulted.
• Decision making: Impact Assessment
(IA) Authority along with the experts
consult the project-in-charge along
with consultant to take the final
decision, keeping mind EIA and EMP
(Environment Management Plan).
• Monitoring and implementation of
environmental management plan: The
various phases of implementation of
the project are monitored.
• Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and
hazard probability and index also form
part of EIA procedures.
 I M A G E 12.2: S TA G E S
Salient Features of
2006 Amendment:
• Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
Notification of 2006 has very much
decentralised the environmental
clearance projects by categorizing
the developmental projects into
two categories, i.e., Category A and
Category B.
• ‘Category Impact Assessment Agency
(IAA) and Expert Appraisal Committee
(EAC) appraise projects at the national
204
IN EIA
level for Category A, whereas Category
B projects are appraised at the state
level. To give clearance to the Category
B phase, the State Level Environment
Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA)
and the State Level Expert Appraisal
Committee (SEAC) have been created.
• After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle
comprises of mainly four stages i.e.
1. Screening
2. Scoping
3. Public hearing
4. Appraisal
Environmental Clearance:
• Environmental clearance or the ‘go ahead’ signal is granted by the Impact
Assessment Agency in the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India.
• All projects that require clearance from central government can be broadly
categorized into the following:
1. Industries
2. Mining
3. Thermal power plants
4. River valley projects
5. Infrastructure and CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone)
6. Nuclear power projects
• We do not go through the screening • Quantity of emission likely from project.
process because Category A projects
need mandatory environmental
clearance. Noise
• Projects in Category B go through a • Noise levels both now and in the future.
screening phase and are split into two • Noise emission reduction strategies.
categories.
1. Category B1 projects (Mandatory
requires EIA). Water environment
2. Category B2 projects (Do not require • Effect of proposed project on land and
EIA). surface water supplies, including their
quality and quantity within the zone.
• Hence Category A projects and
Category B1 projects undergo the What is assessed in Environmental
complete EIA process but Category B2 Impact Assessment?
projects are exempted from complete
EIA process. In order to carry out an environmental
impact assessment, the following are
essential:
ENVIRONMENTAL (I) assessment of existing
environmental status.
COMPONENTS OF EIA
(ii) assessment of various factors of
• The following aspects of the ecosystem (air, water, land, biological).
environment are explored during the
(iii) analysis of adverse environmental
EIA process.
impacts of the proposed project to be
started.
Air environment (iv) impact on people in the
neighborhood.
• Quality of ambient air.
• Air quality standards
• Wind direction, speed, humidity etc. Biological environment
• Impact of the emission on the area. • Flora and fauna in impact zone.

205
• Potential damage (likely) due to
project, due to effluents, emissions,
and landscaping. Biological stress
(prediction).
Land environment
• Study of soil characteristics, land use,
and drainage pattern, and the likely
adverse impact of the project.
• Impact on historical monuments and
heritage site.
Assessment of expected economic
benefits arising out of the project must be
compared to the all the above-mentioned
factors.
Thus, we can say that environmental
I M A G E 12.3: P A R T I C I PA N T S
ENVIRONMENTAL APPRAISAL
PROCEDURE IN INDIA
• A project is first examined by an
Appraisal Committee established
by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests. Based on the data provided by
the project authorities, this committee
assesses the project's effects.
• If required, the Ministry of Environment
and Forests can consult with investors
and hold expert consultations on
206
concerns must be made a part of the
decision to set up a project.
The main participants of EIA
EIA applies to public and private sections.
The six main players are:
(I) Those who initiate the project.
(ii) The environmental consultant employed
by the project promoter to prepare the EIA.
(iii) National or State Pollution Board.
(iv) Public has the right to express their
opinion.
(v) The Impact Assessment Agency.
(vi) Regional centre of the Ministry of
Environment and Forest.
FOR EIA
specific issues as needed. Environmental
clearance is issued after all aspects of a
project have been considered, subject
to the implementation of the required
environmental safeguards.
• A decision is made within 90 days in
the case of projects where the project
promoters have submitted all required
details.
• The six regional offices of the Ministry
functioning at Bhubaneshwar, Shillong,
Chandigarh, Lucknow, Bengaluru,
 and Bhopal undertake monitoring of
cleared projects.
• The primary goals of this process
are to ensure that the recommended
precautions are sufficient and to make
any possible mid-course corrections. If
there are any.
• Any changes to the project's scope are
defined to determine whether a review
of an earlier decision is needed.
• Coastal states or union territories
prepare Coastal Zone Management
Plans (CZMPs) in accordance with
the CRZ notification of 1991. This is
created by identifying and categorising
coastal areas for various activities, and
then submitting it to the Ministry for
approval. After that, the ministry forms
a task force to look into their proposals.
• Sometimes one or more natural
resources becomes limiting resource in
each region and that restrict the scopes
of development portfolios. MoEFCC
has been sponsoring carrying capacity
studies for different regions. The studies
involve:
1. A list of available natural resources.
2. Pre-planning of current
environmental conditions.
3. Development of a "Business as
Usual Scenario" to examine future
strategies and their effect on natural
resources.
4. Identifying ‘Hot Spots' that require
urgent action to address air, water,
or land pollution.
5. Formulation of an established plan
that should be for the betterment,
with a distinction between ‘Business
as Usual' and the enhanced plan
for the betterment indicating the
potential course of action to be
followed for the growth of the area
after discussion with the planners
and local people.
207
Benefits of EIA
• EIA provides a cost-effective procedure
to eliminate or at least minimize the
adverse impact of developmental
projects on our environment.
• EIA connects environment with
development thus paving a way for
sustainable development.
• EIA enables the policymakers to analyse
the effect of developmental activities
on the environment much before the
developmental project is implemented.
• EIA makes it sure that the development
plan is environmentally suitable and
within limits of the bearable capacity
of the ecosystem.
Issues with EIA
• Public comments are not considered
at the early stage, which often leads
to conflict at the later stage of project
clearance.
• Issues with the quality of EIA report due
to Limited technical and managerial
capacities
• Insufficient alignment of EIA work at key
decision points in relation to feasibility
and related studies in the project life
cycle, with some big decisions being
taken even before EIAs are completed.
• Difficulties in ensuring appropriate
and useful public engagement (or
participation).
• Inadequate understanding of the
relative functions of baseline definition
and impact prediction.
• Inconsistency in the collection of
technologies requiring detailed
environmental impact assessment
studies.
• Poor integration of biophysical
environmental impacts with social,
economic and health effects also
adds to the Problems in Environmental
Impact Assessment.
• Lack of legitimacy due to the
development of EIA reports that, due to
their length and technical complexity,
are difficult to understand by decision-
makers and the general public.
• Weak links between environmental
impact assessment report
recommendations on mitigation and
monitoring and project implementation
and operation.
• Lack of processes to ensure that EIA
reports are included in decision-making.

DRAFT EIA 2020* (Provisional as laws may change at the time of final adoption):
The new draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 2020 proposed by the Union
government is a regressive departure from the 2006 version that it seeks to replace.

Significant Features and Loopholes in draft EIA 2020:

• Removal of several activities from the purview of public consultation.
• A list of projects has been included under Category B2, expressly exempted from
the requirement of an EIA.
• The projects under this category include offshore and onshore oil, gas and shale
exploration, hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW, irrigation projects between 2,000
and 10,000 hectares of command area, small and medium mineral beneficiation
units, small foundries involving furnace units, some categories of re-rolling mills,
small and medium cement plants, small clinker grinding units, acids other than
phosphoric or ammonia, sulphuric acid, micro, small and medium enterprises
(MSMEs) in dye and dye intermediates, bulk drugs, synthetic rubbers, medium-
sized paint units, all inland waterway projects, expansion or widening of highways
between 25 km and 100 km with defined parameters, aerial ropeways in ecologically
sensitive areas, and specified building construction and area development projects.
• There is apprehension that the exemption from EIA and public consultation for
listed B2 category activity and expansion and modernisation projects will seriously
affect the environment since these will be carried out without oversight.
• Post-facto clearance.
» This means that even if a project has come up without environment safeguards
or without getting environment clearances, it could carry out operation under
the provision of the new draft EIA 2020. This proposal tries to curtail rights of the
communities is by legalizing projects that have already caused a great deal of
harm and have been operating without approvals from the EIA.
• Reduced notice period
» The notice period for public hearing has been cut from 30 days to 20 days. This
will make it difficult to study the draft EIA report, more so when it is not widely
available or provided in the regional language. It reduces the space available for
public participation, thereby abandoning public trust.
• Frequency of compliance reports
» Under the proposed changes, project proponents need to submit only one annual
report on compliance with conditions, compared to the existing two.

208
We need much stronger laws to protect the environment and to ensure that natural
resources are available to the poorest who need them the most. We do not need more
man-made disasters. The present EIA draft of 2020 needs to be challenged on keeping
the core provision of doing an environment impact assessment before operation of a
project, as well as disallowing any project without a proper EIA.

209
 INDIA
TIGER RESERVES

Rajaji Kamlang
Jim Corbett
Pilbhit
Dudhwa Pakhui Napdapha
Sariska Manas Nameri
Valmiki Kaziranga
Buxa Orang
Ranthambore
Panna
Mukandra Hill s Sanjay-Dubri Palamau Dampha
Satpura
Bandhavgarh
Kanha Sunderbans
Pench Achanakmar
Bor Simlipal Satkosia
Melghat Nawegaon-Nagzira
Tadoba-Andhari
Satkosia
Udanti-Sitanadi
Kawal
Indravati
Sahyadri
Amrabad
Nagarjunsagar Srisailam

Dandeli- Anshi
Bhadra
Nagarahole Bili giri Ranganatha Temple
Mudumalai
Bandipur
Sathyamangalam

Parambikulam Anamalai
Tiger Reserve
Periyar
Kalakad-Mundanthurai

NORTHWEST INDIA NORTHEAST INDIA

Corridors are Elephant habitat in the
Particularly threatened Northeast was once
in Uttarakhand where contiguous with stretches
Linear development in Bangladesh, Bhutan,
projects have taken Nepal and Myanmar. That’s
a toll on habitat not the case any more

SOUTHERN INDIA CENTRAL INDIA

Habitat fragmentation In Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
at trijunction of Kerala, and Odisha, where elephants
Karnataka and Tamil routinely migrate in search
Nadu. At one point, the of food, corridors need to
be secured. In Chhattisgarh,
poaching, but it is elephants are a relatively
under control now new arrival and in regular

210
 PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS

211
Mains
1. How does the draft Environment Impact
Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020
differ from the existing EIA Notification,
2006? (10 marks 150 words) 2020
2. Suggest measures to improve water
storage and irrigation system to make its
judicious use under depleting scenario.
(15 marks 250 words) 2020
3. What are the key features of the
National Clean Air Programme
(NCAP) initiated by the Government
of India? (15 marks 250 words) (15
marks 250 words) 2020
4. Coastal sand mining, whether legal or
illegal, poses one of the biggest threats
to our environment. Analyze the impact
of sand mining along the Indians coasts,
citing specific examples. (15 marks
250 words) 2019
5. Define the concept of carrying
capacity of an ecosystem as relevant
to an environment. Explain how
understanding this concept is vital
while planning for the sustainable
development of a region. (15 marks 250
words) 2019
6. What are the impediments in disposing
of the huge quantities of discarded
solid wastes which are continuously
being generated? How do we remove
safely the toxic wastes that have
been accumulating in our habitable
environment? 2018
7. What is a wetland? Explain the Ramsar
concept of ‘wise use’ in the context
of wetland conservation. Cite two
examples of Ramsar sites from India. 2018
8. 8. Sikkim is the first ‘Organic State’
in India. What are the ecological and
economical benefits of an Organic
State? 2018
9. How does biodiversity vary in India?
How is the Biological Diversity Act,2002
helpful in the conservation of flora
and fauna? 2018
212
10. Not many years ago, river linking was a
concept but it is becoming a reality in
the country. Discuss the advantages of
river linking and its possible impact on
the environment. 2017
11. ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem.
How will India be affected by climate
change? How Himalayan and coastal
states of India will be affected by
climate change? 2017
12. Give an account of the current status and
the targets to be achieved pertaining
to renewable energy sources in the
country. Discuss in brief the importance
of the National Programme on Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs). 2016
13. Rehabilitation of human settlements
is one of the important environmental
impacts which always attracts
controversy while planning major
projects. Discuss the measures
suggested for mitigation of this impact
while proposing major developmental
projects. 2016
14. The frequency of urban floods due to
high-intensity rainfall is increasing over
the years. Discussing the reasons for
urban floods, highlight the mechanisms
for preparedness to reduce the
risk during such events. 2016
15. The Namami Gange and National
Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)
programmes and causes of mixed
results from the previous schemes.
What quantum leaps can help
preserve the river Ganga better than
incremental inputs? 2015
Prelims:
1. The formation of ozone hole in the
Antarctic region has been a cause of
concern. What could be the reason
for the formation of this hole ? [201I]
(a) Presence of prominent tropo-
 spheric turbulence; and inflow of
chlorofluorocarbons.
(b) Presence of prominent polar front
and stratospheric clouds; and inflow of
chlorofluorocarbons.
(c) Absence of polar front and
stratospheric clouds; and inflow of
methane and chlorofluorocarbons.
(d) Increased temperature at polar
region due to global warming.
2. Two important rivers–one with its source
in Jharkhand (and known by a different
name in Odisha), and another, with its
source in Odisha–merge at a place only
a short distance from the coast of Bay
of Bengal before flowing into the sea.
This is an important site of wildlife and
biodiversity and a protected area. Which
one of the following could be this ? [2011]
(a) Bhitarkanika (b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea (d) Simlipal
3. Three of the following criteria have
contributed to the recognition of
Western Ghats, Sri Lanka and Indo Burma
regions as hotspots of biodiversity: [2011]
1. Species richness
2. Vegetation density
3. Endemism
4. Ethno-botanical importance
5. Threat perception
6. Adaption of flora and fauna to
warm and humid conditions
Which three of the above are correct
criteria in this context?
(a) 1, 2 and 6 only (b) 2, 4 and 6 only
(c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 3, 4 and 6 only
4. The Himalayan range is very rich in
species diversity.
Which one among the following is
213
the most appropriate reason for
this phenomenon ? [2011]
(a) It has a high rainfall that supports
luxuriant vegetative growth
(b) It is a confluence of different bio-
geographical zones.
(c) Exotic and invasive species have not
been introduced in this region.
(d) It has less human interference.
5. There is a concern over the increase in
harmful algal blooms in the seawaters
of India. What could be the causative
factors for this phenomenon ?[2011]
1. Discharge of nutrients from the
estuaries.
2. Run-off from the land during the
monsoon.
3. Upwelling in the seas. Select the
correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
6. Consider the following : [2011]
1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration.
3. Decay of organic matter.
4. Volcanic action.
Which of the above add carbon dioxide
to the carbon cycle on earth?
(a) 1 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only
7. A sandy and saline area is the
natural habitat of an Indian animal
species. The animal has no predators
in that area but its existence is
threatened due to the destruction
of its habitat. Which one of the
following? could be that animal ? [2011]
 (a) Indian wild buffalo (b) Indian wild ass
(c) Indian wild boar (d) Indian gazelle
8. Biodiversity forms the basis for human
existence in the following ways : [2011]
1. Soil formation
2. Prevention of soil erosion
3. Recycling of waste
4. Pollination of crops
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below
(a) 1,2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
9. Which one of the following is
not a site for in-situ method of
conservation of flora? [2011]
(a) Biosphere Reserve
(b) Botanical Garden
(c) National Park
(d) Wildlife Sanctuary
10. The 2004 Tsunami made people
realize that mangroves can serve as a
reliable safety hedge against coastal
calamities. How do mangroves function
as a safety hedge? [2011]
(a) The mangrove swamps separate the
human settlements from the sea by a
wide zone in which people neither live
nor venture out.
(b) The mangroves provide both food
and medicines which people are in
need of after any natural disaster.
(c) The mangrove trees are tall with
dense canopies and serve as an
excellent shelter during a cyclone or
tsunami.
(d) The mangrove trees do not get
uprooted by storms and tides because
of their extensive roots.
214
11. The “Red Data Books’’ published
by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
resources (IUCN) contain lists of: [2011]
1. Endemic plant and animal species
present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for conservation of
nature and natural resources in various
countries.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only
12. Consider the following statements:
[2011]
1. Biodiversity is normally greater in
the lower latitudes as compared to
the higher latitudes.
2. Along the mountain gradients,
biodiversity is normally greater in
the lower altitudes as compared to
the higher altitudes.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
13. With reference to India, consider the
following Central Acts: [2011]
1. Import and Export (Control) Act,
1947
2. Mining and Mineral Development
(Regulation) Act, 1957
3. Customs Act, 1962
4. Indian Forest Act, 1927
Which of the above Acts have relevance
to/bearing? on the biodiversity
conservation in the country?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2,3 and 4 only
 (c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) None of the above Acts
14. How does National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA) help in protecting the
Indian agriculture? [2012]
1. NBA checks the biopiracy and
protects the indigenous and
traditional genetic resources.
2. NBA directly monitors and
supervises the scientific research on
genetic modification of crop plants.
3. Application for Intellectual Property
Rights related to genetic/biological
resources cannot be made without
the approval of NBA.
Which of the statements given above is
/are correct?
(a) 1only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
15. The National Green Tribunal Act,
2010 was enacted in consonance
with which of the following provisions
of the Constitution of India? [2012]
1. Right to healthy environment,
construed as a part of Right to life
under Article 21
2. Provision of grants for raising
the level of administration in the
Scheduled Areas for the welfare of
Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
3. Powers and functions of Gram
Sabha as mentioned under Article
243 (A)
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
16. If National Water Mission is properly
and completely implemented, how
will it impact the country? [2012]
215
1. Part of the water needs of urban
areas will be met through recycling
of wastewater.
2. The water requirements of coastal
cities with inadequate alternative
sources of water will be met by
adopting appropriate technologies
that allow for the use of ocean
water.
3. All the rivers of Himalayan origin will
be linked to the rivers of peninsular
India,
4. The expenses incurred by farmers for
digging bore-wells and for installing
motors and pumpsets to draw
groundwater will be completely
reimbursed by the Government.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
17. Biomass gasification is considered to
be one of the sustainable solutions
to the power crisis in India. In this
context, which of the following
statements is/are correct? [2012]
1. Coconut shells, groundnut shells and
rice husk can be used in biomass
gasification.
2. The combustible gases generated
from biomass gasification consists
of hydrogen and carbon dioxide
only.
3. The combustible gases generated
from biomass gasification can be
used for direct heat generation but
not in internal combustion engines.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
18. The acidification of oceans is
 increasing. Why is this phenomenon a
cause of concern? [2012]
1. The growth and survival of
calcareous phytoplankton will be
adversely affected.
2. The growth and survival of coral
reefs will be adversely affected.
3. The survival of some animals that
have phytoplanktonic larvae will be
adversely affected.
4. The cloud seeding and formation of
clouds will be adversely affected.
Which of the statements given above is
/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
19. The increasing amount of carbon
dioxide in the air is slowly raising
the temperature of the atmosphere,
because it absorbs: [2012]
(a) the water vapour of the air and
retains its heat
(b) the ultraviolet part of the solar
radiation
(c) all the solar radiations
(d) the infrared part of the solar
radiation
20. Consider the following protected
areas: [2012]
1. Bandipur 2. Bhitarkanika
3. Manas 4. Sunderbans
Which of the above are declared Tiger
Reserves?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) l, 2, 3 and 4
21. In which one among the following
categories of protected areas in India
are local people not allowed to collect
and use the biomass? [2012]
216
(a) Biosphere Reserves
(b) National Parks
(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar
Convention
(d) Wildlife Sanctuaries
22. Which one of the following groups
of animals belongs to the category
of endangered species? [2012]
(a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer,
Red Panda and
Asiatic Wild Ass
(b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and
Great Indian Bustard
(c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus
Monkey and Saras (Crane)
(d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull,
Hanuman Langur and Cheetal
23. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
describes the following major categories
of ecosystem services provisioning,
supporting, regulating, preserving and
cultural. Which one of the following is
supporting service? [2012]
(a) Production of food and water
(b) Control of climate and disease
(c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination
(d) Maintenance of diversity
24. What is the difference between the
antelopes Oryx and Chiru? [2012]
(a) Oryx is adapted to live in hot and
arid areas whereas Chiru is adapted to
live in steppes and semi-desert areas of
cold high mountains
(b) Oryx is poached for its antlers
whereas Chiru is poached for its musk
(c) Oryx exists in western India only
whereas Chiru exists in north-east India
only
(d) None of the statements (a), (b) and
 (c) given above is correct
25. Which of the following can
be threats to the biodiversity
of a geographical area? [2012]
1. Global warming
2. Fragmentation of habitat
3. Invasion of alien species
4. Promotion of vegetarianism
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
26. Consider the following agricultural
practices: [2012]
1. Contour bunding
2. Relay cropping
3. Zero tillage
In the context of global climate change,
which of the above helps/help in carbon
sequestration/storage in the soil?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of them
27. What would happen if phytoplankton
of an ocean is completely destroyed
for some reason? [2012]
1. The ocean as a carbon sink would
be adversely affected.
2. The food chains in the ocean would
be adversely affected.
3. The density of ocean water would
drastically decrease.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
28. Vultures which used to be
217
common in Indian countryside
some years ago are rarely seen
nowadays. This is attributed to [2012]
(a) the destruction of their nesting sites
by new invasive species
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for
treating their diseased cattle
(c) scarcity of food available to them
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal
disease among them
29. Due to improper/ indiscriminate
disposal of old and used computers
or their parts, which of the following
are released into the environment as
e-waste? [2013]
1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium
3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury 6. Lead
7. Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only (b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6
only (c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6 and 7
30. With reference to food chains in
ecosystems, consider the following
statements: [2013]
1. A food chain illustrates the order
in which a chain of organisms feed
upon each other.
2. Food chains are found within the
populations of a species.
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers
of each organism which are eaten
by others.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
very
31. In which of the following States is 2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake: Barail Range
lion-tailed macaque found in its 3. Namdapha National Park: Dafla
natural habitat? [2013] Hills
1. Tamil Nadu 2. Kerala Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
3. Karnataka 4. Andhra Pradesh matched?
Select the correct answer using the (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
codes given below: (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 36. In the grasslands, trees do not replace
the grasses as a part of an ecological
32. Which one of the following terms succession because of: [2013]
describes not only the physical space (a) Insects and fungi
occupied by an organism, but also its (b) Limited sunlight and paucity of
functional role in the community of nutrients
organisms? [2013]
(c) Water limits and fire
(a) Ecotone (b) Ecological niche
(d) None of the above
(c) Habitat (d) Home range

37. Which one of the following is the

33. Consider the following: [2013] correct sequence of ecosystems in the
1. Star tortoise 2. Monitor lizard order of decreasing productivity? [2013]
3. Pygmy hog 4. Spider monkey (a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands,
Which of the above are naturally found mangroves
in India? (b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands,
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only lakes

(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes,
grasslands
34. Which of the following can be found
as pollutants in the drinking water in
some parts of India? [2013] 38. Consider the following fauna of India:
1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol [2013]

3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 1. Gharial

5. Uranium 2. Leatherback turtle

Select the correct answer using the 3. Swamp deer

codes given below: Which of the above is/are endangered?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of the above.

35. Consider the following pairs: [2013] 39. With reference to the food chains in
1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve: Garo ecosystems, which of the following kinds
Hills of organism is/are known as decomposer
organism/organisms? [2013]

218
 1. Virus
2. Fungi
3. Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
40. Which one of the following is the process
involved in photosynthesis? [2014]
(a) Potential energy is released to form
free energy
(b) Free energy is converted into
potential energy and stored
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon
dioxide and water
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide
and water vapour are given out
41. Among the following organisms,
which one does not belong to
the class of other three? [2014]
(a) Crab (b) Mite
(c) Scorpion (d) Spider
42. Consider the following international
agreements: [2014]
1. The International Treaty on Plant
Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture
2. The United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification
3. The World Heritage Convention
Which of the above has/have a bearing
on the biodiversity?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
43. Consider the following statements
regarding ‘Earth Hour’: [2014]
1. It is an initiative of UNEP and
219
UNESCO.
2. It is a movement in which the
participants switch off the lights
for one hour on a certain day every
year.
3. It is a movement to raise the
awareness about the climate
change and the need to save the
planet.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
44. Which one of the following is the correct
sequence of a food chain? [2014]
(a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
(b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
(c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
(d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
45. If a wetland of international importance
is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’,
what does it imply? [2014]
(a) Changes in ecological character
have occurred, are occurring or are
likely to occur in the wetland as a result
of human interference.
(b) The country in which the wetland
is located should enact a law to
prohibit any human activity within
five kilometres from the edge of the
wetland.
(c) The survival of the wetland
depends on the cultural practices
and traditions of certain communities
living in its vicinity and therefore the
cultural diversity therein should not be
destroyed.
(d) It is given the status of ‘World
Heritage Site’.
46. With reference to Bombay Natural
 History Society (BNHS), consider generates Direct Current (DC).
the following statements: [2014] 3. India has manufacturing base for
1. It is an autonomous organization Solar Thermal technology, but not
under the Ministry of Environment for Photovoltaics.
and Forests. Which of the statements given above
2. It strives to conserve nature through is/are correct?
action-based research, education (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
and public awareness.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
3. It organizes and conducts nature
trails and camps for the general
public. 49. Consider the following pairs: [2014]
Which of the statements given above 1. Dampa Tiger Reserve: Mizoram
is/are correct? 2. Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary: Sikkim
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only 3. Saramati Peak: Nagaland
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
matched?
47. With reference to ‘Global Environment (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Facility'’, which of the following (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
statements is/are correct? [2014]
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for
‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and 50. With reference to a conservation
‘United Nations Framework Convention organization called “Wetlands
on Climate Change’. International’, which of the following
statements is/ are correct? [2014]
(b) It undertakes scientific research on
environmental issues at global level. 1. It is an intergovernmental
organization formed by the
(c) It is an agency under OECD to countries which are signatories to
facilitate the transfer of technology Ramsar Convention.
and funds to underdeveloped countries
with specific aim to protect their 2. It works at the field level to develop
environment. and mobilize knowledge, and use
the practical experience to advocate
(d) Both (a) and (b). for better policies.
Select the correct answer using the
48. With reference to technologies for code given below:
solar power production, consider (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
the following statements: [2014]
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology
that generates electricity by direct
conversion of light into electricity, 51. Other than poaching, what are the
while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology possible reasons for the decline
that utilizes the Sun’s rays to in the population of Ganges River
generate heat which is further used Dolphins? [2014]
in electricity generation process.
1. Construction of dams and barrages
2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating on rivers
Current (AC), while Solar Thermal
2. Increase in the population of

220
 crocodiles in rivers
3. Getting trapped in fishing nets
accidentally
4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other
agricultural chemicals in crop-fields
in the vicinity of rivers
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
52. Brominated flame retardants are
used in many household products like
mattresses and upholstery. Why is there
some concern about their use? [2014]
1. They are highly resistant to
degradation in the environment.
2. They are able to accumulate in
humans and animals.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
53. Consider the following: [2014]
1. Bats
2. Bears
3. Rodents
The phenomenon of hibernation can be
observed in which of the above kinds of
animals?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Hibernation cannot be observed in
any of the above
54. Which of the following adds/
add carbon dioxide to the carbon
cycle on the planet Earth? [2014]
1. Volcanic action 2. Respiration
221
3. Photosynthesis 4. Decay of organic
matter
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
55. If you walk through countryside, you
are likely to see some birds stalking
alongside the cattle to seize the
insects disturbed by their movement
through grasses. [2014]
Which of the following is/are such bird/
birds?
1. Painted Stork 2. Common Myna
3. Black-necked Crane
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only
56. With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’,
which of the following statements is/
are correct? [2014]
1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas
that are declared under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972.
2. The purpose of the declaration of
Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all
kinds of human activities in those
zones except agriculture.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
57. Consider the following statements: [2014]
1. Animal Welfare Board of India is
established under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
2. National Tiger Conservation
Authority is a statutory body.
 3. National Ganga River Basin
Authority is chaired by the Prime
Minister.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
exceed 2 °C above preindustrial level.
If the global temperature increases
beyond 3 °C above the pre-industrial
level, what can be its possible impact/
impacts on the world? [2014]

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a

net carbon source.
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Widespread coral mortality will
occur.
58. Which of the following have 3. All the global wetlands will
coral reefs? [2014] permanently disappear.
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be
2. Gulf of Kachchh possible anywhere in the world.
3. Gulf of Mannar Select the correct answer using the
4. Sunderbans code given below:

Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
59. In India, the problem of soil erosion
is associated with which of the
following? [2014]
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
62. Lichens, which are capable of
initiating ecological succession
even on a bare rock, are actually
a symbiotic association of [2014]
(a) algae and bacteria

1. Terrace cultivation 2. Deforestation (b) algae and fungi

3. Tropical climate (c) bacteria and fungi

Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
60. The most important strategy for the
conservation of biodiversity together
with raditional human life is the
establishment of: [2014]
(a) biosphere reserves
(b) botanical gardens
(c) national parks
(d) wildlife sanctuaries
61. The scientific view is that the increase
in global temperature should not
(d) fungi and mosses
63. Which of the following are some
important pollutants released by steel
industry in India? [2014]
1. Oxides of sulphur 2. Oxides of nitrogen
3. Carbon monoxide 4. Carbon dioxide
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 1and 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
64. Every year, a monthlong ecologically
important campaign/festival is held
during which certain communities/
tribes plant saplings of fruit-bearing
trees. Which of the following are such

222
 communities/tribes? [2014] 68. With reference to 'Forest Carbon
(a) Bhutia and Lepcha Partnership Facility', which of
the following statements is/ are
(b) Gond and Korku correct? [2015]
(c) Irula and Toda 1. It is a global partnership of
(d) Sahariya and Agariya governments, businesses, civil
society and indigenous peoples.

65. With reference to two non-conventional 2. It provides financial aid to

energy sources called ‘coalbed
methane’ and ‘shale gas’, consider
the following statements: [2014]
1. Coalbed methane is the pure
methane gas extracted from coal
seams, while shale gas is a mixture
of propane and butane only that
can be extracted from fine-grained
sedimentary rocks.
2. In India, abundant coal-bed
methane sources exist, but so far, no
shale gas sources have been found.
universities, individual scientists
and institutions involved in scientific
forestry research to develop eco-
friendly and climate adaptation
technologies for sustainable forest
management.
3. It assists the countries in their
'REDD+ (Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation+)' efforts by
providing them with financial and
technical assistance.

Which of the statements given above Select the correct answer using the
is/are correct? code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only

(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

66. Which one of the following National 69. With reference to an organization
Parks has a climate that varies from known as 'Birdlife International', which
tropical to subtropical, temperate of the following statements is/ are
and arctic? [2015] correct? [2015]

(a) Khangchendzonga National Park 1. It is a Global Partnership of

Conservation Organizations.
(b) Nandadevi National Park
2. The concept of 'biodiversity
(c) Neora Valley National Park hotspots' originated from this
(d) Namdapha National Park organization.
3. It identifies the sites known/referred
to as 'Important Bird and Biodiversity
67. 'BioCarbon Fund Initiative for
Areas'.
Sustainable Forest Landscapes' is
managed by the [2015] Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) Asian Development Bank
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(b) International Monetary Fund
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) United Nations Environment
Programme
(d) World Bank 70. In India, in which one of the
following types of forests is teak a

223
 dominant tree species? [2015]
(a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
(b) Tropical rain forest
(c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
(d) Temperate forest with grasslands
71. Which one of the following
is the best description of the
term 'ecosystem'? [2015]
(a) A community of organisms
interacting with one another.
(b) That part of the Earth which is
inhabited by living organisms.
(c) A community of organisms together
with the environment in which they live
(d) The flora and fauna of a geographical
area
72. With reference to the Indian Renewable
Energy Development Agency Limited
(IREDA), which of the following
statements is/are correct? [2015]
1. It is a Public Limited Government
Company.
2. It is a Non - Banking Financial
Company.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
73. Which of the following National Parks
is unique in being a swamp with
floating vegetation that supports a
rich biodiversity? [2015]
(a) Bhitarkanika National Park
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park
(d) Sultanpur National Park
74. With reference to the International
224
Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) and the
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES), which of the following
statements is/are correct? [2015]
1. IUCN is an organ of the United
Nations and CITES is an international
agreement between governments.
2. IUCN runs thousands of field
projects around the world to better
manage natural environments.
3. CITES is legally binding on the
States that have joined it, but this
Convention does not take the place
of national laws.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
75. With reference to 'dugong', a mammal
found in India, which of the following
statements is/are correct? [2015]
1. It is a herbivorous marine animal.
2. It is found along the entire coast of
India.
3. It is given legal protection under
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 3 only
76. Which one of the following is the
national aquatic animal of India? [2015]
(a) Saltwater crocodile
(b) Olive ridley turtle
(c) Gangetic dolphin
(d) Gharial
77. Which one of the following is
associated with the issue of control
and phasing out of the use of
ozonedepleting substances? [2015]
(a) Bretton Woods Conference
(b) Montreal Protocol
2. Ammonia and water vapour are
the only end products in this
decomposition which are released
into the atmosphere.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?

(c) Kyoto Protocol (a) 1 only (b) 2 only

(d) Nagoya Protocol (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

78. What is Rio+20 Conference, often 81. Consider the following pairs: [2016]
mentioned in the news? [2015] Terms in the news Their origin
(a) It is the United Nations Conference 1. Annex—I Countries Cartagena Protocol
on Sustainable Development 2. Certified Emissions Nagoya Protocol
Reductions
(b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the
World Trade Organization 3. Clean Development Kyoto Protocol
Mechanism
(c) It is a Conference of the Inter-
Which of the pairs given above is/are
governmental Panel on Climate
correctly matched?
Change
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(d) It is a Conference of the Member
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3.
Countries of the Convention on
Biological Diversity
82. With reference to an initiative called
‘The Economics of Ecosystems
79. Which of the following statements
and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which of
regarding 'Green Climate Fund' is/
the following statements is/are
are correct? [2015]
correct? [2016]
1. It is intended to assist the
1. It is an initiative hosted by UNEP,
developing countries in adaptation
IMF and World Economic Forum.
and mitigation practices to counter
climate change. 2. It is a global initiative that focuses on
drawing attention to the economic
2. It is founded under the aegis of
benefits of biodiversity.
UNEP, OECD, Asian Development
Bank and World Bank. 3. It presents an approach that can
help decision-makers recognize,
Select the correct answer using the
demonstrate and capture the value
code given below:
of ecosystems and biodiversity.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Select the correct answer using the
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
80. With reference to bio-toilets used (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3.
by the Indian Railways, consider the
following statements: [2015]
83. Which of the following statements is/
1. The decomposition of human waste
are correct? [2016]
in the bio-toilets is initiated by a
fungal inoculum. Proper design and effective

225
 implementation of UN-REDD+
Programme can significantly contribute
to
1. protection of biodiversity
2. resilience of forest ecosystems
3. poverty reduction
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3.
84. What is ‘Greenhouse Gas
Protocol’? [2016]
(a) It is an international accounting tool
for government and business leaders
to understand, quantify and manage
greenhouse gas emissions.
(b) It is an initiative of the United
Nations to offer financial incentives
to developing countries to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and to adopt
eco-friendly technologies.
(c) It is an inter-governmental
agreement ratified by all the member
countries of the United Nations to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions to
specified levels by the year 2022.
(d) It is one of the multilateral REDD+
initiatives hosted by the World Bank
102.
85. With reference to ‘Agenda 21’,
sometimes seen in the news, consider
the following statements: [2016]
1. It is a global action plan for
sustainable development
2. It originated in the World Summit
on Sustainable Development held
in Johannesburg in 2002.
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
226
86. Consider the following statements: [2016]
1. The International Solar Alliance
was launched at the United Nations
Climate Change Conference in 2015.
2. The Alliance includes all the member
countries of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
87. With reference to the Agreement at
the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015,
which of the following statements is/
are correct? [2016]
1. The Agreement was signed by all
the member countries of the UN
and it will go into effect in 2017.
2. The Agreement aims to limit the
greenhouse gas emissions so that the
rise in average global temperature
by the end of this century does not
exceed 2 °C or even 1.5 °C above
pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged
their historical responsibility in
global warming and committed to
donate $1000 billion a year from
2020 to help developing countries
to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
88. Consider the following statements: [2016]
1. The Sustainable Development
Goals were first proposed in 1972 by
a global think tank called the ‘Club
of Rome’.
2. The Sustainable Development Goals
have to be achieved by 2030.
Which of the statements given above
 is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2.
89. The term ‘Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions’ is sometimes
seen in the news in the context of [2016]
(a) pledges made by the European
countries to rehabilitate refugees from
the war-affected Middle East.
(b) plan of action outlined by the
countries of the world to combat
climate change.
(c) capital contributed by the member
countries in the establishment of Asian
Infrastructure Investment Bank.
(d) plan of action outlined by the
countries of the world regarding
Sustainable Development Goals.
90. What is/are the importance/
importances of the ‘United
Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification’? [2016]
1. It aims to promote effective action
through innovative national
programs and supportive inter-
national partnerships.
2. It has a special/particular focus on
South Asia and North Africa regions,
and its Secretariat facilitates the
allocation of major portion of
financial resources to these regions.
3. It is committed to bottom-
up approach, encouraging the
participation of local people in
combating the desertification.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
91. Which of the following best describes/
227
describe the aim of ‘Green India Mission’
of the Government of India? [2016]
1. Incorporating environmental
benefits and costs into the Union and
State Budgets thereby implementing
the ‘green accounting’.
2. Launching the second green
revolution to enhance agricultural
output so as to ensure food security
to one and all in the future.
3. Restoring and enhancing forest cover
and responding to climate change
by a combination of adaptation
and mitigation measures.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
92. ‘Net metering’ is sometimes
seen in the news in the context
of promoting the [2016]
(a) production and use of solar energy
by the households/consumers
(b) use of piped natural gas in the
kitchens of households
(c) installation of CNG kits in motor-
cars
(d) installation of water meters in urban
households
93. ‘Gadgil Committee Report’ and
‘Kasturirangan Committee Report’,
sometimes seen in the news, are related
to
(a) constitutional reforms [2016]
(b) Ganga Action Plan
(c) linking of rivers
(d) protection of Western Ghats
94. On which of the following can you
find the Bureau of Energy Efficiency
Star Label? [2016]
 1. Ceiling fans (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Electric geysers
3. Tubular fluorescent lamps 97. What is/are unique about ‘Kharai
Select the correct answer using the camel’, a breed found in India? [2016]
code given below: 1. It is capable of swimming up to
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only three kilometers in seawater.

(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.

95. In the cities of our country, which among
the following atmospheric gases are
normally considered in calculating the
value of Air Quality Index? [2016]
1. Carbon dioxide
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be
domesticated.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

2. Carbon monoxide
3. Nitrogen dioxide 98. Recently, our scientists have discovered
a new and distinct species of banana
4. Sulfur dioxide plant which attains a height of about 11
5. Methane metres and has orange-coloured fruit
Select the correct answer using the pulp.
code given below: In which part of India has it
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only been discovered? [2016]

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only (a) Andaman Islands (b) Anaimalai

(c) 1, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
99. With reference to ‘Red Sanders’,
96. Which of the following are the key
features of ‘National Ganga River
Basin Authority (NGRBA)’? [2016]
1. River basin is the unit of planning
and management.
2. It spearheads the river conservation
efforts at the national level.
3. One of the Chief Ministers of the
States through which the Ganga
flows becomes the Chairman of
NGRBA on rotation basis.
Select the correct answer using the
code given Below:
100. The term 'M-STRIPES' is sometimes
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain
forests of northeast
sometimes seen in the news, consider
the following statements: [2016]
1. It is a tree species found in a part of
South India.
2. It is one of the most important trees
in the tropical rain forest areas of
South India.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)
Neither 1 nor 2
seen in the news in the context of:
[2017]
(a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna

228
 (b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves
(c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation
System
(d) Security of National Highways
101. Recently there was a proposal to
translocate some of the lions from
their natural habitat in Gujarat to
which one of the following sites? [2017]
(a) Corbett National Park
(b) KunoPalpur Wildlife Sanctuary
(c) Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
(d) Sariska National Park
102. In India, if a species of tortoise is
declared protected under Schedule I
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
what does it imply? [2017]
(a) It enjoys the same level of protection
as the tiger.
(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a
few individuals are under captive
protection; and now it is impossible to
prevent its extinction.
(c) It is endemic to a particular region
of India.
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are
correct in this context.
103. According to the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972, which of the following
animals cannot be hunted by
any person except under some
provisions provided by law? [2017]
1. Gharial
2. Indian wild ass
3. Wild buffalo
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
229
104. If you want to see gharials in their
natural habitat, which one of the
following is the best place to visit?
(a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves
(b) Chambal River
(c) Pulicat Lake
(d) DeeporBeel
105. From the ecological point of view,
which one of the following assumes
importance in being a good link
between the Eastern Ghats and the
Western Ghats? [2017]
(a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
[2017]
(b) Nallamala Forest
(c) Nagarhole National Park
(d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve
106. Consider the following statements
in respect of Trade Related Analysis
of Fauna and Flora in Commerce
(TRAFFIC): [2017]
1. TRAFFIC is a bureau under United
Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
2. The mission of TRAFFIC is to ensure
that trade in wild plants and animals
is not a threat to the conservation
of nature.
Which of the above statements is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)
Neither 1 nor 2
107. Due to some reasons, if there is a
huge fall in the population of species
of butterflies, what could be its likely
consequence/consequences? [2017]
1. Pollination of some plants could be
adversely affected.
2. There could be a drastic increase
in the fungal infections of some
 cultivated plants.
3. It could lead to a fall in the population
of some species of wasps, spiders
and birds.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
108. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is
a standard criterion for [2017]
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest
ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high
altitude regions
109. In the context of solving pollution
problems, what is/are the advantage/
advantages of bioremediation
technique? [2017)
1. It is a technique for cleaning up
pollution by enhancing the same
biodegradation process that occurs
in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals
such as cadmium and lead can
be readily and completely treated
by bioremediation using micro-
organisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to
create microorganisms specifically
designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
110. In the context of mitigating the
impending global warming due to
anthropogenic emissions of carbon
dioxide, which of the following can
230
be the potential sites for carbon
sequestration? [2017]
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal
seams
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoir
3. Subterranean deep saline
formations
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
111. It is possible to produce algae based
biofuels, but what is/are the likely
limitation(s) of developing countries in
promoting this industry? [2017]
1. Production of algae based biofuels
is possible in seas only and not on
continents.
2. Setting up and engineering the
algae based biofuel production
requires high level of expertise/
technology until the construction is
completed.
3. Economically viable production
necessitates the setting up of large
scale facilities which may raise
ecological and social concerns.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
112.With reference to 'Global Climate
Change Alliance', which of the following
statements is/are correct? [2017]
1. It is an initiative of the European
Union.
2. It provides technical and financial
support to targeted developing
countries to integrate climate
change into their development
policies and budgets.
3. It is coordinated by World
 Resources Institute (WRI) and World
Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD).
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
113. Consider the following statements:
[2017]
1. Climate and Clean Air Coalition
(CCAC) to reduce Short Lived Climate
Pollutants is a unique initiative of G20
group of countries.
2. The CCAC focuses on methane, black
carbon and hydrofluorocarbons.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)
Neither 1 nor 2
114. Why is a plant called Prosopis
juliflora often mentioned in news? [2018]
(a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.
(b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in
the area in which it grows.
(c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of
pesticides.
(d) None of the above
115. Which of the following statements
best describes "carbon fertilization"?
[2018]
(a) Increased plant growth due to
increased concentration of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
(b) Increased temperature of Earth due
to increased concentration of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
(c) Increased acidity of oceans as a
result of increased concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
(d) Adaptation of all living beings on
231
Earth to the climate change brought
about by the increased concentration
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
116. The term "sixth mass extinction/sixth
extinction" is often mentioned in the
news in the context of the discussion
of [2018]
(a) Widespread monoculture practices
in agriculture and large-scale
commercial farming with indiscriminate
use of chemicals in many parts of the
world that may result in the loss of
good native ecosystems.
(b) Fears of a possible collision of a
meteorite with the Earth in the near
future in the manner it happened 65
million years ago that caused the mass
extinction of many species including
those of dinosaurs.
(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically
modified crops in many parts of the
world and promoting their cultivation
in other parts of the world which may
cause the disappearance of good
native crop plants and the loss of food
biodiversity.
(d) Mankind's over-exploitation/misuse
of natural resources, fragmentation/
loss of natural habitats, destruction
of ecosystems, pollution and global
climate change.
117. How is the National Green Tribunal
(NGT) different from the Central
Pollution Control Board [2018]
1. The NGT has been established by
an Act whereas the CPCB has been
created by an executive order of the
Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental
justice and helps reduce the burden
of litigation in the higher courts
whereas the CPCB promotes
cleanliness of streams and wells,
and aims to improve the quality of
 air in the country.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
118. Consider the following statements:
[2018]
1. The definition of "Critical Wildlife
Habitat" is incorporated in the
Forest Rights Act, 2006.
2. For the first time in India, Baigas
have been given Habitat Rights.
3. Union Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change officially
decides and declares Habitat Rights
for Primitive and Vulnerable Tribal
Groups in any part of India.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
119. In which one of the following
States is Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary
located? [2018]
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Manipur
(c) Meghalaya
(d) Nagaland
120. The Partnership for Action on Green
Economy (PAGE), a UN mechanism
to assist countries transition
towards greener and more inclusive
economies, emerged at [2018]
(a) The Earth Summit on Sustainable
Development 2002, Johannesburg
(b) The United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development 2012, Rio de
Janeiro
(c) The United Nations Framework
232
Convention on Climate Change 2015,
Paris
(d) The World Sustainable Development
Summit 2016, New Delhi
121."Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral
Now" is an initiative launched by [2018]
(a) The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
(b) The UNEP Secretariat
(c) The UNFCCC Secretariat
(d) The World Meteorological
Organisation
122. Which one of the following national
parks lies completely in the Temperate
alpine zone? [2019]
(a) Manas national park
(b) Namdapha national park
(c) Neora valley national park
(d) Valley of flower national park
123. Consider the following
statements: [2019]
1. Asiatic lion naturally found in India
only
2. Double-humped camel is naturally
found in India only
3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally
found in India only
Which one of the statement given
above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
124. In the context of which of the
following do some scientists suggest the
use of cirrus cloud thinning technique
and the injection of sulphate aerosol
into stratosphere? [2019]
(a) Creating the artificial rains in some
 regions food adulterants
(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity
of tropical cyclones 128. Which of the following statements
(c) Reducing the adverse effects of the are correct about the deposits of
solar wind on the earth methane hydrate?
(d) Reducing the global warming 1. Global warming might trigger the
release of methane gas from these
deposits
125. Which one of the following are
Agasthyamala biosphere reserve? [2019] 2. Large deposits of ‘methane hydrate’
are found in Arctic Tundra and under
(a) Neyyar, peppara and shendurney the seafloor.
wildlife sanctuaries and kalakad
mundanthurai tiger reserve 3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to
carbon dioxide after a decade or
(b) Mudumalai sathayamangalam two.
and Wayanad wildlife sanctuaries
and silent valley national park (c) Select the correct answer using the
Kaundinya gundla bhrameshwaram code given below:
and papikonda wildlife sanctuaries and (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and
mukurthi national park 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Kawal and Shree Venkateshwara
wildlife sanctuaries; and 129. Consider the following: [2019]
Nagarjunasagar-srisailam tiger reserve
1. Carbon monoxide
2. Methane
126. Consider the following pairs: [2019]
3. Ozone
Wildlife: Naturally found in
4. Sulphur dioxide
1. Blue finned mahseer: Cauvery river
Which of the above are released into
2. Irrawaddy dolphin: Chambal river the atmosphere due to the burning of
3. Rusty spotted cats: Eastern ghats crop/biomass residue?
Which one of the pair given above are (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
correctly matched? (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1,2,3 and 4
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 130. Consider the following statements:
[2019]
127. Why is there a great concern about 1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen
the microbeads that are released into oxides into environment.
environment? [2019] 2. Cattle release ammonia into
(a) They are considered harmful to environment.
marine ecosystem 3. Poultry industry release reactive
(b) They are considered to cause skin nitrogen compounds into
cancer in children environment.
(c) They are small enough to absorbed Which of the statements given above
by crop plants in irrigated fields is/are correct?
(d) They are often found to be used as (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only

233
 (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
131. Which of the following are the
reasons/factors for exposure to
benzene pollution? [2020]
1. Automobile exhaust
2. Tobacco smoke
3. Wood burning
4. Using varnished wooden furniture
5. Using products made
polyurethane
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
132. With reference to India’s Desert
National Park, which of the following
statements are correct? [2020]
1. It is spread over two districts.
2. There is no human habitation inside
the Park.
3. It is one of the natural habitats of
the Great Indian Bustard.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below;
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 und 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
133. Consider the following statements:
[2020]
1. 36% of India’s districts are classified
as “overexploited” or “critical” by the
Central Ground Water Authority
(CGWA).
2. CGWA was formed under
Environment (Protection) Act.
3. India has the largest area under
groundwater irrigation in the world.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
234
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only
134. Among the following Tiger Reserves,
which one has the largest area under
“Critical Tiger Habitat”? [2020]
(a) Corbett
(b) Ranthambore
(c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam
of (d) Sunderbans
135. If a particular plant species is
placed under Schedule VI of The
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, what is
the implication? [2020]
(a) A licence is required to cultivate that
plant.
(b) Such a plant cannot be cultivated
under any circumstances.
(c) It is a Genetically Modified crop
plant.
(d) Such a plant is invasive and harmful
to the ecosystem.
136. Which one of the following
statements best describes the term
‘Social Cost of Carbon’? It is a measure,
in monetary value, of the [2020]
(a) long-term damage done by a tonne
of CO2 emissions in a given year.
(b) requirement of fossil fuels for a
country to provide goods and services
to its citizens, based on the burning of
those fuels.
(c) efforts put in by a climate refugee to
adapt to live in a new place.
the (d) contribution of an individual person
to the carbon footprint on the planet
Earth.
137. In the context of India, which of
the following is/are considered to be
 practice(s) of eco-friendly agriculture?
1. Crop diversification [2020]
2. Legume intensification
3. Tensiometer use
4. Vertical farming Select the correct
answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 3 only
(c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
138. With reference to Indian elephants,
consider the following statements: [2020]
1. The leader of an elephant group is
a female
2. The maximum gestation period can
be 22 months.
3. An elephant can normally go on
calving till the age of 40 years only.
4. Among the States in India, the
highest elephant population is in
Kerala.
Which of the statements given above
is/ are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only
139. Which of the following Protected
Areas are located in Cauvery
basin? [2020]
1. Nagarhole National park
2. Papikonda National park
3. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
4. Wayanad Wildlife sanctuary Select
the correct answer using the code
given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1,2,3 and 4
140. With reference to India’s biodiversity,
Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith
barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and
Whitethroated redstart are [2020]
235
(a) Birds
(b) Primates
(c) Reptiles
(d) Amphibians
141. Which one of the following
protected areas is wellknown for the
conservation of a sub-species of
the Indian swamp deer (Barasinga)
that thrives well in hard ground and
is exclusively graminivorous? [2020]
(a) Kanha National Park
(b) Manas National Park
(c) Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
(d) Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary
142. Which of the following are the
most likely places to find the musk
deer in its natural habitat? [2020]
1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Manas National Park Select the
correct answer using the code given
below
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only
143. In rural road construction, the use of
which of the following is preferred for
ensuring environmental sustainability
or to reduce carbon footprint? [2020]
1. Copper slag
2. Cold mix asphalt technology
3. Geotextiles
4. Hot mix asphalt technology
5. Portland cement Select the correct
answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 4 and 5 only (d) 1 and 5 only
Solution
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30.
(a) 31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (c) 41. (a) 42. (d) 43. (c)
44. (a) 45. (a) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (a) 49. (c) 50. (b) 51. (c) 52. (c) 53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (b)
57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (a) 61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (c) 69. (c)
70. (a) 71. (a) 72. (c) 73. (b) 74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (c) 77. (b) 78. (a) 79. (a) 80. (d) 81. (c) 82. (c) 83.
(d) 84. (a) 85. (a) 86. (a) 87. (b) 88. (b) 89. (b) 90. (c) 91. (c) 92. (a) 93. (d) 94. (d) 95. (b) 96.
(a) 97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (a) 101. (b) 102. (a) 103. (d) 104. (b) 105. (a) 106. (b) 107. (c) 108. (c)
109. (c) 110. (d) 111. (b) 112. (a) 113. (b) 114. (b) 115. (a) 116. (d) 117. (b) 118. (a) • 119. (a) 120. (b)
121. (c) 122. (d) 123. (a) 124. (d) 125. (a) 126. (c) 127. (a) 128. (d) 129. (d) 130. (d) 131. (d) 132.
(c) 133. (b) 134. (c) 135. (a) 136. (a) 137. (d) 138. (a) 139. (c) 140. (a) 141. (a) 142. (a) 143. (a)

236
 REFERENCES
1. Book: NCERT Biology – Class XII environment/

2. Book: Environmental Studies by Benny 11. https://www.unep.org/

Joseph
12. https://www.nios.ac.in/online-course-
3. Book: Ecology and Environment by P. m a te r i a l /s r - s e c o n d a r y - c o u r s e s /
D. Sharma enviornment

4. NIOS Study material for Environment 13. https://www.environmentandecology.

and Biodiversity. com/

5. https://www.cbd.int/2011-2020/about/ 14. https://scienceprize.scilifelab.se/prize-

biodiversity categories-ecology-environment/

6. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/ 15. http://environment-ecology.com/what-

essay/impact-of-human-activities- is-ecology.html
onenvironment/
16. http://environment-ecology.com/
7. http://moef.gov.in/ environment-organisations.html

8. http://envis.nic.in/content/Contact.aspx 17. http://environment-ecology.com/

ecological-organic-agriculture.html
9. https://www.mapsofindia.com/
18. https://www.hrpub.org/journals/jour_
info.php?id=40
10. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/

237
 AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary
& Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Environment”. The purpose is to
enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.

Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. We have tried to include recent events within and outside
India relevant for the CSE examination and present it in a manner in which UPSC
examination demands. The current issues have been linked with the static portion of the
syllabus (wherever possible) so as to develop a better understanding and have a better
grasp over the subject. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of identifying
important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby saving their
precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff.

All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.

However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com

Vinod Subramanian, Rahul Patil, Suraj Singh have contributed to the creation of the
content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC and in the field,
they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing of the content
in the notes.

We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.

Team UNACADEMY

UPSC | International Relations

238
UPSC | International Relations