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Contents

03 09 17 21
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Enlightenment Origin of Modern Industrialisation Nation-State
Politics System

29 40 45 60
Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Imperialism and Revolution and World War I (1914- Inter-War Phase
Colonialism Counter-Revolution 1918)

1
86 99 111 124
Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12
World War II (1939- International Cold War and Chinese Revolution
1945) Organisations Unification of and Korean War
Europe

132 140
Chapter 13 Previous Year
Arab Nationalism Questions

2
 CHAPTER - 1
ENLIGHTENMENT
Introduction
• The Age of Enlightenment/ Age
of Reason was an intellectual and
philosophical movement which was
responsible for the establishment of
self-rule and democracy in Europe
and elsewhere. The ideas of the
Enlightenment undermined the
authority of the monarchy and the
Catholic Church along with demanding
freedom and liberty for the people. Age
of Enlightenment was associated with
the work of various thinkers like English
Philosophers like Locke, Harrington, and
Milton (believed that every individual
have fundamental rights, which no
government can infringe), Jean-
Jacques Rousseau (argued for a society
based upon reason) and Immanuel
Kant etc.
• The Enlightenment included a range of
ideas centered on the sovereignty of
reason, scientific ideas and rationalism
which played a very significant role
in the American Revolution (1776),
the French Revolution (1789) and the
Russian Revolution (1905, 1917) etc.
A. Enlightenment
• The Age of Enlightenment (also known
as the Age of Reason) was an intellectual
and philosophical movement that
dominated the world of ideas in Europe
during the 18th century.
• It was based on the principle of
rationality to spread awareness about
the religion dominant society.
• The Enlightenment was characterised
by a reliance on scientific method
3
and reductionism, as well as increased
scepticism of religious doctrine and
attacks on conventional and irrational
values and dogmas.
• It comprised a range of ideas centered
on reason as the primary source
of knowledge and advanced ideals
such as liberty, progress, toleration,
fraternity, Constitutional government
and separation of church and state.
B. Spread and
Impact of
Enlightenment
• In the mid-eighteenth century, Europe
saw a burst of philosophic and scientific
activity that questioned established
doctrines and dogmas.
• There were basically two distinct lines
of Enlightenment thought: radical
enlightenment, advocating democracy,
freedom of expression, individual liberty,
and abolition of religious authority.
• A second, more moderate variety
of thought wanted accommodation
between reform and the traditional
systems of power and faith.
• The modern idea of natural rights,
which has been important to modern
constitutional government and civil
society, was founded by Enlightenment
philosophers.
• The major goal of Enlightenment
thinkers was to give a foundation to
philosophy that was independent of
any particular tradition, culture, or
religion: one that any rational person
would accept.
Enlightenment - Work of the Philosophers
René Descartes'
Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new
David Hume and Adam Smith
and religion.
Immanuel Kant
• The effects of Enlightenment were
evident with new developments
in European and American life,
from improved women’s rights to
more efficient steam engines, from
fairer judicial systems to increased
educational opportunities, from
revolutionary economic theories to a
rich array of literature and music.
• In many countries, rulers invited
Enlightenment thinkers to court and
asked them to assist in the creation of
laws and programmes to change the
system, usually to strengthen states.
Historians refer to these rulers as
"enlightened despots." Frederick the
Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great
of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria were
among those present.
• There was a spread of novel ideas like
Rationalism, Empiricism, Deism (belief
4
in God the Creator, with no reference to
the Bible or any other source), atheism
etc. which became the new pillars of
society.
• It gave impetus to the arts by
emphasizing on learning such as
literature, philosophy and the fine
arts, music became more widespread,
especially with the growing middle
class.
• Areas of study increasingly explored
subject matter to which the general
public could relate.
• It opened a path for independent
thought, and the fields of mathematics,
astronomy, physics, politics, economics,
philosophy, and medicine were
drastically updated and expanded.
• There was evolution of new public
places such as intellectual salons
in France and coffee houses where
 philosophical discussions were held,
and the increasingly literate population C. Immanuel Kant
read books and passed them.
• It led to springing up of new knowledge
(1724-1804)
like dictionaries and encyclopedias.
• It laid the foundation of political
modernization to the west by shifting
focus on democratic values and
institutions, and the creation of modern,
liberal democracies.
• The Enlightenment ideals were
influential in triggering the French
Revolution, which started in 1789 and
stressed the rights of common citizens.
It also influenced the founding of the
United States of America, the world's
first great democracy.

Thus, it can be concluded that the

Enlightenment era led to the evolution of
some ground-breaking new approaches
based on highly analytical investigation, I M A G E 1.1: I M M A N U E L K A N T
reasoning and problem solving that
• The Enlightenment or ‘Age of Reason’
made human rights such as freedom
was a period in the late seventeenth
and rationality, a universal phenomenon.
century and early eighteenth century,
Whether considered from an intellectual,
where a group of philosophers,
political, or social standpoint, the
scientists and thinkers advocated new
advancements of the Enlightenment
ideas based on reason. There were a
transformed the Western world into a self-
set of thinkers such as Immanuel Kant,
aware civilization.
Rousseau, Voltaire etc. whose work
brought about a classic development
Major Ideas of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and change in the world of philosophies.
and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Few of them are discussed below:

» Immanuel Kant (April 22, 1724 – February

12, 1804) was a prominent German
philosopher during the Enlightenment.
Kant's ideas are still influential in
modern philosophy, especially in the
fields of epistemology, ethics, political
theory, and post-modern aesthetics.

• In his essay "Answering the Question:

What is Enlightenment?" he asks, "What
is Enlightenment?". The Enlightenment,
according to Kant, was influenced by
the Latin motto Sapere Aude ("Dare
to be wise"). Kant believed that one

5
 should think for oneself, free of external
authority's dictates.
» Kant sought to explain the relationship
between rationality and human
experience in one of his major works,
the Criticism of Pure Reason (1781),
and to step beyond the shortcomings
of conventional philosophy and
metaphysics.
• His work reconciled many of the
differences between the rationalist
(reason is the ultimate way to gain
knowledge) and empiricist traditions
(who believed that knowledge is
acquired through experience alone) of
impression that he was an early atheist
who later developed an ontological
argument for God, to more critical
interpretations like Nietzsche's claim
that Kant had "theologian blood" and
was merely a sophisticated apologist
for traditional Christianity.
Overall, Kant's influence on Western
thought has been intense and enlightening.
He changed the framework within which
philosophical inquiry has been carried out.
He accomplished a paradigm shift in the
foundations of philosophy, thinkers like
German idealists and in the social sciences
and humanities also.

D. Jean Jacques
the 18th century. He had a significant
impact on the Romantic and German
Idealist philosophers of the 19th century.
His work has also been a starting point Rousseau (1712-1778)
for many 20th century philosophers.

» He argued that the mind shapes and

structures experience, with all human
experience having such structural
characteristics, in his philosophy
of transcendental idealism. In his
proposition that worldly phenomena
can be intuited beforehand, and
therefore intuition is independent of
empirical fact, he drew a parallel to the
Copernican revolution.

• Kant believed that reason is the source

of morality. His other works include
Critique of Practical Reason which
encompasses ethics, and the Critique
of Judgement looks into the teleology
and aesthetics.
• Kant believed that perpetual peace
could be achieved by promoting
universal democracy and international
cooperation. He assumed that, despite
the fact that it was not rationally
anticipated, this would be the ultimate
outcome of universal history.
• The nature of Kant's religious ideas is
still a source of philosophical debate,
with interpretations ranging from the
I M A G E 1.2: J E A N J A C Q U E S R O U S S E A U
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2
July 1778) was one of the most influential
thinkers during the Enlightenment in the
eighteenth-century Europe. His political
theory inspired the Enlightenment's
spread through Europe, as well as
aspects of the French Revolution and
the emergence of modern political,

6
 economic, and educational thinking.
• His discourse on Inequality and the
Social Contract are cornerstones in
modern political and social thought.
The central claim of the work is that
human beings are basically good
by nature but were corrupted by the
complex historical events that resulted
in present day civil society. He said that
people join into civil society via the
social contract to achieve unity while
preserving individual freedom.
• In the Social contract, he described
human beings in the state of nature.
• He believed that the more men deviated
from the state of nature, the worse off
they would be. This third barbaric stage
of human social evolution, according to
Rousseau, was a compromise between
the extremes of brute animals and
animal-like "ape-men" on the one side
and decadent civilised life on the other.
As a result, some commentators credit
Rousseau with inventing the concept of
the noble savage.
• In Rousseau's philosophy, society's
influence on men centers on its
transformation of positive self-love,
which represents the instinctive
human desire for self-preservation,
combined with the human power of
reason. Individuals can both maintain
themselves and remain free, according
to Rousseau, by joining together in civil
society through the social contract and
abandoning their claims to natural
rights. This is because obedience to
the authority of the people's collective
will prevent individuals from being
subordinated to the wills of others
while also ensuring that they follow
themselves because they are the writers
of the law collectively.
• In the Discourse on the Arts and
Sciences, he argues that the arts and
sciences have not been beneficial to
humankind, because they arose not
from authentic human needs but rather
as a consequence of vanity and pride.
• Furthermore, the opportunities they
created for idleness and luxury
contributed to the corruption of
man. Also, Rousseau became an
early advocate of developmentally
appropriate education. It recommends
that the young adult learn a manual
skill such as carpentry, which requires
creativity and thought, will keep him
out of trouble, and will supply a fall back
means of making a living in the event of
a change of fortune. Rousseau argued
that rather than physical punishment,
children should learn the difference
between right and wrong by witnessing
the effects of their decisions.
• Rousseau was an exponential philosopher
who provided a vision for change in the
society. He greatly influenced Immanuel
Kant’s work on ethics. His political ideals
and Romantic Naturalism movement was
championed by leaders of the French
Revolution. Till date, his work is seen as
the epitome of classic work.

Theories of Social Contract

Thomas Hobbes
• Thomas Hobbes gave his popular ‘Social Contract Theory’ in his book ‘Leviathan’.
This theory establishes the presence of state and is one of the most important
theories regarding the origins of state.
• Many scholars have borrowed his piece of work and have substantiated the ‘social
contract’ theories.
• According to Hobbes, before the formation of a state, everyone was in the ‘State of
Nature’. This was characterized by complete chaos and lack of order. ‘Might is right’

7
 was the guiding principle wherein people behaved as they wanted, without caring
about the rights of others. Of course, there was complete chaos and human beings
do desire peace at the end of the day.
• In order to avoid this chaos and come out of the ‘state of nature’, Hobbes then
describes that members of the society got together and signed a ‘social contract’
to form a state.
• By signing this treaty, they surrendered their rights to an ‘absolute sovereign
authority’, who was the monarch in this case.
• People surrender their rights in return for safety and protection of one’s self and
property. The word of the ‘Sovereign’ was absolute and had to be obeyed by all
subjects.
• However, even the ‘Sovereign’ was limited by ‘natural law’ and had to follow it and
could never deviate from the natural law.
• The concepts of individualism, materialism, utilitarianism are part and parcel of this
theory that was given by Hobbes.

John Locke
• Though the theory given by John Locke also emphasizes the ‘Social Contract
Theory’, it is quite different from the theory given by Thomas Hobbes.
• In Locke the ‘State of Nature’ was not as bad as the one described by Hobbes.
According to Locke, people were equal and had all the individual freedom to
exercise their options. However, a problem arose when issues pertaining to property
came to the forefront.
• There existed no judges to adjudicate on issues related to property, no authority to
enforce claims on property and finally no established laws on property. We see that
‘Right to Property’ is an inherent part of this theory.
• It was under these circumstances that the people came together and surrendered
some of their rights to a common authority (called the state), who would then
enforce these rights.
• The people ended up surrendering only those rights that were required to enforce
the ‘Right to Property’.
• The role of the state extended to protecting property and enforcing its claims and
few other functions. Hence, we see the concept of a ‘Minimalist state’ or the concept
of a state that plays the role of a ‘Nightwatchman’.
• The people too owed their loyalties to the state, only when it functioned, according
to the interests of the people and not otherwise.

8
 CHAPTER - 2
ORIGIN OF MODERN POLITICS
Introduction
• Origin of modern politics is associated
with the American Revolution (1775 -
1783) and French Revolution of 1789
which has huge impact on the history
of the world. The American revolution
started against the exploitative
colonial policy and on the other
hand the French Revolution was the
outcome of the dysfunctional society
characterized by Feudalism. The
revolutionary Enlightenment thinkers
and philosophers made these big
events more than just an outbreak of
violence. According to philosophers of
that time, equality and other important
aspects could be achieved by removing
the prejudices prevailing in society.
American Revolution
(1775 - 1783)
• The American Revolution was a
colonial revolt which occurred between
1765 and 1783 where American patriots
in the thirteen colonies defeated the
British in the American Revolutionary
War with the assistance of France,
winning independence from Great
Britain and establishing the United
States of America.
• By the eighteenth century, the idea of
being an independent nation developed
into a revolutionary war in which
colonies gained their independence.
9
Causes of the War:
• The exploitative colonial policy of
Great Britain led to resentment as the
American colonies were not enabled
to progress due to various economic
restraints.
• English parliament forbade the use of
non-British ships in their trade.
• Imposition of heavy import duties and
selective export of cash crops such as
tobacco, sugar etc. were allowed into
England only.
• Navigation law and rent system based
on mercantilism further burdened the
colonies.
• In Pitt's Exchequer, Townshend levied
duties on tea, glass, lead, paper, and
colour imported into the American
colonies. The colonists suffered a major
setback as a result of this, and they
rebelled. They boycotted England's
trading partnership.
• Tax burdens such as the Stamp Act
imposed stamp duties on all business
transactions instigated the people who
boycotted English goods aggressively.
• American revolutionaries and
philosophers enlightened the people
of America to unite and suppress the
oppressive colonists to become a
republic, namely Milton, Harrington,
Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, John
Adams, Henry Patrick etc.
• They all gathered popular support for
the emancipation of the American
society. They took inspiration from the
works and ideas of English philosophers
such as John Locke’s social contract
theory based on liberalism.
 In 1773, Lord North The agitators in Boston The thirteen American
passed a new Tea Act, organised the "Boston Colonies meet for the
allowing the East India Tea Party" and poured and the thirteen
Company to sell tea 1776, in Philadelphia. American colonies
directly in the United into the harbour,
States. It elicited a
strong response from passage of the Boston Independence in
Americans Port Act in 1774 and Congress. This historic
the closure of the port. document declared
The American War of the revolt's cause.
Independence was
sparked by this event.

Course of the War: various other rules formed the basis of

discontent among the mob, especially
• The colonies of Britain were regulated the educated class and philosophers.
by imposing taxes based on the
• The Americans or the patriots rejected
doctrine of mercantilism which upheld
the Stamp Act Congress in 1765 of the
that the good of the mother country
British Parliament to tax them because
was above everyone else, even if it
they had no representatives in that
means subversion and exploitation of
governing body.
the colony. The rigorous imposition of

1770-73 Protests became increasingly violent

Boston Massacre in 1770
The burning of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, the Boston Tea Party in
December 1773.
The British retaliated by closing Boston Harbor and enacting a series of draconian
laws that essentially abolished the privileges of self-government of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony.

1774 Other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts, and a group of American Patriot
leaders formed their own government to organise their resistance to Britain in
late 1774 at the Continental Congress; other colonists remained loyal to the
Crown and came to be termed as Loyalists or Tories.

1775

1778

10
• The Americans had practically secured
their freedom after French assistance
helped the Continental Army force the
British surrender at Yorktown, Virginia,
in 1779, though war would not officially
end until 1783.
Impact of the War:
• Decline of hereditary monarchy and
establishment of democracy.
• The colonies became independent.
• There was development of agriculture
where large estates were fragmented
into small pieces and handed over to
the people of lower and middle classes.
• American industries got rid of the
mercantilist restrictions imposed by
England and enabled the development
of colonial industries and their economy.
• It brought social and intellectual
awakening among the people of Europe
and sowed the seeds of revolution,
especially in France.
• End of the old system with minimized
state interference in the country’s
economy and boosted the growth
of capitalism in American colonies.
The Government encouraged and
supported private enterprises.
• The newly drafted Constitution was
established in America and the Federal
system was adopted which separated
powers between the Federal and the
State governments.
• The new Constitution endowed the
Americans with significant rights such
as the freedom of speech, press and
religion, justice etc.
• It marked the growth of America’s
navigation system as the ports of the
colonies were opened for world trade
and was promoted by the private
navigation.
• It rejuvenated her social, religious, and
11
cultural organisations. There emerged
a great demand for public schools and
the education of the common people.
• It instilled a new vigour into the anti-
colonial revolutionaries in Europe,
Ireland, India etc.
• The significance of American Revolution
is enshrined in the Declaration of
Independence drafted before the
revolution on 4 July 1776. It not only
led to the declaration of freedom of
a nation but prepared the ground for
political philosophy and revolutionary
ideas in the European history in the
19th century. It marked the beginning
of a new epoch which formed the basis
for a progressive change in the world as
a whole.
American Civil War:
• The American Civil War (1861-1865) was
one of the bitterest civil wars which were
fought between the northern states of
America, known as the Union, and the
Southern States of America, known as
the Confederates.
• The First Battle of Bull Run, also known
as the Battle of First Manassas, was
the first major battle of the American
Civil War. Because of the fierce fighting
there, both the North and South were
forced to face the sobering fact that
the war would be long and bloody.
• Civil War was one of the deadliest
movements in American history for
freedom and equality which killed almost
600,000 people and many others.
After the US gained her independence,
the Northern and the Southern States
developed fundamentally along
different lines, leading to a sort of rivalry
between them.
• The South was primarily agricultural
while the North, on the other hand, had
a different economic structure with a
focus on industrial wealth.
Causes of Civil War:
• The controversy that started over the
question of the abolition of slave labour
culminated in a civil war between the
North and the South.
• Slavery was a major cause of disunion.
Although there were opposing views
even in the Union States, most northern
soldiers were mostly indifferent on the
subject of slavery while Confederates
fought the war mainly to protect a
southern society of which slavery was
an integral part.
• The territorial crisis between slave and
free states.
• Disagreement over States' rights as
South argued that just as each state
had decided to join the Union; a state
had the right to secede/leave the Union,
at any time.
• Sectionalism created a rift resulting
from the different economies, social
structure, customs, and political values
of the Northern and Southern states.
• Protectionism was yet another factor
which triggered animosity between two
states since northern manufacturing
interests supported tariffs and
protectionism while southern planters
with no mechanization demanded free
trade.
• While the South moved towards a
Southern nationalism, leaders in the
North were also becoming more
nationally minded, and they rejected
any notion of splitting the Union.
• The election of Abraham Lincoln in
November 1860 was the final trigger for
secession and the civil war. The southern
states, which had already become a
minority in the House of Representatives,
declared their secession and joined to
form the Confederacy.
12
Impact of Civil War:
The Civil War in the United States had
many important repercussions which went
on to have a deep and long-lasting impact
on the nation. They are as follows:
• The war resolved the North-South
tension permanently.
• Constitutional Amendments were
carried out to recognise all citizens.
• The era of reconstruction sprang up.
• Abolition of slavery in America and
proclamation of the emancipation of
slaves were declared.
• Emergence of industrialism in the
Southern States.
• Although it was a long-drawn war
that devastated the peace and unity
of America as a nation, it managed to
attain its ultimate goal of equality for
every citizen. It liberated America from
the shackles of exploitative slavery and
gave impetus to a new era of progress
and industrialisation.
As its rightly said by Abraham Lincoln:
“In giving freedom to the slave, we assure
freedom to the free — honourable alike
in what we give, and what we preserve.
We shall nobly save, or meanly lose, the
last best hope of earth.”
“A new nation, conceived in Liberty, and
dedicated to the proposition that all men
are created equal.”
French Revolution
• French Revolution was one of the most
significant and dramatic events in the
history of the world.
• It was an uprising in France against
the monarchy from 1789 to 1799 which
resulted in the establishment of France
as a republic and ended in 1799 with the
Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte.
• The Revolution, which was inspired
by liberal and progressive ideals,
changed the course of modern history
by precipitating the global collapse
of absolute monarchies and the
replacement of them with republics
and liberal democracies.
• It is considered to be a world-shaking
event than the American Revolution as
it became a widespread upheaval in
various parts of the world over which
no one could remain neutral.
Causes of French Revolution:
• There were several complex causes that
led to the outbreak of the revolution in
France. The major causes are discussed
below:
Social Cause:
• Domination of first estate (clergy) and
second estate (nobility) who controlled
most of the administrative post.
• Discontent bourgeoisie class/middle
class and labour class.
• The success of the American revolution
also boosted the people of France.
• The exploitation of the third estate
that is common people of the total
population.
• Intellectual movement such as the
Enlightenment and Renaissance made
people rational.
• Works of philosophers such as
Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau
enabled spread of revolutionary
thinking and ideals who attacked the
unjust monarchy. Montesquieu opposed
the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings
and called for separation of power. In
his book ‘Social Contract,' Rousseau
declared that sovereign authority rests
with popular will.
13
Economic Cause:
• Intolerable heavy taxation on the
common people.
• Forced labour who worked for the lords.
• The wasteful lifestyle of King Louis XVI
and the royal court while depriving the
basic needs of the people.
• Poor wages and maximum exploitation.
• The economic condition of France
became poor due to the foreign wars of
Louis XIV, the Seven Years’ War of Louis
XV and other expensive wars leading to
bankruptcy.
• Imbalanced trade and commerce due
to a faulty tax system.
Political Cause:
• Louis XVI faced strong opposition from
provincial parliaments.
• Burden feudal and serfdom system.
• Autocratic monarchy and its resentment
by the bourgeoisie.
• Obsolete judicial systems.
Course: Outbreak of the French
Revolution
The French Revolution of 1789 was a
watershed moment in European history.
It was the first major widespread rebellion
against the ruler's autocracy. It ignited
ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity
that spread beyond France's borders and
inspired the rest of Europe.
• In the eighteenth century, France was
ruled by the Louis XVI of Bourbon family
who drained the country’s resources due
to continuous wars and extravagant
court. Increased pressure led to a tax
hike that followed by a meeting of the
estates general that was a political
body to which the three estates sent
their representatives with ultimate
 power over the king. The demand for
voting rights in the assembly by third
estates was rejected by the king who
agitated the members and finally, in
June 1789 they declared themselves as
the National assembly.
• Apart from the National Assembly, the
French people had voted to protest
against inequality, motivated by the
principles of liberty and equality. On
July 14, 1789, tens of thousands of people
marched in the streets of Paris to storm
the Bastille, the state jail, and free the
inmates. As a result, the Bastille, a sign
of despotic monarchy, was demolished.
The collapse of the Bastille is a notable
event in the history of the French
Revolution since it coincided with the
celebration of Independence Day. The
National Assembly also adopted the
"Declaration of the Rights of Man"
on August 12, 1789, and drafted the
Constitution, which was completed by
the end of 1791.
• In 1792, the French monarchy was
abolished, and France became a
republic and provisional government
upholding the principles of liberty,
equality, and fraternity. In 1793, the
Reign of Terror commenced. The
executive authority passed into the
hands of a radical political group
called the Jacobins who were led
by Robespierre. He passed orders to
execute thousands of “enemies” of
the Republic and guillotined innocent
people on suspicion of treason. King
Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette
were also guillotined (1793) as traitors.
It shocked the monarchical countries
of Europe leading to a coalition of
European countries against France.
• Eventually after Robespierre, from
1795-1799, the baton of power passed
onto the hands of moderate leaders
known as Directory (composed of
five directors who exercised power).
During this period, France went through
great turmoil due to lack of efficient
14
governance giving way to the era
of Napoleon Bonaparte. He led the
directory and fought the European
coalitions and earned the confidence
of the people. With the backing of his
supporters (Bonapartist), he finally
overthrew the Directory and curtailed
the pillars of the republic by declaring
himself the “Emperor of the French” in
December 1804.
Napoleon's France
1769-1796:
• Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5
May 1821) was a French statesman and
military leader of Italian ancestry who
rose to prominence during the French
Revolutionary Wars and led numerous
successful campaigns. Napoleon I was
Emperor of France from 1804 to 1814,
and then again during the Hundred
Days in 1815. Napoleon's political
and cultural legacy has made him
one of history's most celebrated and
controversial figure.
Napoleon Bonaparte: Military
Flair and Statesman:
• He started his career serving as an
artillery officer in the French army
when the French Revolution erupted in
1789, rapidly rose through the ranks of
the military and became general at age
24. Napoleon's ambition and public
approval encouraged him to go further,
and he became the first Emperor of the
French in 1804.
• Napoleon shattered the Third Coalition
with British forces by 1805 with decisive
victories in the Ulm Campaign.
• Another historic triumph over the
Russian Empire and Austrian Empire
at the Battle of Austerlitz led to the
dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
• At the battles of Jena and Auerstedt in
1806, Napoleon easily defeated Prussia,
and at the Battle of Friedland in June
1807, he annihilated the Russians. In July
1807, France compelled the vanquished
nations of the Fourth Coalition to
sign the Treaties of Tilsit, bringing the
continent to an uneasy peace. Tilsit
was regarded as the pinnacle of the
French Empire. During the War of the
Fifth Coalition in 1809, the Austrians
and the British threatened the French
once more, but Napoleon solidified his
hold on Europe after winning the Battle
of Wagram.
Reforms:
• Napoleon Bonaparte carried out
the long lasting and effective socio
economic and administrative reforms
which influenced the west in various
ways.
Administrative Reforms:
• Napoleon's set of civil laws, the
Code Civil—now often known as the
Napoleonic Code—was a fundamental
change in the nature of the civil law legal
system with its stress on clearly written
and accessible law. It was primarily
based on the equality and opportunity
for all; denounced privileges based on
birth and enabled freedom of religion.
• Other codes ("Les cinq codes") were
commissioned by Napoleon to codify
criminal and commerce law.
• He revived the administrative division
as stated in the Constitution of France.
• He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire
and instituted the Legion of Honour,
a substitute for the old royalist to
encourage civilian and military
achievements.
15
Social Reforms:
• Napoleon laid the foundation of a
modern system of education in France
and throughout much of Europe by
establishing a system of secular and
public education.
• He made French the only official
language and supported primary
education and secondary education.
• He gave special attention to the
advanced centers, such as the École
Polytechnique, that provided both
military expertise and state-of-the-art
research in science.
• Negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with
the Catholic Church, which sought
to reconcile the mostly Catholic
population to his regime.
Economic Reforms:
• Introduction of Continental System
which was an economic weapon to
weaken the British rule as it inflicted
a large-scale embargo (trade barrier)
against British trade.
• He rebuilt industrial life by protecting
indigenous industry and encouraged
local traders to take part in the
economic activities.
• Laid the foundation of Banque de
France to enable tax collection by
the central government and root out
corruption.
Impact of the Revolution:
• French Revolution had a major influence
on Europe and the New World. The
Revolution is generally recognised by
scholars as one of the most significant
events in human history. The changes
in France were massive; some were
universally accepted, while others were
hotly debated until the late twentieth
century.
• Abolition of Feudalism: All the laws of
the old feudal regime were annulled,
and the privileges of elite classes were
abolished.
• Establishment of equality, fraternity,
and liberty: it paved the way for
republican form of government.
• Coming up with a new economic
system widely based on prosperity and
an egalitarian rule.
• The notion of human rights, public
welfare initiatives and freedom emerged
as the central idea of new age.
• The decline in the power structure of
clergy and the rights of the Church
were curbed off. People started putting
reasons and rationality over the blind
following of clergymen.
Impact on the World:
• It inspired the revolutionary movement
in almost every country of Europe,
America, South Asia etc. to bring about
social reforms.
• Because of the wave of public
consciousness, the monarchy has
become submissive. The autocratic
16
governments of Europe found
themselves increasingly difficult to rule
the people.
• Infusion of nationalism in parts of the
world where people united to curb
foreign rule such as the revolution in
Ireland, imperialist rule of Spain and
Portugal, in Central and South America
etc.
• Dismantling of institutions of serfdom
with the coming of human rights and a
republic in parts of the world.
• Growth of secularism and other
progressive ideologies as France
became the first state in history to grant
universal male suffrage.
Thus, we can say that French Revolution
was a path-breaking event that altered
the old, exploitative, and despotic systems
in and around France and the world by
ushering the age of revolution and progress
like human rights as an integral part of
modern society. It truly was the benchmark
of change in all socio-economic and
religious paradigms as the struggle made
people realize their potential and instilled
them with rationality.
 CHAPTER - 3
INDUSTRIALIZATION
Introduction:
• Industrial revolution is the revolution in
the economic procedures of production
of goods in the economy, supported by
the technological innovations, and their
spread, which gave a boost to the pace
at which goods could be produced.
This revolution was the transition which
included- going from hand production
procedures to machines, new chemical
manufacturing and iron production
techniques, the increase in utilization
of steam power and water power, the
development of machine tools and the
rise of the mechanized factory system.
• It was referred as a revolution because
it totally reformed not just the economic
sphere but also the social and political
sphere of the society. The Industrial
Revolution began in Great Britain due
to the reason that, by the mid-18th
century Britain was the world’s leading
commercial nation.
English Industrial
Revolution 1760s to
1830s
• The Industrial Revolution, also known
as the First Industrial Revolution, was
a significant turning point in history,
involving economic and social changes
in Europe and the United States as a
result of new production methods from
around 1760 to sometime between 1820
and 1840.
• This change included switching
from hand to machine production,
17
developing new chemical and iron
manufacturing techniques, increasing
the use of steam and water power,
developing machine tools, and ushering
in the mechanised factory system.
The Industrial Revolution has piloted
in increase in rate of unparalleled
population growth.
Change in Mode of Production:
• There was decline of the Guild System
when the quantity of trade increased
further and therefore the Guilds were
unable to deal with the demand as
they were unsuited for production.
• This resulted in coming of Putting-
Out System, under which the staple
and final product were owned by the
merchant and the worker was only
an earner. The site of labour was the
house or the backyard of the worker.
• The invention of machines changed
everything and even this technique
was replaced by Factory System,
under which the centre of production
shifted from home to the factory. The
workers, for the primary time now,
travelled from home to work-sites on
day to day.
Causes of the Industrial
Revolution
• Till middle of the eighteenth century,
European society was mostly
agricultural. Whatever industries were
present there, were confined to the
“domestic” sphere with manual labour
being the main workforce. There was
no machinery or water- power or steam
to work in those industries.
» The political and economic conditions
in England in the second half of the
eighteenth century were perfect for
the country's launch of the Industrial
Revolution. The legal and cultural
foundations laid by the United Kingdom
allowed entrepreneurs to pioneer the
Industrial Revolution.
• The major causes of the Industrial
Revolution have been given below:

Stable and liberal government

England was a free country based on the parliamentary system of government which was
stable and supported new inventions.
Peaceful political conditions created an optimal atmosphere for trade and industry to
expand and develop. England's capitalists felt safe investing in them and were not
concerned about a change of government.

Ample resources and capital

England's growing trade enabled her with a vast reserve of capital to invest in the
machinery and buildings which in turn led to new technological developments.
Also, the natural and geographical resources such as coal and iron mines which gave
her the upper hand to try out the spheres in new technologies.

In Britain, the agricultural change and Enclosure movement brought about a major
transformation. It not only provided the requisite raw materials for the new industries to
operate, but it also employed a large number of agricultural labourers in the new
factories.

Expansion in Overseas Trade:

Emergence of new machines

It is well known that the mechanical inventions of the 18th century such as the steam
engine by James Watt, spinning jenny of Hargreaves, the water-frame of Arkwright,
Locomotive by George Stephenson, the spinning mule of Samuel Crompton and the
power-loom of Cartwright etc. resulted in the blooming of English economy and the new
ventures which got heavy demands from all over the world.

Availability of entrepreneurs
This straightforward in England legal system permitted the formation of joint-stock
companies who carried out large scale investment in the manufacturing of goods and
services.

18
The Spread of Industrial
Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution spread to the
rest of Europe and North America over
the course of several decades after it was
developed in Britain.
• Belgium was the first country after
Britain who witnessed industrial
development because they managed to
discover important coal fields, forming
the base for other inventions. Belgium
saw the establishment of rail lines which
linked up England, France, Germany,
and Holland with Belgium, and made
it the commercial entrepot of Western
Europe and the metallurgical centres
making it the best machinery seller
all over Holland, Germany and even
Russia. Also, it became a self-sufficient
economy in its entire requirements of
food and other economic industries.
• After 1830, France, Switzerland, and
Germany began to imitate the English
industrialization process by introducing
machinery into the production process,
concentrating workers in factories, and
beginning to build their transportation
network. In Europe, Industrialisation
has its own features such as the
greater role of the governments who
provided capital for industrialization
process such as building up of rail-road
systems, banks who financed major
initiatives industry, the development of
the rail-road system which eventually
stimulated other industries to meet its
needs by the markets it created.
• In the United States, the Industrial
Revolution began in the 1820s with the
textile industry of the northeast and it
then continued with the development
of heavy industry. U.S. industrialization
followed patterns borrowed from
England and Europe. Like England, it
also had a vast supply of raw materials
but relatively better labour conditions.
After 1865, U.S. industry began to
19
expand rapidly.
• In Japan, Industrial revolution was
motivated by the restoration of
Japanese national pride which was
carried out by a set of nationalists
known as the Meiji restoration,
eventually pushing japan from the state
of isolation to industrialisation.
Impact of Industrial Revolution:
• The Industrial Revolution brought
about a number of improvements in
manufacturing, development, and
distribution that had a profound effect
on people's economic and social lives.
Economic Impact:
• Marked the beginning of mechanised
production and mass production that
replaced subsistence-based production.
• Expansion of trade worldwide, both
inland and overseas.
• There was a continuous expansion of
the population and the economy as
Britain produced 66% of the world’s
coal, 50% of the cotton cloth and iron
and dominated resources of its colonies.
• Spread of urbanisation and booming
of new urban centres with the
transformation of the countryside into
a ready labour market in the factories.
• Expansion of the market-based on
capitalist lines and dependence of
various countries on the supply of
Britain.
Political Impact:
• Emergence of new political class mainly
the capitalist and the workers.
• Awakening of general mass who now
demanded political rights.
• Spread of progressive and democratic
ideals.
• Strengthening of colonialism and
Imperialism since the colonies became
the ready market for the home country’s
finished goods.
Social Impact:
• Alteration in the social stratification
and growth of class consciousness as
it divided society into three classes
based on the type of property, they
owned that is aristocracy owned land,
bourgeoisie owned capital enterprises
and the working class who owned their
labour and received wages.
• Evolution of a well-educated and
rational society which was more secular
and less orthodox.
• Establishment of new ideas such as
individualism and materialism based on
human rights and profit accumulation,
respectively.
• Increased struggle of the working class,
women, and children as they were the
most exploited class with poor wages,
long working hours, unsafe environment
etc.
• Growth of extreme ends in the society
in the form of slums and rich giving way
to communism and socialism.
• Replacement of enlightenment with
the romanticism which was a critique
to the Industrial revolution as it caused
suffering to the mob.
The industrial revolution thus brought
about an all-round change in the socio,
economic and political dimensions of the
world, leading to further progress in human
life.

Industrial revolution of Japan was different from the west:

‘Latecomer’, industrial revolution in Japan started late after the Meiji Restoration in the
late 19th century. It had many features which were different from west such as:
• West’s industrialization was based on scientific innovations and discoveries. West
had to learn and discover all technologies on its own. Japan began from where West
was there at that point in time. They reverse engineered most of the knowledges
and technologies.
• West’s industrial regions were rich in some natural resources like iron and coal.
On the other side, Japan was poor in these natural resources and was primarily
dependent on imports. So Japan’s heavy machinery industry came up closer to the
coast.
• West had witnessed agriculture revolution and commercial revolution before
industrial revolution. It wasn’t the situation in Japan.
• In west, the capital required for the industrial revolution came from different-
different colonies and was willingly invested by large businessmen and landholders.
In Japan, it was a imposed and forced extraction by the state from the agricultural
segment. State played a very crucial role in Japanese industrial revolution while in
west it was private sector led.
• Japan didn’t depend on colonies to finance its industrial revolution.
• Western products were superior in quality and sold across the world on the other
side, products of Japan were inferior in quality and so couldn’t sold in Europe.

20
 CHAPTER - 4
NATION-STATE SYSTEM
Introduction:
• A working and imprecise definition of
Nation-state system is a category of
state that conjoins the political entity
of a state to the cultural entity of a
nation, from which it targets to derive
its political legitimacy to rule and
potentially its status as a sovereign
state. The most obvious influence of
the nation-state is the formation of a
uniform national culture through state
policy.
• This chapter includes the Crimean war
(in which Russia lost to an alliance
made up of the Ottoman Empire, the
United Kingdom, Sardinia, and France),
Italian unification (different movement
that resulted in the consolidation of
different states of the Italian Peninsula
into a single state) and unification
of Germany, which has played the
important role in upcoming events like
Russian Revolution and World War II
etc.
Crimean War 1853 -
1856
• The Crimean War was a military fight
fought from October 1853 to February
1856 in which the Russian Empire
lost to an alliance of the Ottoman
Empire,France, Britain, and Sardinia.
• The war sparked by, what at first glance
appears to be a trivial disagreement
over the Christian shrines of Jerusalem,
but that was actually the result of long-
term European tensions.
• The Russians guarded the Ottoman
21
Empire's Christian shrines, and when
a conflict arose in Jerusalem between
Orthodox and Catholic Christians,
France agreed to intervene as the
Catholics' protector, winning special
status from the Turks in year 1852.
Important Events and Course
of the War
• Russia’s Tsar Nicholas I decided to
use the tension in an attempt to gain
control of Constantinople and with-
it direct access to the Mediterranean.
This alarmed France, long term ally of
Turkey, who objected to any change in
the balance of power. On this, Russia
issued demands in May 1853, which
were soon refused, and Russian troops
began to occupy Turkish Moldavia and
parts of Romania in July.
• To retaliate, the Turks declared war on
Russia in October, and a Turkish army
crossed the Danube, defeating the
Russians at the battle of Oltenita (4
November 1853), in southern Romania.
• On 28th March 1854, Britain and
France proclaimed war on Russia
and progressed to help the Turks.
Notwithstanding the name of the war,
fighting was not limited to the Crimea.
• Nevertheless, Austria progressed quickly
to oppose the Russian expansion,
gaining Turkish permission to enter their
Balkan provinces. By start of August,
the Russians pull out back across their
own border.
• Fighting also took place in the Caucasus,
where the Russians besieged the
fortress of Kars, forcing it to surrender
on November 26, 1855, just months
 before the war's end.
• Nonetheless, the most important
fighting was on the Crimean Peninsula.
Austria's intervention had in effect
attained the British and French aims,
removing the Russian presence in the
Balkans, but it was decided to reduce
Russian naval power in the Black Sea by
the occupation and destruction of the
main Russian naval base at Sevastopol.
• The Battle of Balaklava, the Battle of
Inkerman, and the Battle of Malakhov
were the three main battles of the
Crimean War.
• The Charge of the Light Brigade, in
which 247 of the 673 Light Cavalry
Brigade were killed assaulting a
battery of Russian guns by charging
them along a valley lined by even more
Russian guns, was the most prominent
part of the first attempt, the battle of
Balaklava (25 October 1854).
• Nevertheless, the main result of the
battle was to leave Menshikov's army
dominating the only proper road
between Balaclava and Sevastopol.
• The Battle of Inkerman (5 November
1854), in which both the British and
Russian armies lost effective control,
was the result of a second Russian
28th March 1854- Britain and France proclaimed war on Russia
1 February 1856- Peace terms were agreed at Vienna.
22
attempt. The battle was won when a
French division arrived late and drove
off the Russians, who suffered even
more casualties. Cholera ravaged the
camp, reducing the British army to only
12,000 functional soldiers after a storm
sunk thirty supply ships carrying much
of the British supplies.
• Circumstances gradually became
better in early 1855.
• The military hospitals were improved
thanks to Florence Nightingale's famous
nursing inventions, and the supply route
between Balaklava and Sevastopol was
improved thanks to a newly built road
and railway.
• The Turks repelled another Russian
effort to interfere, led by Prince Michael
Gorchakov (Battle of Eupatoria, 17
February 1855).
• Finally, with the capture of Kerch, it
secured allied command of the Sea of
Azov and severed the Russian overland
supply lines.
• Lastly, on 8 September 1855, the
French launched one of the few well-
planned attacks of the war, aimed at
the Malakoff, one of the two key strong
point of the defence.
• A heavy bombardment was followed by
a well-timed assault by an entire French
corps that made Prince Gorchakov
evacuate the city.
• The capture of Sevastopol was the last
significant fighting of the war. Peace
terms were agreed on 1 February 1856
at Vienna.
Post War Scenario
• Russian lost their dominance in the
Balkans and agreed to respect the
integrity of the Ottoman Empire. In
some ways, Austria was the biggest
loser. Having chosen to defy the
Russians in the Balkans, she lost her
main ally, and over the next few years
found that Britain and France were not
interested in propping her up.
• Indeed, within three years the War of
Austria with France and Piedmont (1859),
lost much of her Italian possessions,
while the Austro-Prussian War of
1866 ended any Austrian influence in
Germany. Tsar Alexander II, who came
to the Russian throne in March 1855,
realized that the war demonstrated
the urgent need for modernization in
Russia.
• Delegates from Russia, Turkey, France,
the United Kingdom, Sardinia, Austria,
and Prussia took part in peace talks that
culminated in the signing of the Treaty
of Paris on March 30, 1856, putting the
Crimean War to a close.
• The Treaty of Paris gave Europe
temporary peace. The declaration of
neutralization of the Black Sea was one
of the agreement's terms, and it was
also the most difficult to recognize.
• Russia and Turkey were not authorized
to construct military fleets, forts, or
arsenals along the Black Sea coast.
Both military vessels from all nations
were barred from entering the Black
Sea straits. For patrolling purposes,
23
Russia and Turkey were only permitted
a small number of light military ships.
The Crimean war proved out to be an
eye-opener for the powerful nations and
made the ground for the unification of the
dissected nation-states like Germany.
Unification of Italy
• Italian unification refers to the Italian
movement which united the Italian
states in the 19th century. The movement
originated in 1815 with the Congress of
Vienna.
• It came to an end in 1871, when Rome
became the capital of the Kingdom
of Italy, thanks to the efforts of
Piedmontese Prime Minister Count
of Cavour and Italian national hero
Giuseppe Garibaldi, who unified the
South. As a result, King Victor Emmanuel
became Italy's first king.
• The unification of Italy was
accomplished through the efforts of
men such as Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi,
Victor Emmanuel II, and others, as well
as international assistance. “Italian
unification was reached so easily by
a nation who had been divided and
heterogeneous for centuries,” writes
Luigi Sturzo.
• The Italians were a backward people.
Since the country was still developing,
its resources were limited. The people
were illiterate and did not take an
interest in the politics of country.
Regionalism also stood in the path of
national progress. The political life of
the country left much to be desired.
There was corruption all around.
Vienna Order of 1815:
• With the end of the Napoleon era,
Vienna congress held the responsibility
of looking into Italy. Instead of uniting,
 it divided Italy into many parts and
under different powers. It restored the
old order of the day.
• The North Italy comprising Lombardy
and Venetia was handed over to
Austria. Austrian dynasty was
established in Parma, Modena, Tuscany,
and Piedmont Sardinia was given to
the Savoy dynasty. Central Italy was
further divided between the Pope and
Austria. The southern Italy, Naples and
Sicily, were under the French Bourbon
dynasty.
• In 1810, Carbonari, a coal miner
association in Naples was the earliest
to unite Italy. They aimed at expelling
the foreigners from Italy and to grant
legal freedom for the people, but they
failed.
• In 1831, a revolutionary nationalist
Mazzini founded Young Italy. He was
affected by the nationalist movement
in Italy. He created awareness among
the masses to awaken the spirit of
nationalism and liberation in the
country. He managed to bring about an
intellectual revolution that made a way
for the political unification.

ICELAND
(DENMARK)

ATLANTIC SEA
NORWAY
(SWEDEN)

SWEDEN
SCOTLAND

IRELAND GREAT
DENMARK
BRITAIN RUSSIAN EMPIRE
WALES HABOVER
ENGLAND (G.B.) PRUSSIA
NETHERLANDS POLAND
GALICA
BAVARIA
FRANCE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
ROMANIA
AL

SERBIA
UG

SPAIN CORSICA BULGARIA

RT

ARMENIA
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
PO

KINGDOM
PER

SARDINIA OF THE
TWO
SIA

SICILIES
GREECE MESOPOTAMIA
TUNIS
MOROCCO ALGERIA CRETE SYRIA
CYPRUS
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
PALESTINE

EGYPT

I M A G E 4.1: E U R O P E AFTER CONGRESS OF V I E N N A 1815

Vienna Order of 1815

1831 1831 1831 1831
a revolutionary Count Cavour as Cavour died and Rome became the
nationalist Mazzini PM of Piedmont Emmanuel II took capital of Italy
founded Young the charge
Italy

24
Revolution of 1848:
• In France, the very success of the
February Revolution boosted the Italian
nationalist to strive for their unification.
They persuaded King Charles Albert of
Piedmont to wage a war against Austria.
Initially, Pope Pious IX and Ferdinand
of Naples were also persuaded to join
but they withdrew from the conflict.
Charles Albert continued to fight with
Austria with the hope of a unified Italy
under his rule. But he faced defeats at
Cutoa and Novara.
• The real process of Italian unification
commenced with the coming of Count
Cavour as PM of Piedmont in 1852.
He was a hardcore nationalist who
understood the opportunities and tried
to utilize it to attain the aim.
• The main hurdles before Cavour were
foreign domination of Austria and
France in Italy, economic differences
between north and south Italy, rule
of Pope in central Italy, Ideological
differences among the leaders etc.
Nevertheless, Cavour decided to use
the tool of diplomacy to win the other
states by developing Piedmont Sardinia
as a model state.
• He brought about various reforms in
the state such as the establishment of
liberal constitutional monarchy, banks,
and institutions, curbing of church
privileges, granting legal freedom to
citizens, free trade policy etc.
• Furthermore, he used the tool of
diplomacy to seek the support of major
powers. He sent soldiers to help Britain
and France in the Crimean war in 1853
and signed the Plombieres Pact in 1858
with French king Napoleon III where
France decided to assist Piedmont in
the war against Austria.
25
Phase of Unification:
• In 1858, Sardinia and France conspired
to invade Austria in secret. France drove
Austria out of Lombardy after the wars,
but Austria retained Venetia. France
withdrew from the war at this stage,
fearing that a united Italy would pose a
threat, as well as realizing that Austrian
power would inevitably crush them.
• This finished the war with Austria
keeping Venetia. In July 1859, Treaty
of Zurich was signed with Austria and
Lombardy where they got merged with
Piedmont Sardinia.
• Meanwhile, a revolution broke out in
Parma, Modena, Tuscany which was
used by Cavour diligently. He held a
plebiscite at Parma, Modena, Tuscany,
Romagna, and Bologna where they
voted to merge their territories with
Piedmont, leading to the creation of
the state of North Italy.
• Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi
headed a nationalist uprising,
combining the states and territories into
a full Republic. The North Italy managed
to integrate the state of Naples, Sicily,
Umbria, and Marches with it.
• The territories of Naples and Sicily were
ruled by French Bourbon dynasty where
diplomacy was not sufficient. Cavour
used Garibaldi as a proxy to conquer
Naples and Sicily and by 1860, they
succeeded.
• However, Garibaldi and Cavour faced
ideological differences since the former
wanted to establish a republic and
therefore, refused to merge Naples and
Sicily with North Italy. To this, Cavour
approached Napoleon III to get him on
his side.
• Eventually, with French backing, he
conquered Umbria, Marches and Victor
Emmanuel II proclaimed as the king of
united Italy. When Cavour died in 1861,
Emmanuel II took the charge of unifying
Venetia and Rome which he finally did
 in 1866 and 1870, respectively.
• Due to the Franco-Prussian War in
1870, France sent their armies away
from Rome. So the Pope could not have
VENETIA
LOMBARDY
SAVOY
SARDINIA
PARMA
MODENA
SAN MARINO
MONACO
TUSCANY
PAPAL
STATE
KIGDOM
OF BOTH
SICILIES
TUNIS
I M A G E 4.2: I TA LY
Unification of
Germany
• The formation of Germany as a nation-
state was one of the most important
events in the history of the world. Like
Italy, Germany was a geographical
expression and politically divided
country which was a part of the Holy
Roman Empire.
• Austria and Prussia were the main
states with Austria’s domination
and sovereign control over Germany
through the Frankfurt Parliament.
• However, with the coming of Napoleon
Bonaparte who first sowed the seeds
of nationalism in Germany, Frankfurt
Parliament was dissolved, and the
three hundred small states of the Holy
Roman Empire were conjoined to form
the Confederation of the Rhine of 39
states.
26
any power and Rome finally became
the capital of Italy.
• Thus, the great vision of a unified Italy
was attained.
1866
AUSTRIA SAVOY AUSTRIA
SARDINIA
1858 1858-60
1870
1860
1858
TUNIS
BEFORE AND AFTER U N I F I C AT I O N
• In due course of time, the cultural
unity among these states, the role of
Universities, rapid growth of industries
etc. brought unity among the German
Confederation of the States.
Early Efforts:
• In 1825, Burschenchaft, a student
organization was formed whose
members rose up against Metternick to
get liberty and natural rights. The idea of
nationalism and unity was propagated
among the educated middle class by the
works of intellectuals like Hardenburg,
Fichte, Hegel, etc.
• The lesser German states and Prussia
established a customs union known as
Zollverein which was joined by other
states, paving the way for innovation
and industrialization.
• A strong capitalist class emerged in
Germany that strongly supported the
 unification. Also, the past glories of
Germany created a national awakening
among the Germans.
• The fall of Metternich in the 1848
revolution was a turning point as the
German nationalist came out loud to
politically unify Germany under the
leadership of Prussia. Hence, a new
was drafted, and the power was given
to Prussian king Frederick William IV,
but he died.
• In 1861 William I became the king who
was an ardent nationalist and wanted
military action.
Role Played by Bismarck and
Important Events During His •
Time:
• The rise of Otto von Bismarck and his
shrewd diplomacy gave a chance for
the unification of Germany.
• He wanted to unify Germany in such
a way that Austria and France, the
powerful nations of the time, could be
defeated.
• By 1862, when Bismarck addressed
the Germans, the idea of a German
nation-state in the peaceful spirit of
Pan-Germanism had shifted from the
liberal and democratic character in
1848 to accommodate Bismarck's more
conservative Realpolitik.
• While the conditions of the treaties
binding the various German states
to one another forbid Bismarck from
taking unilateral action, the politician
and diplomat in him realized the
impracticality of this.
• In the 1st phase, Schleswig was
integrated with Prussia as per the
provisions of the Treaty of Vienna.
• Schleswig and Holstein were under the
Dutch with the majority of the German
population. Bismarck tricked Austria, got
27
her alliance, and liberated these Dutchies.
• Another integration came up in 1866
when in the Battle of Sedan, Bismarck
defeated Austria leading to the Treaty
of Prague.
• According to it, twenty-one states
of North Germany got merged with
Prussia and formed the North German
Confederation. This marked a downfall
of Austria's domination over German
affairs.
• Bismarck wanted a single outside
enemy to wage war on one of the
German states first in order to unite
the German states. With the start of
the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, this
opportunity emerged.
In southern Germany, the majority
of the population was Catholics and
had an inclination towards France.
Nevertheless, when France attacked
Germany in the Battle of Sedan 1870,
these southern states sneaked in to join
the North German Confederacy. The
Treaty of Versailles of 1871 (signed 26
February 1871; later ratified in the Treaty
of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871) formally
ended the war by incorporating
the southern states into a reunited
Germany. With the victory over France
in 1871, Prussian influence in Germany
(apart from Austria) was extended
to the international stage. Prussia
assumed control of the new empire
with Wilhelm's proclamation as Kaiser.
• Although Bismarck had led the
transformation of Germany into a
federal nation-state, he had not done
it alone. The process of unification was
achieved by building on a tradition
of legal collaboration under the
Holy Roman Empire and economic
collaboration through the Zollverein,
the impact of the 1848 liberals, military
reorganization and strategic brilliance
all played a part in the political
unification of Germany which made it
the most powerful nation in Europe.
 BALTIC SEA

NORTH SEA EAST PRUSSIA

SCHLESWIG-
HOLSTEIN
MECKLENBURG- POMERANIA WEST PRUSSIA
SCHWERIN
HANOVER
S SIA
BRANDENBURG U
PR POSEN
BRUNSWICK
RUSSIAN
WESTPHALIA EMPIRE
A
SS

SILESIA
NA

RHINELAND THURINGIAN
EN

STATES
SS
HE

Austrian territories excluded from

German confederation, 1867
Joined with Prussia to form
German confederation, 1867
AUSTRIAN Prussia Before 1866
EMPIRE
Conquered by Prussia in
Austro-Prussia War, 1866
WURTTEMBERG
DEN

South German states joining with

BAVARIA Prussia to from German Empire, 1871
BEA

Won by Prussia in
Franco-Prussia War, 1871

I M A G E 4. 3 : U N I F I C AT I O N OF GERMANY (1866-71)

28
 CHAPTER - 5
IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM
Introduction:
• Imperialism refers to the practice of
extending the power, control, or rule by a
country over the political and economic
life of the areas outside its own borders
which may be achieved through
military or other means and particularly
through colonialism. Colonialism refers
to the practice of acquiring colonies by
conquest (or other means) and making
them dependent on colony rulers.
• Imperialism associated with the
colonization of Asia, Africa and America
began with three focuses - Gold, Glory
and God. While Gold represented the
profits from trade, Glory linked to the
recognition a European power received
as a world hegemony. With the flag of
the Kingdom came the Missionaries to
promote and spread Christianity.
Causes of Imperialism:
Cultural and
ideological
Causes of
Imperialism
Geographic
and Technical
I M A G E 5.1: C A U S E S
29
Age of Imperialism
• Imperialism is a policy or ideology of
extending a nation's rule over foreign
nations, often by military force or
by gaining political and economic
control of other areas. Imperialism was
both normal and common worldwide
throughout recorded history, the
earliest examples dating from the mid-
third millennium BC, diminishing only in
the late 20th century.
• The term can be applied to the
colonization of the America between
the 15th and 19th centuries, as opposed
to New Imperialism, which describes
the expansion of Western Powers and
Japan during the late 19th and early
20th centuries.
Demographic
Economic
OF IMPERIALISM
• Political:
» The power and prestige of a country
were measured by the number of
colonies which they controlled.
» In addition, some of these countries
also wanted to control strategic points
for commercial routes, such as Great
Britain.
» Rise of mercantilism and extreme
nationalism.
• Demographic:
» Europe’s population had grown greatly
during the 19th century (from 300
million in 1870 to 400 million in 1914).
Hence, the colonies were conceived
as an extension of the metropolises so
that the population moved there.
» Migration reduced unemployment and
social conflicts in the countries of origin.
» White man's burden of Europeans
made them feel superior and to civilize
the savage heathens.
• Economic:
» New markets were sought for industrial
products.
» Many raw materials were needed for
the growing industrial sector.
» Capitalism stimulated investment in
other territories.
• Geographic and Technical:
» There were many explorers who
created societies in order to explore
new unknown areas, such as Africa.
» New ways of transportation, such as
the steamboat, allowed for better
exploration of the world.
» The opening of new commercial
routes, such as the Suez Canal (1869),
was essential in fulfilling the desire of
exploration.
• Cultural and Ideological:
30
» The white man had the duty of
controlling the world and evangelizing
it based on pseudo-Darwinist ideas.
» Hence, the western world had to civilize
the rest of the planet.
Theories of Imperialism:
• Opponents of British Prime Minister
Benjamin Disraeli's supposedly violent
and ostentatious colonial policies first
coined the word "imperialism" in its
current context in the late 1870s.
• Historians and political theorists have
long debated the correlation between
capitalism, class, and imperialism.
Much of the debate was pioneered
by such theorists as J. A. Hobson
(1858–1940), Joseph Schumpeter
(1883–1950), Thorstein Veblen (1857–
1929), and Norman Angell (1872–1967).
The term was soon appropriated by
supporters of "imperialism," such as
Joseph Chamberlain. Imperialism
was described by some as a policy of
idealism and philanthropy, others as a
policy of political self-interest, and a
growing number as a policy of capitalist
greed.
• In Imperialism, a Study (1902), John
A. Hobson (a leading English Liberal)
created a highly influential interpretation
that built on his view that free market
capitalism had a detrimental effect
on the majority of the population. In
Imperialism, he argued that funding
overseas empires diverted funds from
domestic needs. It was spent abroad
because, as compared to domestic
salaries, lower wages paid to workers
overseas resulted in higher income
and higher rates of return. As a result,
although domestic wages remained
higher, they did not rise as quickly as
they should have.
• Exporting money, he concluded, slowed
the growth of domestic incomes and
 thus the standard of living in the United
States.
• By the 1970s, European Socialists
selected Hobson's ideas and made it
into their own theory of imperialism,
most particularly in Lenin's Imperialism,
the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916).
• Imperialism, according to Lenin, is the
closing of the world market and the end
of capitalist free competition, which
resulted from the need for capitalist
economies to continually increase
investment, material resources, and
manpower in such a way that colonial
expansion became inevitable.
• Later Marxist theoreticians echoed
this view of imperialism as a systemic
characteristic of capitalism, explaining
the World War as a struggle for
domination of foreign markets between
imperialists.
• Lenin's treatise became a popular
textbook, surviving until communism
fell apart in 1989–91. Some non-
Communist left thinkers have stressed
the institutional or systemic existence
of "imperialism." Such writers have
extended the time period associated
with the term, so that it now refers to
a global structure that spans millennia,
sometimes dating back to Christopher
Columbus and, in some accounts, the
Crusades.
• As the term's use has grown, its context
has moved along five distinct but
often parallel axes: moral, economic,
structural, cultural, and temporal. Those
shifts reflect, among other things, an
increasing unease, if not outright dislike,
for the pervasiveness of such power,
especially Western power.
• Hobson theorized that state
intervention through taxation could
boost broader consumption, create
wealth, and encourage a peaceful,
tolerant, multipolar world order.
• Walter Rodney, in his 1972 classic
31
'How Europe Underdeveloped Africa',
proposes the idea that imperialism is a
phase of capitalism "in which Western
European capitalist countries, the
US, and Japan established political,
economic, military and cultural
hegemony over other parts of the world
which were initially at a lower level and
therefore could not resist domination."
• As such, Imperialism "for many years
embraced the whole world – one part
being the exploiters and the exploited,
one part being dominated and the other
acting as overlords, one part making
policy and the other being dependent.
Impact of Imperialism:
• During the Era of imperialism, a new
money economy arose. Mines and
plantations that relied on local labour
were urbanized by Western capitalists.
The old currency system was replaced
by a modern money market by colonial
rulers. Many taxes were levied on
their subjects to cover government
expenditures.
• Several men became migrant workers,
leaving the women at home to care for
the children and farm.
• Less influential countries became
increasingly reliant on their industrial
superiors.
• Scale production through traditional
economies into disarray. Goods were
manufactured at a lower cost and
with a wider variety, displacing Indian
neighbours who made hand-woven
fabric.
• Artisans and handcraft industries were
ruined as a result of their inability to
cope with the prices of mass production.
• Modernization was one of the
advantages of colonial rule.
• Westerners laid the foundations
for modern banking and railroad
 development.
• New technology, such as communication
and transportation networks, was also
developed. Capitalists contributed to
the economy's growth by spending
huge amounts of money.
• They used export profits to develop
industry and buy innovative farm
equipment to endorse growth.
• Non-Westerners gradually came to
believe in the supremacy of the West.
Because of the colonial nations'
prosperity, their trust in their own
cultures waned.
• Conquered countries learned to
follow certain Western ways in order
to gain an advantage over the ruling
countries. Some non-westerners, on the
other hand, were skeptical of western
modernization.
• They were angry at being forced to
abandon their long-held traditions, and
they fought back vehemently against
the western powers.
• The spread of western ethnicity was
aided by missionaries who founded
schools and hospitals. They taught
people how to read and write, as well
as preparing young men for work. They
pioneered medical breakthroughs that
saved countless lives. Missionaries have
spread their religion around the world,
resulting in the widespread adoption of
Christianity.
• In non-Western nations, there was a
lot of cultural diffusion. There was a
confusing blending between traditional
and modern ways of doing stuff.
• The colonial governments introduced
improved medical care and better
methods of sanitation. There were
new crops; tools and farming methods,
which helped increase food production.
Imperialism indeed was a major force in
shaping the modern world. It shattered
32
the old patterns but came up with a mix
of both development and submergence
between the powerful and the new
powered. It triggered a race for being
supreme between the nations which
ultimately led to the chaos in the form of
First World War.
Colonialism
• Colonialism is the policy of a nation
pursuing to extend or retain its
authority over other people or
territories generally with the aim of
economic dominance. The colonizing
country seeks to benefit from the
colonized country or landmass.
• Colonialism is largely regarded as
a relationship of domination of an
indigenous majority by a minority of
foreign invaders where the latter rule in
pursuit of its interests.
• Early records of colonization go as far
back as Phoenicians, an enterprising
maritime trading culture that spread
across the Mediterranean from 1550
BC to 300 BC and later the Greeks
and Persians continued on this line of
setting up colonies.
• In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Centuries several countries of Europe
like France, England, and Portugal etc.
established their colonies in different
countries of Asia and Africa. This desire
of imperial expansion was known as
Colonialism.
Causes of the Colonization:
Several factors made a way for the spread
of colonialism which changed the fate of
many countries. The major causes are as
follows:
• Innovation of New Sea-Route, new
places and countries were discovered
like America by Columbus, India by
Vasco da Gama.
• Colonialism was aided by economic
considerations. Countries such as
England, France, Spain, and Portugal
founded colonies with the aim of
becoming wealthy by bringing money
from those colonies.
• Use of economic-political condition of
some of the countries of Asia and Africa
enable them to rise in these countries
and make them their colony.
• The Industrial Revolution encouraged
the countries of Europe to procure
raw materials from outside for their
factories.
Internal 4 Types of
Colonialism Colonialism
Surrogate
Colonialism
I M A G E 5.2: T Y P E S
• Settler colonialism includes large-
scale immigration, often motivated by
religious, political, or economic reasons.
It pursues to replace the original
inhabitants. Here, a huge number of
people emigrate to the colony for the
purpose of staying and cultivating the
land. Australia, Canada, and the United
States are all examples of settler-
colonial societies.
• Exploitation colonialism-Exploitation
is a term used to describe the act of
33
• Imperialism propagated surplus
procurement from outside.
• The capitalist system of production
resulted in more production and excess
demand outside the market.
• European countries used the
enlightenment of the east, of the
backward countries of Asia and Europe.
Types of Colonialism:
Historians often differentiate between
various overlapping forms of colonialism,
which are classified into four types.
OF COLONIALISM
taking advantage of others. Fewer
colonists are involved in colonisation,
which focuses on the exploitation of
natural resources or the use of the
people as slave labour, usually for the
benefit of the metropole. This group
involves trading posts as well as larger
colonies with colonists serving as the
majority of the political and economic
leadership. When indigenous labour
was scarce prior to the end of the slave
trade and widespread abolition, slaves
 were often imported to Americas, first
by the Portuguese Empire, then by the
Spanish, Dutch, French, and British.
• Surrogate colonialism involves a
settlement project supported by a
colonial power, in which most of the
settlers did not come from the same
ethnic group as the ruling authority.
• Internal colonialism is a notion of
irregular structural power between
areas of a state. The source of
exploitation comes from inside the
state. This is established in the way
control and exploitation passes from
whites in the colonizing country to the
white immigrant population within a
newly independent country.
Spread of Colonialism:
• Formation of colonies in Asia.
• The European countries developed their
colonies in many Asian and African
countries.

India
Following Vasco Da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India in 1498,
European countries attempted to establish colonies in India.

1 Daman, and Diu.

The Dutch, French, and English all had colonies in India after that. Finally, in the
game of power politics, the English triumphed and dominated India for nearly
two centuries.

3 South-East Asia

Portuguese. The Dutch founded colonies in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali

2 after that. Ceylon was also occupied by the Dutch, but it was taken over by the
English during the Napoleonic Wars.
Burma was also dominated by the English. In 1819, they acquired Hong Kong
from China. Sigan was brought to France by the Chinese. They also asserted
2 portion of Manchuria in a similar manner. Kaichou was occupied by Germany.
Korea and Formosa were occupied by Japan.
4
Central Asia
1 Russia and England founded colonies in Central Asia. Tashkent, Samarkand, and

3 Bukhara were all occupied by Russia. The northern part of Persia was held by
Russia, while the southern part fell under the control of England, thanks to an
agreement. In this region, Germany was unable to establish even a single

Africa

4
The African continent, like the Asian nations, was subjected to colonialism.
East, West, North, and South Africa were all colonised by the English. Numerous
countries of Africa came under the sway of Colonialism such as Togoland and
Cameroon, Algeria, Tunis, Madagascar, Angola, Mozambique, Tripoli, Abyssinia.

I M A G E 5.3: S P R E A D OF COLONIALISM

Various Reasons Due to Which African colonies. Large number of

Indentured Labour Being Taken
by the British From India to
Their Colonies:
• Industrial Demand: The industrialization
• Abolition of slavery: This offered for
the immediate background for the
Indentured labour method all over the
globe. British required the labour to
work in the plantation fields of different
Indian and Chinese workers went to
work on plantations, in mines, and in
the construction projects of railway and
road around the globe.
of Britain followed by the other
European nations accelerated the flow
of trade, labour and capital across
the globe. The growing urbanism in

34
 Europe particularly in Britain intensified
the demand for food and agricultural
goods since most number of the labour
force was consumed by the firms and
factories. Colonies situated in Asia
and Africa became the profitable
destinations for investing in various
agricultural and raw commodities.
• Availability of labour: Most number of
Indian indentured labour came from
the present-day regions of eastern
Uttar Pradesh, Central India, Bihar
and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu.
In the mid-nineteenth century, these
areas underwent many changes
such as land rents increased, cottage
industries declined, lands were cleared
for plantations and mines. All this
influenced the lives of the poor.
• Escape from poverty: Most number
of migrants decided to take up work
expecting to escape poverty or
oppression in their home villages and
towns. Often migrants were not even
informed that they were to embark on
a long sea journey. Sometimes agents
even by force abducted less willing
migrant labour. Therefore, 19th century
indenture has been labeled as a ‘new
system of slavery’.
• Reluctance shown by African worker:
The local residents of African nations
were self-sufficient and entirely
dependent on cattle farming. They
were hesitant to work in the factories
and farms of British, therefore Indians
turn out to be the obvious choice.
The major important destinations of
Indian indentured migrants were the
Caribbean islands (mostly Guyana,
Trinidad, and Surinam), Fiji and
Mauritius. Closer to home, migrants of
Tamil moved to Malaya and Ceylon.
Indentured workers were also employed
for Assam tea plantations.
• Indian labour suitability: Indian labours
were seen as being quiet, obedient and
35
industrious by colonists and appropriate
for working in various construction and
plantation works in various colonies of
Britain. Initially, the recruitment and
arrival were done by private parties
or the agents and after some time
later British government controlled the
recruitment of indentured labour.
Have they been able to preserve and
maintain their cultural identity?
• Huge number of indentured labours
did not return to their native states
/countries and settled back in the
colonies. They shifted to these
colonies with lots of expectations and
hope. On arrival at the plantations or
mines of these colonies, workers found
situations to be different from what
they had thought. Living and working
circumstances were very harsh, and
there were few legal rights available
to them. However, these labours
found their own ways of surviving.
• Many of the workers escaped into
the wilds, though if caught they
faced serious punishment. Others
evolved and developed new forms
of individual and collective self-
expression, intermingling various
cultural forms, old and new.
• In Trinidad the yearly Muharram
procession was transformed into a
riotous carnival known as ‘Hosay’ (for
Imam Hussain) in which laborers of
every race and religion joined.
• The protest religion of Rastafarianism
(made popular by the Jamaican star
Bob Marley) is also said to reflect
cultural and social connections with
Indian migrants to the Caribbean.
• ‘Chutney music’, widespread in
Guyana and Trinidad, is another
innovative contemporary expression
of the post-indenture experience.
Colonialism in Africa
• Africa was bifurcated into various states
by the Europeans in a process which had
no African involvement and the current
states of Africa are largely a result of
colonization in which competition and
‘accidents’ performed a very important
role.
West Africa
• By 1878, Belgium King Leopold had
carved out a sizeable sphere of influence
for himself in Equatorial Africa on west
coast region known as Congo. This area
was rich in timber and mineral reserves.
He utilized a combination of treachery,
treaties with local tribal chiefs, battles,
missionary activities.
• This attracted the attention of other
European powers and they met in
Berlin and carved out Africa into their
individual areas of influence. Customs
of Africa and tribal regions were
provided no respect in this and this is
the important reason why most of the
African boundaries are straight lines.
• British got Nigeria, Portugal gained
control over Angola, France got
Morocco, French Congo and huge
portions of interior Africa.
Southern Africa
South Africa
• Initially the Dutch had settled in Cape
of Good Hope (very important strategic
point where ships on route to India turned
from) near the southern part of Africa.
• However, after the Dutch lost to
Napoleon, the Dutch government
had to give up her overseas colonies
to British in which South Africa was
surrendered too. Even after Napoleon
received defeat, South Africa continued
to be under the control of British.
36
• The Dutch colonizers did not like
control of British, therefore they shifted
to Natal and Transvaal areas, fighting
and eliminating the regional tribes
using treachery and lopsided battles.
• After some time, the Britishers came
here too following the gold rush and
South Africa was established in totality.
Rhodesia
• It was founded by Cecil Rhodes (English
explorer) by merging every territory
he could explore and establish his
influence on. Rhodesia is comprised of
present Zimbabwe (South Rhodesia)
and Zambia (North Rhodesia).
East Africa
In East Africa, the French got Madagascar,
Germans attained the control over
Cameroons, English got Kenya, and
Portugal obtained the command over
Mozambique.
• The local ruler of Zanzibar was provided
a narrow strip near the coast, but
after some time even that region was
captured by the Germans and British.
• After the defeat of German in the
war, their colonies were not made
independent, but were handed over to
the victor powers.
• Italy was given Ethiopia, Somalia and
Eritrea. However, they were defeated by
the king of Ethiopia in 1896. Therefore,
for some time Ethiopia could retain her
independence.
North Africa
During the short period of the Second
Republic the French government annexed
the Algerian territory as a part of the
French nation. England obtained control
over Sudan and Egypt. For some time,
French and British fought over Sudan but
it went under the control of British.
Role of Western-Educated Africans in Freedom Struggle in West Africa
During the 20th century, like the role played by M. K. Gandhi, freedom struggles in
different West African nations were also led by several western-educated Africans such
as:
• Dr. Kwame Nkrumah: Educated and trained in London and US, led Gold Coast to
independence in 1957, and Ghana was the 1st nation in sub-Saharan African region
to attain its independence from colonial rule of Europe.
• Nnamdi Azikiwe: Educated and taught in USA, led Nigeria to a popular successful
anti-colonial struggle, leading to its freedom and autonomy in 1960.
• Amilcar Cabral: Educated in Portugal, led Guinea-Bissau towards the independence
from Portugal. He was murdered before the official independence declaration of the
nation. However, he served as an inspiration and motivation for other revolutionary
leaders elsewhere, like Fidel Castro.
• Tovalou Houenou: Opposed the idea of Eurocentrism, defended and supported
the equality of race, and initiated the Negritude movement, the writings of which
provided a boost to anti-colonial struggles in West Africa.
• Leopold Sedar Senghol and Felix Houphouet- Boigny were western educated
individuals who respectively led Senegal and Ivory Coast towards freedom and
autonomy.
Some of these freedom struggles were constitutional and peaceful while some were
associated with non-cooperation and civil disobedience. Some of the struggles were
absolute violent revolutions.
Countries of West Africa, however, have rarely observed stability and peace after
freedom. The some of the countries have been ruined by brutal dictatorships, civil wars
and military coups.

Impact of Colonialism trade relations between nations. For

Positive
• While it is generally construed that
colonialism has ruined the weaker
nations and continues to impact their
national development, there are certain
positive impacts of colonialism too.
They can be summarised as follows:
a. Administrative unification of nations
who were otherwise just warring
territories. The colonial powers often
united these nations into a single
cohesive unit. Example: India and Sri
Lanka.
b. Economic integration of different
markets happened during colonial rule.
It was the colonial rule that led to better
example, the Portuguese introduced
many crops from South America into
India and exported some cattle breeds
from India to other nations.
c. Positive socio-economic impact ensued
with the establishment of a modern
education system and opening up of
various universities, which otherwise
may not have been possible.
d. Introduction of a modern state and the
establishment of a modern bureaucracy
which helps in the functioning of the
state.
e. Modern infrastructure was established
through extensive canal networks
(Punjab), road networks, telegraph
lines and railways in these nations,

37
 which later helped the state improve its
economy.
• Despite these positive significance, we
need to note that these were indirect
consequences of colonialism. None of
the colonial powers were having policies
for the betterment of colonies. Their
models and policies were inherently
exploitative. They did more harm than
good to the colonial people.
means rather than overt colonisation.
Neocolonialism is the idea that former
or current economic relationships, such
as the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade and the Central American
Free Trade Agreement, or companies
(such as Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria
and Brunei) founded by former colonial
powers were or are used to retain
control of their former colonies and
dependencies after the colonial era
ended.

Negative
• Slavery, exploitation, a wave of diseases,
and settlement problems occurred
repeatedly. Even though the colonists
forced the people to follow all of these,
they can be considered important
factors. It culminated in the creation of
new empires. The economic structures
of several places were influenced by
European colonisation.
• Since the decolonization that
happened after World War II, the term
neocolonialism has been used to refer
to a number of terms in these contexts.
• It typically refers to colonisation by other
End of Colonialism
• Western colonialism was doomed from
the outset. It received a serious jolt during
World War I. People became aware
of their rights as a result of the press,
education, and political consciousness
that developed in these colonies.
• Colonial nations, on the other hand, were
unable to meet the social and political
needs of citizens in various colonies.
In these countries, nationalism arose,
and after World War II, the colonies
proclaimed their independence one by
one.

The Decolonization of Malaya Peninsula:

Malay Peninsula was under the control of British influence since they first came here in
the late 18th century exploring towards Southeast Asia for new resources. After that the
British East India Company traded and partially controlled and regulated the region.
The expansion of their China trade further enhanced the company’s desire for bases
in the area near it.
• The entire decolonization of Malaya Peninsula was an extension of the sequence of
decolonization movements going through the Asia and Africa and this process was
speeded-up after the World War-II.
• Malay Peninsular region was a multi-cultural society multi-racial, with Malay
Chinese and Indians making major ethnic and interest communities which was a
appropriate condition for colonial powers to consolidate their regime.
• Collapse of Singapore and Japanese advances in Malay Peninsula during
the World War–II period compelled the British to think reassessment of its
non-interventionist policies in favour of ethnic cooperation and multiracial
government in this zone. However, with the presence of diverse interest of different
groups and communities reaching to a consensus was a very difficult task.

38
• Cold War philosophical and ideological rivalry was common in Malayan Peninsula
too where with the growth of comintern aligned communist parties such as Chinese
Communist Organization and Malayan Communist Party, the concern of Malayan
Peninsula falling to the Communists appeared. It was a nightmare for the liberal
democratic states/ colonial powers (i.e. British) which ensured handover of power to
ideologically friendly regimes.
• The entire process of decolonization of Malayan Peninsula was largely a result of
long reconciliation procedure amongst the European colonial powers and Malayan
nationalist. Their mutual compromise provided the British the confidence to speed
up the procedure of decolonization with the help of a smooth decolonization
process.

39
 CHAPTER - 6

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Introduction: role. Revolution and civil war in Russia

have had a huge social, economic,
• The Russian defeat at hands of an and political impact on Russia and the
Asian country (Japan) in Russo- world.
Japan War (1904-05), on one hand,
psychologically boosted the Asians in
their independence struggle and on Russian Revolution
other hand, it weakened the Russian
Czarist regime at home. The defeat of 1917
was a vital factor for the decline of The Russian Revolution was an age of
the Autocratic Rule of the Czar, and it political and social revolution across
culminated in the Russian revolution of the territory of the Russian Empire
1905 that brought limited constitutional which started with the abolishment of
monarchy and then in 1917 set up the the monarchy and concluded with the
Communist regime. establishment of the Soviet Union by the
Bolsheviks and the end of the civil war. It
• Majorly key issues of revolution and
resulted in bringing down the autocratic
counter-revolution took place during
rule of the Czars and the building up of
1917 in which aspects of Bolshevik
socialism in the USSR.
ideology also played a significant

Barents Sea

Bolshevik territory, Oct. 1919

Murmansk
Territories lost (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918)
Arc c Circle Bolshevik uprisings, 1917–1918
Archangel

FINLAND White Russian and

RUSSIA
Petrograd
ESTONIA Western boundaries of Russia, 1905–1917
Perm
LATVIA Moscow Yekaterinburg Boundaries of Russia, 1922
LITHUANIA Kazan Novosibirsk
Omsk
Samara - S i berian Rai l road
POLAND Trans
Brest-Litovsk Irkutsk
Kiev
Tsaritsyn Romanov family
UKRAINE
executed, 1918
ROMA NIA Rostov MONGOLIA
Ca

Ukraine lost in Black Sea Aral

spia

Treaty of Brest- Sea Tashkent Vladivostok

n Se

Litovsk; regained CHINA

in 1922 TURKEY
a

Med
iterra
n ean S ea
I M A G E 6.1: R U S S I A N R E VO L U T I O N

40
Causes of the War:
There were numerous causes for the
outbreak of the Russian Revolution. They
are as follows:
• Autocratic Rule of the Czars: The
Czarist autocracy created unrest among
the general public such as labourers,
peasants, intellectuals, and students of
Russia. In the course of time, it took the
shape of hatred towards the Czardom.
• The active role of Russian intellectuals
promoted Enlightenment ideals such
as the dignity of the individual and the
rectitude of democratic representation.
These ideals were championed by
Russia's Liberals, Populists, Marxists,
and Anarchists etc. who supported
democratic reforms.
• The Social System: The Russian
society was divided into a wealthy
and impoverished population. The rich
class included nobles, feudal lords, and
the wealthy. The poor class included
peasants, labourers, and serfs. There
were unbalanced societies. No class
could possibly be content. The ‘Serfdom'
was abolished by Czar Alexander II.
• There were the peasants, who
maintained the majority of the
population in Russia.
• Growth of the urban workforce in the
form of the industrial working class was
another major factor. These workers
were employed in the mines, factories,
and workshops of the major cities. They
suffered low wages, poor housing, and
many accidents. As a result, there were
many strikes and constant conflicts
between the workers and the police.
• Spread of Nihilism: Nihilism's preachers
came out to abolish the current order,
culture, and religious faith in order to
establish a new world. Its main goal
was to overthrow the Czarist regime in
Russia. They used their organizations
to persuade people to oppose Russia's
41
current regime.
• Influence of Industrial Revolution:
Economic obsolete Russia and its
people were attracted towards the new
innovations and development which
evolved with the process of IR in the
world.
• Series of wars like The Crimean War
(1854-56), The Russo-Turkish War (1877-
78), The Russo-Japanese War (1904-
1905) etc. were the triggering events as
they had exhausted all the manpower
and resources of the country, leading
to the suffering of its citizens and the
economy.
• The revolutionary year of 1917 in Russia
was ignited by the First World War.
The war itself was a disaster from
the outset, causing the Tsar to take
personal command in 1915, a move that
placed the entire blame for the war's
defeat on his shoulders for the next few
years. The peasant population became
increasingly enraged as young men
and horses, both necessary for the war
effort, were taken away, decreasing
the amount they could expand and
lowering their standard of living.
Course of the
Revolution:
• The Romanov family ruled Russia as
czars or emperors for three centuries.
The majority of Russians were serfs
who worked on the land and could be
bought and sold like property until they
were liberated in 1861 by Czar Alexander
II.
• The culmination of serfdom was a
major event in Russia, yet it just was not
enough. Since the early 19th century,
Russian revolutionaries have tried to use
assassinations to bring in the change.
• In 1881, revolutionaries succeeded in
assassinating Czar Alexander II after
 several failed attempts. The Russian
citizens became ever more agitated
as the new Czar, Alexander III, tried to
restore order. The Russian citizens were
on the verge of civil war when Nicholas
II became Czar in 1894.
• The Russian people, in general, were
living a minuscule livelihood marked
by massive famine and distress. By
1905, Russia was economically drained
by humiliating military defeats in the
Russo-Japanese War (1904- 1905). In
response, protesters lost their calm and
took to the streets.
• On January 22, 1905, a rally led by
Russian Orthodox priest Georgy A.
Gapon drew over 200,000 workers and
their families. They decided to take their
complaints to the Czar at the Winter
Palace.
• However, it turned out to be cruelly
popularly termed as ‘Bloody Sunday’
as about 300 people were killed and
hundreds more were wounded. As
the news spread, the Russian people
responded by striking, mutinying, and
fighting in peasant uprisings. The 1905
Russian Revolution had begun. Czar
Nicholas II managed to put an end to
the revolt by announcing the 'October
Manifesto,' in which Nicholas made
major concessions. The most important
of these were personal liberty and the
establishment of a Duma (parliament).
• February Revolution: On 8 March 1917
(23 February in the old Russian calendar),
women workers in Petrograd walked out
of their factories and protested in the
streets. It was International Women's
Day, and Russian women were ready to
speak up.
• Approximately 90,000 women marched
through the streets, chanting "Bread,"
"Down with Autocracy!" and "Stop the
War!"
• These ladies were drained, hungry,
and furious. To feed their families,
they worked long hours in deplorable
42
conditions.
• The next day, over 150,000 men
and women took to the streets to
demonstrate. By February 25, the city
of Petrograd had effectively been shut
down, with no one operating. Czar
Nicholas II, who was not in Petrograd
at the time, did not take the revolt
seriously, despite a few incidents of
police and soldiers shooting into the
crowds. Except for the Czar himself,
everyone knew by March 1 that the
Czar's reign was coming to an end.
Czar Nicholas II abdicated on March 2,
making it official.
• Without a monarchy, the issue of who
will rule the nation next remained
unanswered. The Petrograd Soviet was
made up of former Duma members,
and the first was made up of former
Duma members. Former members of
the Duma represented the middle and
upper classes, while the Soviet Union
represented workers and soldiers. In the
end, the former members of the Duma
formed a Provisional Government that
was in charge of the country.
• Within the first few weeks after the
February Revolution, the Provisional
Government abolished the death
penalty, granted amnesty for all political
prisoners and those in exile, ended
religious and ethnic discrimination, and
granted civil liberties.
• October revolution: Vladimir Ilyich
Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, was
living in exile when the February
Revolution transformed Russia. He
criticized the Provisional Government
and called for a new revolution. He
reminded the people that the nation
was still at war, and that the Provisional
Government had done little to provide
food and land to the people.
• The revolution began on October 10, 1917,
when a secret conference of Bolshevik
party leaders was held. The telegraph,
power station, strategic bridges, post
 office, rail stations, and state bank were
all taken over by Bolshevik troops. With
barely a shot fired, the Bolsheviks took
control of these and other posts in the
area. By late that morning, much of
Petrograd had fallen into the hands of
the Bolsheviks, with the exception of the
Winter Palace, where the Provisional
Government's leaders stayed. Prime
Minister Alexander Kerensky was able
to flee, but Bolshevik troops had entered
the Winter Palace by the next day.
The Bolsheviks became Russia's new
rulers after that. Lenin declared almost
immediately that the new government
would put an end to the war, abolish all
private land ownership, and establish a
system of factory worker control.
Civil War:
• In 1918, after World War I, the Russian
Civil War broke out between the
Whites (those against the Soviets,
which included monarchists, liberals,
and other socialists) and the Reds (the
Bolshevik regime) in which millions of
Russian suffered since the mob was
hungry, tired, and wanted their jobs
back.
• Without private land ownership, farmers
started to grow just enough food to feed
themselves, with little incentive to grow
more. There were also no work openings.
Without a battle to fund, manufacturers
were no longer able to fill large orders.
The people's real problems were not
solved; instead, their lives deteriorated
significantly. Russia was engulfed in civil
war in June 1918.
• Near the beginning of the Russian Civil
War, the Reds were worried that the
Whites would free the Czar and his
family, which would not only have given
the Whites a psychological boost but
might have led to the restoration of the
monarchy in Russia. The Reds were not
going to let that happen.
43
• On the night of July 16-17, 1918, Czar
Nicholas, and his entire family was
shot dead. The Civil War was a
violent, vicious, and inhuman conflict
that lasted over two years. The Reds
triumphed, but at the cost of millions of
lives. The Russian Civil War shattered
the country's social structure. The
progressives had vanished. What was
left was a brutal, extreme dictatorship
that ruled Russia until the Soviet Union
fell apart in 1991.
Consequences of
the War:
• The Russian Revolution's first
accomplishments were the abolition
of autocracy, as well as the dissolution
of the bourgeoisie and the church's
influence. For the brief Soviet Union,
the Czarist Empire was turned into
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(U.S.S.R.).
• Private benefit has been removed from
the manufacturing system.
• State-led economic planning was
introduced in order to quickly grow a
technologically advanced economy
and eradicate conspicuous gaps in
society.
• The freedom to work became a
civil right, and it became the state's
responsibility to provide work for all.
» A high emphasis was placed on the
education of the entire population.
» The Constitution granted nationalities'
republics autonomy in developing their
languages and cultures.
» The socialist movement's theories about
socialism contributed to the promotion
of internationalism.
» Influenced independence movements
in the sense that they eventually
 broadened independence goals to
include social and economic inclusion
through organized economic growth.
It can be noted that the Russian Revolution
of 1917 sparked the beginning of a new
era in Russia that had effects on countries
around the world. It completely changed
the government and outlook on life in the
country of Russia which ultimately pushed
the world for a change in the form of a
revolution.

Influence of New Economic Policy, 1921 on Indian policies after the independence
Historically since centuries, Russia has been an important source of ideological
inspiration and motivation for Indians, starting with the Bolshevik Revolution (1917).
There are several instances of Russian policies and events having had an impacts on
India, and the New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1921 is just one such example.
• NEP was planned by Lenin to change the effects of the failing economy. Therefore,
instead of being a communist economy in its totality, the NEP wanted to infuse
some important characteristics of capitalism into Russian society with what Lenin
labeled ‘state capitalism’. State capitalism implied to adoption of a capitalism
oriented economic policy that established a mixed economy.
• The state permitted private organizations/individuals to participate in small-scale
businesses while it controlled and managed major sectors like foreign trade, banks,
defense and some infrastructure-based segments.
• One of the distinctive features of the Indian economy post-independence was
the fact that India was a mixed economy and it adopted an economic policy that
combined qualities of socialism and capitalism, similar to Russia’s NEP.
• The NEP also sought to create linkages among the urban economy and the
rural economy. In India, the focus was on creating linkages among the relatively
developed urban regions and the backward rural regions. Hence, in spirit and in
certain specificities too, the reflections of the NEP can be witnessed in economic
policies of India after the independence.

44
 CHAPTER - 7

WORLD WAR I (1914-1918)

Introduction: had huge economic, political, and social

impact. After the war, the insecurity and
despair that many people experienced
• At the turn of the 20th century, the was reflected in the art and literature of
nations of Europe had been at peace that time. World War I also left behind
with one another for nearly 30 years. a landscape of death and destruction
An entire generation had grown up such as was never seen before.
ignorant of the horrors of war. Some
Europeans believed that progress had
made war a thing of the past. Yet in World War I (1914-1918)
little more than a decade, a massive
war would engulf Europe and spread • The nations of Europe had been at
across the globe. peace with one another for nearly
• The First World War associated with 30 years at the turn of the twentieth
the horrifying conflict marked the century. A generation had grown up
beginning of a new era in European totally blind to the horrors of war. Some
and world history. Various factors led Europeans believed that development
to the first world war like the policy of had made war obsolete. Yet, in less than
Imperial expansion linked with conflict a decade, Europe would be embroiled
amongst the European nations which in a massive war that would spread
across the globe.

THE EUROPE IN 1914 Finland

SWEDEN
Central Powers
Allied Powers NORWAY Helsinki
Neutral countries Saint Petersburg
Christiania Stockholm Estonia
Furthest Central
Powers advancement Saint Petersburg
Latvia
Courland RUSSIA
Denmark
Copenhagen
UNITED KINGDOM

Berlin
London Amsterdam
Netherlands GERMANY Poland
Belgium Brussels

Laon Bohemia
Paris
Vienna
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
FRANCE Bern
SWITZERLANDTyrol Transyl-
Carniola vania
Croatia Romania
Trieste Bucharest
Bosnia
Belgrade
Monaco Sarajevo SERBIA
Portugal San Marino Constantinople
Andorra Rome
Bulgaria
Madrid Montenegro
Lisbon Albania
SPAIN ITALY
GREECE

Athens
Gibraltar

I M A G E 7.1 EUROPE IN 1914

45
• Europe still dominated the rest of the
world in 1914:
» The majority of the decisions that
influenced the world's fate were made
in Europe's capitals. Germany was
Europe's most dominant military and
economic force. Europe had exceeded
Britain in pig-iron and steel production,
but not yet in coal, although Belgium,
France, Italy, and Austria-Hungary
(known as the Habsburg Empire) trailed
far behind.
» Industries in Russia were rapidly
expanding, but it was so backward
to start that it could not seriously
compete with the United Kingdom
and Germany. However, the most
impressive technological development
had occurred outside of Europe over
the previous 40 years.
» The United States produced more pig
iron, coal, and steel than Germany
or the United Kingdom in 1914, and
it is now considered a world power.
After defeating Russia in the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-05, Japan had
also modernized rapidly and was a
force to be reckoned with.
• Varied political systems:
• The United Kingdom, France and
the United States all had democratic
governments. This meant that each
had a parliament made up of members
elected by the people, and these
parliaments had a big say in how the
country was run.
» Some regimes were not as democratic
as they appeared: Germany had an
elected lower house of parliament
(Reichstag), but the Chancellor (akin to
a prime minister) and the Kaiser held
real power.
» Italy was a monarchy with an elected
parliament, but voting rights were
restricted to the rich.
» Japan had an elected lower house, but
46
the franchise was limited here as well,
and the emperor and the privy council
retained the majority of power.
» Russia's and Austria-Hungary's
government were somewhat different
from Western democracies. Russia's
Tsar (emperor) and Austria's Emperor
(who was also King of Hungary) were
both autocratic and absolute rulers.
This means that, though parliaments
existed, they could only advise rulers;
if the rulers so desired, they could
disregard parliaments and do as they
pleased.
• Imperial expansion after 1880:
» Many European countries wanted to
expand their imperial empires after
the Industrial Revolution in the 1870s.
By 1914, European powers had almost
completely dismantled Africa. While
China had been a Republic since 1911,
it had been turned into a colony by the
United States, Japan, France, the United
Kingdom, and Germany following the
overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty.
• Europe had divided itself into two
alliance systems:
» The Triple Alliance: Austria-Hungary,
Germany, and Italy.
» The Triple Entente'. France, Britain, and
Russia.
» Furthermore, Japan and the United
Kingdom had formed an alliance in
1902. Since 1900, tensions between the
two major classes (sometimes referred
to as "the armed camps") have taken
Europe to the brink of war many times.
Causes of Friction within Europe
Many factors threatened to
destabilize Europe's peace:
• Naval competition between Germany
and Britain.
• The fall of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany
at the end of the Franco-Prussian War
(1871) enraged the French.
• The Germans accused the Russia,
France, and United Kingdom of
attempting to "encircle" them; they were
also dissatisfied with the consequences
of their expansionist policies (known as
Weltpolitik, or "world policy"). Despite
the fact that they had taken control
of some Pacific islands and African
territories, their empire was small in
comparison to the other European
powers.
• The Russians were wary of Austrian
Balkan aspirations and concerned
about Germany's increasing military
and economic power.
• Serbian Nationalism:
» Serbian nationalism (desiring to liberate
one's country from the influence of
people of a different nationality) was
perhaps the most dangerous source of
conflict.
» The Ottoman Empire, which included
the Balkans, was rapidly fading by the
early 1900s. Although some Balkan
groups battled to be free of Ottoman
rule, others had already gained
independence from their Turkish
rulers. Greece, Bulgaria, Romania,
Montenegro, and Serbia were among
the new nations founded.
» In these nations, nationalism was a
dominant force. Each community
yearned to broaden its horizons. For
example, Serbia had a sizable Slavic
population. Serbia hoped to consume
all of the Balkan Peninsula's Slavs.
Russia and Austria-Hungary were at
odds over the question of Serbian
nationalism. Serbian nationalism was
backed by Russia, a predominantly
Slavic country. Serbia's rise alarmed
Austria, which feared revolt among its
tiny Slavic population.
» In addition, both Russia and Austria-
Hungary had hoped to fill the power
vacuum created by the Ottoman,
decline in the Balkans.

Events Leading up to the Outbreak of War/Major events before World

War I
1882 Triple Alliance of Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany.
1894 Russia and France sign alliance
1904 France and Britain sign ‘Entente Cordiale’ (friendly ‘getting-together’)
1907 Russia and Britain sign agreement.
1904-05 Russo-Japanese War, won by Japan
1905-06 Moroccan Crisis
1906 Britain builds first ‘Dreadnought’ battleship
1908 Bosnia Crisis
1911 Agadir Crisis
1912 First Balkan War
1913 Second Balkan War
1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo
28 June

47
• The Moroccan Crisis (1905-06):
» This was an effort by the Germans to
extend their empire and put the recently
concluded Anglo-French ‘Entente
Cordiale' (1904) to test the agreement
that France would accept Britain's
role in Egypt in exchange for British
approval of a potential French invasion
of Morocco, one of the few remaining
areas of Africa not dominated by a
European power.
» Germany vowed to keep Morocco's
independence and convened a meeting.
However, France received support from
Spain, Italy, Russia, and the United
Kingdom at the meeting, and the latter
gained control of Moroccan banks
and police. Germany had suffered a
diplomatic setback.
• The British agreement with Russia
(1907):
» It ended their disputes in Asia.
Afghanistan and Tibet were recognized
as British spheres of influence and Iran
was divided into three zones with the
North recognized as Russian zone, the
central area as a buffer and the South
as British zone.
• The Bosnia Crisis (1908):
» Bosnia was annexed by Austria-Hungary
from the Ottoman Empire, which was
weak. Bosnia had a sizable Slavic
minority, and Serbia yearned for Bosnia
to be a part of the future Yugoslavia.
Serbia requested assistance from
Russia, which attempted to convene a
conference on the subject.
» As it became apparent that Germany
would support the Habsburg Empire
in the event of a military war, France
and Britain withdrew their support for
Serbia. They did not want to have a
direct military confrontation with the
Germans.
» Russia lacked the military might to
48
intervene in Serbia's favour. Following
this embarrassment, Russia started
militarization in order to assist Serbia
in the future. Serbia became a bitter
competitor of Austria-Hungary, and
Russia became more wary of the
Habsburg empire's aspirations in the
Balkans.
• Crisis in the Agadir (1911):
» This crisis emerged as a result of the
deteriorating situation in Morocco. To
put down an uprising against the Sultan,
French troops invaded Fez, Morocco's
capital. The French seemed to be on
the verge of annexing Morocco.
» The Panther, a German gunboat, was
sent to the Moroccan port of Agadir in
the hope of pressuring the French into
providing compensation, possibly in the
form of the French Congo.
» Lloyd George (Britain's Chancellor of
the Exchequer) used a speech he was
scheduled to give at the Lord Mayor
of London's banquet at the Mansion
House to warn the Germans off. He
claimed that Britain would not stand by
and allow herself to be manipulated in
circumstances where her interests were
vitally affected.
» The French remained firm, refusing to
make any significant compromises,
and the German gunboat was finally
withdrawn. In exchange for two strips of
land in the French Congo, the Germans
agreed to recognize the French
protectorate (the right to ‘protect' the
nation from foreign intervention).
» This was viewed as a victory for the
Entente forces, but public opinion in
Germany became increasingly anti-
British, particularly as the British
gained ground in the "naval race." They
had completed eight of the latest and
more powerful ‘Dreadnought'-type
battleships by the end of 1911, compared
to Germany's four.
• 1st Balkan War (1912):
» The Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro,
Bulgaria, and Greece) invaded Turkey
and seized the bulk of the Ottoman
Empire's European territories. A truce
was achieved due to mediation by the
United Kingdom and Germany.
» The Ottoman Empire's territories in
Europe was split among the Balkan
States in the peace agreement. Serbia
was dissatisfied because it desired
Albania, which would have given it
access to the sea, but Albania was
granted independence. Clearly, the
Austrian hand was operating toward
Serbia by Germany.
• 2nd Balkan War 1913:
• Romania, Greece, Serbia, and Turkey
battled Bulgaria in this war. Bulgaria
invaded Serbia because it was
upset with the handover of much of
Macedonia to Serbia at the end of the
First Balkan War.
» Bulgaria lost much of the territories it
had won during the First Balkan War
after its defeat. Germany had stopped
Austria-Hungary from supporting
Bulgaria militarily. The United Kingdom,
on the other hand, had not come to the
Serbs' rescue. This was perceived by
Germany as a sign of British disinterest
in the Russians.
» The 2nd Balkan War culminated in
a stronger Serbia, which was now
determined to provoke Croats and
Serbs (both Slavs) from the Habsburg
Empire to achieve Yugoslavia's goal.
• The assassination of the Austrian
Archduke Franz Ferdinand:
» The horrific incident, which occurred
on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia
and Herzegovina's capital, prompted
Austria-Hungary to declare war on
Serbia, sparking the outbreak of the
First World War.
49
» The Archduke, the Emperor Franz
Josef's nephew and successor, was on
an official visit to Sarajevo when he and
his wife were killed by Gavrilo Princip,
a Serb terrorist. The Austrians put the
blame on the Serb government and
issued a stern ultimatum.
» The Serbs agreed to most of the
demands, but the Austrians were
determined to use the incident as
a justification for invasion, with the
promise of German support. Austria-
Hungary declared war on Serbia on
July 28.
Some of the Reasons for the
Escalation of the War:
Since the mid-nineteenth century, attempts
in Europe to make war illegal and create
a lasting peace have gained traction.
Hundreds of peace groups existed by 1900.
Between 1843 and 1907, peace congresses
were held on a regular basis. Underneath
this veneer of peace and goodwill, many
powers were at work that would assist in
propelling Europe into war.
• Imperialism and Colonial rivalry in
Africa:
» Imperialism was another factor that
contributed to the outbreak of war in
Europe. The European nations fought
tooth and nail for colonies in Africa and
Asia. The pursuit of colonies brought
European nations to the brink of war on
many occasions.
» In 1905 and 1911, Germany and France
were on the verge of fighting for
possession of Morocco in northern
Africa. With the majority of Europe on
France's side, Germany finally caved
in. As European countries competed
for foreign empires, their competition
and resentment of one another grew
stronger.
• The naval race between Britain and
 Germany:
» Germany required a larger navy capable
of competing with the world's greatest
sea force, the United Kingdom. The
Germans made a concerted attempt to
extend their navy starting with Admiral
Tirpitz's Navy Law of 1897.
» The British were possibly unconcerned
about the German fleet's rapid
expansion at first because they had
such a large lead. The strong British
‘Dreadnought' battleship, introduced
in 1906, changed everything because it
rendered all other battleships obsolete.
» By defeating the other in the war
at sea, each power had ambition of
establishing naval supremacy once and
for all.
• Economic rivalry
» It has been suggested that the drive
for global economic dominance drove
German merchants and entrepreneurs
to seek war with Britain, which controlled
about half of the world's merchant ship
tonnage in 1914.
» This argument appeals to Marxist
historians because it positions the
responsibility for the war firmly on the
capitalist system. However, opponents
of the theory argue that Germany was
already well on its way to economic
dominance; in 1913, a leading German
industrialist said, "Give us three or four
more years of stability, and Germany
will be the undisputed economic master
of Europe.
• The Growth of Militarism
• Increased nationalism started in
the 1890s, resulting in a dangerous
European arms race. The European
nations agreed that in order to be truly
great, they required a strong military.
» Except for Britain, all of the Great
Powers had massive standing armies by
1914. Military experts also emphasized
50
the importance of being able to
prepare, organize, and move troops
quickly in the event of a war. Generals
of each country formulated elaborate
preparations for such an event.
• Russia made war more likely by
backing Serbia
» Germany would not have entered the
war if Russia had allowed Serbia to
deal with Austria on its own. Russia
has always tried to have a stronghold
in Eastern Europe. However, it did have
legitimate concerns.
» Germany and Austria had already
influenced the Ottoman Empire. If
Austria had conquered Serbia, the
Dardanelles, which provided an outlet
from the Black Sea (crucial for Russian
trade) would have fallen under Austrian
and German rule, putting a stop to
Russian trade.
• German backing of Austria was also
crucially important
» It was most likely due to the Germans'
feeling of being encircled by France
and United Kingdom. In 1894, Russia
and France signed a treaty.
» Britain and France, who had been
traditional rivals, concluded an
agreement of peace, known as the
Entente Cordiale, in 1904, under which
they settled their disputes over African
colonies.
» In 1907, Russia and the United Kingdom
reached an agreement that put an
end to their Asian conflicts. By 1907,
Germany was concerned about
the growing proximity of the other
major powers in the region, despite
the fact that these agreements were
theoretically not military in nature
and dealt with commerce, territorial
disputes, and investments.
• Tangled Alliances
» As early as the 1870s, increasing
international rivalries led to the
formation of many military alliances
among the Great Powers. This alliance
scheme was created to keep Europe
at peace. Instead, it contributed to
the continent's escalation into battle.
After Austria declared war on Serbia
for failing to fulfil any of the demands,
Russia ordered a full mobilization
against the Austria in order to honour
the alliance with Serbia.
» Then, Russia had refused Germany's
demand that it not mobilize troops
against Austria because it had an
alliance with Austria. So, Germany
mobilized troops and declared war on
Russia.
» Since Germany assumed France would
join the war in support of Russia, it
formed an alliance with the Ottoman
Empire and declared war on France.
• Crisis in the Balkans
» Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied,
or taken over, by Austria in 1908. There
were significant Slavic communities in
each of these Balkan areas. Serbian
leaders were furious, as they had hoped
to rule these provinces. War became a
reality. Serbia was given full support
by Russia, but the offer was ineffective.
Russia was unprepared for war in any
way. When Germany stood firmly
behind Austria, Russia and Serbia had
to back down.
» By 1914, tensions in the Balkan region
were once again on the rise. Serbia had
emerged victorious from several local
conflicts. As a result, the nation had
gained additional territory and a new
confidence. It was more determined
than ever to seize Bosnia and
Herzegovina from Austrian influence.
In response, Austria-Hungary declared
that any attempt by Serbia to weaken
its authority in the Balkans would be
crushed.
51
• A 'tragedy of miscalculation'
» The war was originally started by
a "tragedy of miscalculation" The
majority of the influential rulers and
leaders seemed inexperienced and
made expensive mistakes: the Austrians
miscalculated by believing Russia would
not support Serbia.
» Germany made a vital error by
promising unconditional protection to
Austria; as a result, the Germans, as
well as the Austrians, were both guilty
of risking a major war. Russia's and
Germany's leaders miscalculated by
believing that mobilization does not
always entail war.
• Another cause of the war was the lack of
any machinery to control international
relations. There was anarchy in the
international relations of the various
countries.
A Bloody Stalemate Along the
Western Front
• Under the Schlieffen Strategy Germany
soon implemented its military strategy.
General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen, the
plan's creator, was given the name.
Schlieffen had proposed fighting France
first, then Russia, in the event of a two-
front battle. The general reasoned that
Russia would have trouble mobilizing
its forces due to its lack of railroads.
• The Schlieffen Plan called for a large
portion of the German army to race
west to defeat France, then return east
to fight Russia. The German strategy
relied heavily on speed. The French had
troops stationed all over their German
frontier. As a result, the Germans
expected that breaking through would
be difficult. However, there was another
option: France's northern border with
Belgium was unguarded.
• On their way to France, Germany
 requested that its troops be permitted
to move through Belgium. Belgium,
which is a neutral country, declined.
After that, Germany invaded Belgium.
This pulled the United Kingdom into the
war. The British had strong relations with
Belgium, one of their closest European
neighbours. On August 4, outraged at
the breach of Belgian neutrality, Britain
declared war on Germany.
• As the summer of 1914 turned to fall,
Germany's lightning-quick assault on
the battlefields of France turned into a
long and bloody stalemate, or deadlock.
The Western Front was called after this
impasse in northern France.
• On September 5, the Allies launched an
assault on the Germans northeast of
Paris, in the Marne River valley.
• The First Battle of the Marne was
possibly the single most important event
of the war, the first major confrontation
on the Western Front. The Schlieffen
Plan was destroyed when the Germans
were defeated. It seemed that a swift
win in the west was no longer feasible.
Russian forces had already occupied
Germany in the east.
• Germany will have to fight on two
fronts for a long time. As the German
high command realized this, it sent
thousands of troops from France to
assist its forces in the east. Meanwhile,
on the Western Front, the war had come
to a stalemate.
• War in the Trenches:
» On the Western Front, opposing armies
had dug miles of parallel trenches to
shield themselves from enemy fire by
early 1915. This paved the way for the
development of trench warfare. Soldiers
fought each other from trenches in this
style of warfare. And armies exchanged
massive casualties for pitiful land gains.
» Life in the trenches was a living
nightmare. One soldier wrote, "The men
slept in mud, washed in mud, ate mud,
52
and dreamed in mud." The trenches
were crawling with rodents. There was
no fresh food available. It was almost
impossible to sleep.
The Battle on the Eastern Front
• Even as thousands of men died on the
Western Front, both sides were sending
millions more to fight on the Eastern
Front. This was a stretch of battlefield
that ran along the German-Russian
frontier. Germans, Austrians, and Turks
fought Russians and Serbs here. The
conflict in the east was more mobile than
the war in the west. However, slaughter
and stalemate were commonplace here
as well.
• Central powers gain the advantage at
the very beginning of the war, Russian
forces launched an assault on both
Austria and Germany right at the start of
the war. Germany launched a counter-
offensive near Tannenberg at the end
of August 1914. The Germans routed the
invading Russian army and drove it into
complete retreat during the four-day
war that followed. Germany reclaimed
East Prussia and confiscated a large
number of horses and guns from the
enemy. About 30,000 Russian soldiers
were killed in the conflict.
• Against the Austrians, Russia did a little
better. In September 1914, Russian forces
routed the Austrians twice, forcing
them deep into Austria. The Austrian
army, with German assistance, did not
manage to turn the tide until December
of that year. Austria defeated the
Russians and drove them eastward in a
17-day campaign near Limanowa. The
Russians were driven out of Austria-
Hungary by the Austrian army two
weeks later.
• Russia’s War Effort Weakens:
» Russia's war effort was on the verge
of failing by 1916. Russia, unlike the
 countries of Western Europe, had not
yet been industrialized. As a result,
the Russian army ran out of food,
weapons, ammunition, clothing, boots,
and blankets on a regular basis.
Furthermore, the Allies were unable to
supply Russia's ports with supplies. The
Baltic Sea was blocked by a German
naval fleet in the north. The Ottomans
also controlled the straits linking the
Mediterranean and the Black Sea in the
south.
» However, Germany and her allies were
worried about more than just the
Eastern and Western Fronts. Fighting
spread beyond Europe to Africa, as well
as Southwest and Southeast Asia, as
the war progressed.
Course of the War
• On July 28, Austria declared war on
Serbia and ordered the mobilization of
her army in preparation for an attack.
Following the outbreak of war between
Serbia and Austria, conflicts broke out
between militarily related countries.
These conflicts culminated in the global
war, also known as the First World War.
Russia ordered mobilization against
Austria to limit Austrian expansion in
the Balkans in order to pressure Austria
to abandon the war against Serbia.
• Because Germany would come to
Austria's assistance if Russia joined the
war against Austria, Russia planned
for a war with Germany as well. In the
case of a war between Russia and
Germany, Germany was convinced that
France would side with Russia against
Germany. Germany will have to fight
on two fronts: the west with France and
the east with Russia. Thus, the second
war was between Austria and Germany
on the one side and Russia and France
on the other.
• The British situation remained
ambiguous, as the British government
53
was split over whether or not to go to
war. However, Germany's invasion of
neutral Belgium put an end to Britain's
indecision, and the two countries
went to war. German troops invaded
Belgium on the morning of August 4th,
and Britain declared war on Germany
at midnight on the same day. Others
quickly joined in as a result of both
sides' attempts to entice allies with
assurances of territorial gains. Japan
declared war on Germany in August.
• Italy declared war on Austria in May
1915. Austrian and Turkish territories
had been pledged to her by Britain
and France. Later, Romania, Portugal
and Greece joined Britain, France, and
Russia, creating the Allied Powers, which
included these countries and their allies.
• Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria
in October 1915. In November, Turkey
declared war on Russia, siding with
Germany and Austria in the conflict.
Germany and Austria, as well as their
allies, were recognized as the Central
Powers. Finally, USA entered the war
in April 1917 on the side of the Allied
Powers which widened the scope of the
conflict.
• The conflict had escalated into a
complete war. It was no longer limited
to armies battling each other. It
necessitated the mobilization of all
of the major belligerent countries'
resources. The manufacture of
explosives and other war materials
became increasingly important. It also
claimed that no items, including food,
weapons, and other materials, should
be allowed to enter the enemy's country
from any source. Britain placed a naval
blockade on Germany, and despite
the fact that the two countries' naval
fleets only engaged in one major battle,
which was indecisive, the British were
successful in their blockade.
• Russia had withdrawn from the war
after the October Revolution but the
 entry of the USA into the war made it up
for the allies. The United States' armies
and enormous economic resources
were now to be used directly to defeat
the Central Powers.
• Meanwhile, dissatisfaction was
increasing among the civilian population
and soldiers of all the major belligerent
countries. Russia's autocratic monarchy
had already crumbled. In the countries
of the Central Powers, resentment was
even more widespread.
• In Germany and Austria-Hungary,
there were a number of strikes and
mutinies in their armies and navies.
The tide of the war was starting to turn
toward Germany by the middle of July
1918. On the western front, Germany
had conducted a series of offensives,
causing heavy losses on the Allies.
• Only Germany remained a major
central power to be fully vanquished
by the end of August 1918, and final
Allied offensives against Germany
launched in September. Bulgaria
surrendered on September 29, 1918.
The Ottoman Empire was defunct by
the end of October. The Habsburg
emperor abdicated on November 12th.
The majority of the Austro-Hungarian
empire's people—the Czechs, Poles,
and Yugoslavs had already declared
their independence.
• On November 3, a revolt erupted in
Germany; on November 9, the German
emperor abdicated and fled to Holland,
and Germany was declared a republic
on November 10. The armistice was
54
signed on November 11, 1918, by
Germany's new government, and the
First World War came to an end at 11
a.m. on that day.
• Spread of the war outside Europe:
• Some big battles were fought outside
of Europe, in North Africa and West
Asia. Germany and Turkey banded
together to challenge Allied control
and possessions in North Africa and
West Asia. Britain and France struck
back and attempted to conquer the
Ottoman Empire's Arab territories.
» They also made connections with Arab
nationalists and others, inciting anti-
Turkish uprisings in the Arab world. In
1916, although ostensibly supporting
the cause of freeing Arab countries
from Turkish control, Britain and France
signed a secret agreement known as
the Sykes-Picot agreement.
» During the course of the war, German
colonial possessions in Asia and Africa
were seized by the Allied Powers.
Japan made colonial gains in China
by acquiring control over the German
sphere of influence and forcing China
to make further concessions to her.
» German South-West Africa (was a
colony of the German Empire from
1884 until 1915) was occupied by South
African troops, Togoland by British
and French troops, and Cameroons by
British, French, and Belgian troops. The
fighting between British and German
troops in German East Africa continued
till the end of the war.
 The World War, 1914-1918
The European colonies
thoughout Africa become
War rages in a battlefield as the warring
Southwest Asia as parties strike at one another’s
Arab nationalists colonial possessions.
battle their Turkish
rulers
Main fighting of ASIA
the war occurs on
Western and
NORTH Eastern Fronts.
AMERICA EUROPE

JAPAN
The United States
enters into the war
from the side of INDIA
the Allies in 1917.
AFRICA

SOUTH
AMERICA India provides about
1.3 million men to fight
The European colonies and labor alongside AUSTRALIA
thoughout Africa become their British rulers
Bazil is the only South
a battlefield as the warring thoughout Europe.
American country to
parties strike at one another’s
enter the war. It supports
colonial possessions.
the Allies with warships
and personnel.

I M A G E 7.2: S P R E A D OF WW I

The Blockade Policy: This was followed mainly by Britain and Germany. It aimed at
three things:
• Blockade of the rival trade routes so the rival is starved out due to the lack of supply
of goods (arms, rations etc.) and is thus forced to surrender.
• Provide security to own trade routes so that the country which is blockading does
not itself starves.
• For movement of troops.
Battle of Jutland (1916): This was a battle on the sea and resulted in further British control
of sea surface. This left Germany with no option but to use underwater submarines and
in an attempt to blockade the Allies it started the unrestricted submarine warfare.

Impact of the War such as was never seen before.

• Both sides in World War I paid a
• A century after the war ended, the tremendous price in terms of human
consequences of the conflict are still
life. About 8.5 million soldiers died as
being felt. It was the worst war in history,
a result of the war. Another 21 million
involving more countries and costing
more were wounded. In addition,
more money than any previous conflict.
the war led to the death of countless
• Four monarchies fell as a result of civilians by way of starvation, disease,
World War I: Germany, Turkey, Austria- and slaughter. Taken together, these
Hungary, and Russia. figures spelled tragedy—an entire
• World War I was a different kind of war generation of Europeans wiped out.
in several respects. It involved the use of • The war altered the global economic
new technologies. It was the first time balance, leaving European countries
that war was conceived on such a grand deeply in debt and establishing the
and global scale. It also left behind a United States as the world's leading
landscape of death and destruction manufacturing force and creditor.

55
• Europe was also ravaged economically War I forever changed the face of
as a result of the war. Europe's treasuries modern warfare.
were exhausted by the great war. • World War I created a lot of resentment
According to one estimate, the war cost among nations as a result of the harsh
$338 billion, which was a huge sum at tactics used during the war and the
the time. The war also destroyed acres casualties suffered, which contributed
of farmland, as well as homes, villages, greatly to World War II decades later.
and towns.
• Women had to manage businesses
• Citizens became more receptive to while their husbands were at war,
other philosophies as a result of the and labour restrictions began to be
war, such as the Bolsheviks' rise to implemented as a result of industrial
power in Russia and fascism's victory in production and mechanization. People
Italy and, later, Germany. desired higher living standards.
• The end of colonialism was largely • After World War I , the need for an
marked by World War I as citizens international body of nations that
became more nationalistic and promotes security and peace worldwide
imperialist revolts broke out in Southeast became evident. This caused the
Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. founding of the League of Nations.
• Inflation soared in most countries, • World War I boosted research in
and Germany's economy was technology, because better transport
severely damaged by the need to pay and means of communication gave
reparations. countries an advantage over their
• With soldiers deployed all over the enemies.
world, influenza spread quickly, resulting • The harsh conditions of the Treaty of
in a global epidemic that killed over 25 Versailles caused a lot of dissent in
million people. Europe, especially on the side of the
• With all of the latest guns used, World Central Powers who had to pay a lot for
financial reparations.

July 1918 November 1918

Allies defeat Warring nations
Germany at sign armistce
Second Battle of ending the war.
.
the Marne.

1914 1916 1917 1918

June 1914 July 1914 July-August 1914 1916 1917 March 1918
Archduke Austria-hun- Russia, France, and Combatants United Russia
Ferdinand and gary declares Britain go to war suffer states enters withdraws
his wife are war on serbia. against Germany devastating the war. from the
assassinated. and Austria-Hungary. losses at war.
battles of
Verdun and
the Somme

I M A G E 7.3: T I M E L I N E OF WORLD WAR I

The Aftermath of World War I the Palace of Versailles outside of Paris.

This conference was the focus of heated,
World War I had come to an end. The
frequently bitter debate for a year. In
assassination had ended. The terms of
numerous peace treaties, the Allied powers
peace, on the other hand, had to be
failed to reconcile their opposing goals.
hammered out. A conference to define
those terms began on January 18, 1919, at • Delegates from 32 countries attended

56
 the negotiations, known as the Paris
Peace Conference. The Big Four:
Woodrow Wilson of the United States,
Georges Clemenceau of France, David
Lloyd George of the United Kingdom,
and Vittorio Orlando of Italy hammered
out the meeting's main decisions. Russia
was not represented because it was in
the middle of a civil war.
Wilson’s Plan for Peace
President Wilson drafted a number of
reforms in January 1918, when the war
was still raging. The Fourteen Points, as
they were called, outlined a strategy for
creating a just and sustainable peace:
• Abolition of secret democracy.
• All-round reduction of armaments.
• Removal of economic barriers between
states.
• Self-government for the people of
Austria-Hungary.
• Evacuation of Russian territory.
• Restoration of Belgium.
• Liberation of France and restoration of
Alsace and Lorraine.
• Impartial adjustment of colonial claims
in the interests of the populations
concerned.
• Self-government for the non-Turkish
people of the Turkish Empire and
permanent opening of the Dardanelles.
• Readjustment of Italian frontiers along
the lines of nationality.
• Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro to
be evacuated and Serbia given access
to the sea.
• Free navigation at sea for all nations in
war and peace.
• Independent Poland with secure access
to the sea.
• A general association of nations to
preserve peace.
Treaty of Versailles
The differences between French, British,
and U.S. aims led to heated arguments
among the nations’ leaders. Finally, a
compromise was reached. The Treaty of
Versailles between Germany and the Allied
powers was signed on June 28, 1919— five
years to the day after Franz Ferdinand’s
assassination in Sarajevo.

The Treaty of Versailles: Major Provisions

League of Nations Territorial Losses Military Restrictions War Guilt

International Peace Limits set on the size Sole responsi-
organization; of the German army bility for the
membership to Germany prohibited war placed on
include Allied war from importing or Germany’s
powers and 32 Allied manufacturing weapons shoulders
and neutral nations or war materiel Germany forced
Germany and Russia Germany forbidden to to pay the Allies
excluded build or buy submarines $33 billion in
or have an air force reparations
over 30 years

I M A G E 7.4: T R E AT Y OF V E R S A I L L E S : M A J O R P R OV I S I O N S

57
Major provisions of the treaty:
• In Europe, Germany lost territory:
Alsace-Lorraine was granted to France.
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania have
been granted independence. Denmark,
Belgium, Poland, and Lithuania were
granted portions of German territory.
While SAAR and DANZIG had a German
population, they were governed by the
League of Nations. Danzig was a major
West Prussian port. Saar was to be ruled
by the League of Nations for fifteen
years until a vote was held to determine
if it should be granted to France or
Germany. Over the next fifteen years,
France was granted permission to use
the Saar coal mines.
• Even though Austria had a large
German population, a union between
the two countries was prohibited.
• Under the League of Nations, Germany's
African colonies were stripped away
and turned into Mandates. Members of
the League of Nations were tasked with
‘looking after' the colonies that had
been allocated to them as mandates
and preparing them for eventual
independence.
• Germany was disarmed, and it was
forbidden to impose conscription
(compulsory military service). By
I M A G E 7.5: E U R O P E B E F O R E & A F T E R WW I
58
permanently demilitarizing Rhineland
(Germany), it was made a buffer
zone between France and Germany.
Germany was limited to six battleships
and a maximum of one lakh troops. It
could not have any aircraft, tanks, or
submarines.
• War guilt clause: It placed the blame
for World War I solely on Germany and
its allies.
• War Reparations: Germany was to pay
6600 pounds after a lot of deliberations.
But it was decreased to 2000 million
pounds later as the earlier amount was
disproportionately high, and Germans
were in no position to pay such a huge
amount. The aim of the reparations
was to ensure that Germany continues
to grapple with its economy for a long
time and thus never be a threat to
France and Britain in foreseeable future.
The Creation of New Nations
• The Treaty of Versailles was only one
of a number of treaties negotiated at
the end of World War I. The treaties
resulted in new national boundaries
and new countries.
• In 1919 and 1920, the Western powers
 concluded separate peace treaties with
each of the defeated countries: Austria,
Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman
Empire.
• The Central Powers have lost a lot of
territory as a result of these treaties.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire spawned
a number of new nations. Hungary,
Austria, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia
were all given their independence.
• Poland, which had long been divided
among Germany, Russia, and Austria-
Hungary, was reconstituted.
• Russian land yielded the new nations of
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
Treaty of St Germain (1919) and the
Treaty of Trianon (1920)
Treaty of St Germain (1919) was signed with
Austria and the Treaty of Trianon (1920)
was signed with Hungary. These treaties
had following consequences:
• Austria & Hungary were reduced to
a very small size as compared to the
expanse of Habsburg empire.
• Territory was distributed among other
European nations on the principle of
self-determination which entailed that
now people lived under the government
of their own nationality.
The Treaty of Sevres
The Treaty of Sevres was a 1920 treaty
signed between the Allies of World War I
and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ceded
large parts of Ottoman territory to France,
the United Kingdom, Greece, and Italy and
59
created large occupation zones within the
Ottoman Empire.
Following were important points:
• Huge loss of territory to Greece e.g.
Eastern Thrace and Smyrna. Italy also
got some territory.
• Dardanelles or the Straits (provided
outlet from Black Sea) were permanently
opened.
• Ottoman Empire’s colonies were
converted to mandates and given
to Britain and France. Syria became
French Mandate while British Mandates
included Trans Jordan, Iraq, and
Palestine.
In the end, the Treaty of Versailles did little
to build a lasting peace. For one thing, the
United States—considered after the war
to be the dominant nation in the world—
ultimately rejected the treaty. Many
Americans objected to the settlement and
especially to President Wilson’s League
of Nations. Americans believed that the
United States’ best hope for peace was to
stay out of European affairs. The United
States worked out a separate treaty with
Germany and its allies several years later.
Lacking the support of the United States,
and later other world powers, the League
of Nations was in no position to take action
on these complaints. The settlements at
Versailles represented, as one observer
noted, “a peace built on quicksand.” Indeed,
that quicksand eventually would give way.
In a little more than two decades, the
treaties’ legacy of bitterness would help
plunge the world into another catastrophic
war.
 CHAPTER - 8
INTER-WAR PHASE
Introduction:
• The terror of World War I shattered the
whole world. New ideas and patterns
of life developed in the 1920s that
altered the way people looked at the
world. Important episodes of Inter war
phase are- formation of League of
Nations, the great depression, rise of
Hitler and Mussolini and Spanish civil
war. The year 1929 was an important
watershed in the history of the world
and after 1929, Europe started to drift
towards the second World War. Some
of the significant events are the death
of Stresemann (1929), Wall Street Crash
(1929) and rise of Hitler to power in 1933
(he became Chancellor) etc.
• In the 1930s, several countries—
including Japan, Germany, and Italy—
adopted aggressive, militaristic policies
and eventually those policies led to war.
The League had
two main aims
To maintain peace through collective
security: if one country was attacked by
other, the member states would act collec-
tively, to restrain the aggressor, either by
military or by economic sanctions.
• But, during the 1930s the League’s
authority was challenged number of times,
first when Japan invaded Manchuria
(1931) and later when Italy attacked
Abyssinia (1935). Both Japan and Italy
ignored the League’s orders to withdraw,
and for various reasons it proved futile to
60
The League of
Nations
Introduction:
• On 10 January 1920, the League of
Nations formally came into existence,
the same day that the Versailles Treaty
came into force. It was headquartered
in Geneva in Switzerland. It was the first
intergovernmental organization with
main aim to settle international disputes
before they got out of control, and thus
prevent war from ever breaking out
again.
• The origins of the League of Nations
can be traced back to the Allied Powers'
war objectives. Woodrow Wilson’s 14
points had provided for creation of an
international body that would work for
maintenance of world peace.
To encourage international co-oper-
ation to solve socio-economic
problems.
force them to comply with.
• After 1935, respect for the League took
nose dive as its weaknesses became
more visible. During Germany’s disputes
with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which
led on to the Second World War, the
League was not even consulted.
Structure of the League of
Nations
• Membership: Initially there were
42 member nations. By 1926, when
Germany was granted membership, the
total number of member nations had
reached 55.
• General Assembly: It included members
of the League of Nations. The Assembly
met annually, and the decisions were
taken unanimously. All members of the
Assembly had assigned one vote. The
Assembly was a policy making body
and thus its mandate was to decide
on the general policy matters. It also
governed the finances of the League
of Nations and was empowered to
change the peace treaty. The special
functions of the Assembly comprised
the admission of new members, the
periodical election of nonpermanent
members to the Council, the election
of the Council of the Judges of the
Permanent Court and controlling the
budget. In practice, the Assembly was
the directing force of League activities.
• Security Council: The League had a
Security Council with eight members
at the start, 4 permanent and 4
non-permanent members. The non-
permanent members were elected
by the General Assembly for three
years term. By 1926, the council had
13 members with the seats for non-
permanent members now increasing
to 9. The four permanent members
were Britain, Italy, Japan, and France.
The decisions in the council were
taken unanimously. The mandate of
the Security Council was to deal with
political issues.
• Peacekeeping Function: All disputes
that could result into a war were to
be referred to the League and any
member that resorted to war was to
face collective actions by the rest of
the members. The Security Council
61
would have the powers to recommend
the amount of resources - military,
air, naval - that each member of the
League should contribute for collective
action against the aggressor.
• Permanent Court of International
Justice: It was established in Hague
(Netherlands). Its mandate was to deal
only with the legal disputes between
member countries and not the political
disputes. It had 15 judges from different
nationalities. It still continues to function
today as part of the United Nations and
is called as the International Court of
Justice (ICJ).
• Secretariat: It was established as
a support unit and handled the
paperwork, formulation of reports and
preparing the agenda.
• Commissions & Committees:
Commissions were setup, with each
commission dealing with specific
problems. Examples of important
commissions were commission for
handling issues regarding Military
Affairs, Disarmament, Mandates etc.
While on the other hand, important
committees were those dealing with
areas of Labor, Health, Women Rights,
Child Welfare, Drugs etc.
Evaluation of Working of
League of Nations
Success
• Many of the commissions and
committees achieved valuable
outcomes which fostered the
international co-operation. One of
most successful achievement was the
establishment of International Labour
Organization (ILO) under French
socialist director, Albert Thomas. Its
intention was to improve conditions of
labour all over the world by persuading
governments to:
» Fix a maximum working day and week.
» Specify adequate minimum wages.
» Introduce sickness and unemployment
benefit.
» Introduce old-age pensions.
• The Refugee Organization, under
the leadership of Fridtj of Nansen,
a Norwegian explorer, resolved the
problems of thousands of former
prisoners of war stranded in Russia;
nearly half a million were returned home.
After 1933, significant help was provided
to thousands of people escaping from
the Nazi persecution in Germany.
• The Health Organization did
commendable job in investigating the
causes of epidemics, and successfully
tackled a typhus epidemic in Russia,
which would have engulfed the Europe.
• The Permanent Mandate Commission
supervised the governments of the
territories taken from Turkey and
Germany, while another commission
was responsible for administering the
Saar. It did this very efficiently and
concluded by organizing the 1935
plebiscite in which a large majority
voted for the Saar to be returned to
Germany.
• Resolution of minor International
disputes: In this regard the League had
partial success. It forced Greece to pay
compensation to Bulgaria when Greece
invaded Bulgaria. The League’s decision
came in favour of Britain when Turkey
Britain 1919
France 1919
Japan 1919
Italy 1919
Germany 1926
USSR
USA Never joined
62
began claiming the Mosul province,
which was controlled by Britain. The
League solved a territorial dispute
between Columbia and Peru. In 1921,
when there was a dispute over Upper
Silesia (an industrial region) between
Poland and Germany, the League
successfully made both the parties
reach a settlement and Upper Silesia
was partitioned between the two.
Why Did the League Fail to Sustain
the Peace?
• It was too closely linked with the Treaty
of Versailles.
• This made the League look like an
organization established especially
for the benefit of the victorious allied
powers. Along with it had to defend the
peace settlement which was far from
practicable.
• The provisions of the treaty were
inherently troublesome such as, the
inclusion of Germans in Czechoslovakia
and Poland and the disappointing
territorial gains of the Italians.
• Rejection by the USA:
» The League suffered a serious blow
in March 1920 when the US Senate
rejected both the Versailles settlement
and the League. The League without a
powerful member like USA meant that
it was deprived of great psychological
and financial benefits.
Still a member in 1939
Still a member in 1939
1933
1935
1933
1934 Still a member in 1939
• Conference of Ambassadors: It was
established as a temporary body to resolve
disputes regarding peace treaties until
the League was constituted and made
fully operational. However, it continued
to exist even after the establishment of
the League. This hurt the authority and
legitimacy of the League. Many times the
Conference of Ambassadors overruled
decisions of the League, such as, in case
of the Corfu incident (1923) involving Italy
and Greece.
• Failure of Disarmament: Only Germany
was disarmed under the Versailles
Settlement. The League failed to
convince other great powers to initiate
disarmament. France and Britain did
not favour self-disarmament. In the
World Disarmament Conference which
was held in 1932-33, Hitler demanded
equality of armament with France.
However, France declined as it feared
that Germany would arm itself to
become an equal military power and
soon emerge as a threat to its frontiers.
Hitler used this as an excuse to quit
the World Disarmament Conference.
Soon, he would denounce the League
of Nations and make Germany quit it
as well.
• It was very much a British/French affair
» In the absence of the USSR and the
USA, along with the hostility of Italy, it
made the League very much a British/
French affair. However as their rejection
of the Geneva Protocol showed, the
Conservatives in British were not very
enthusiastic about the League. Instead,
they preferred to sign the Locarno
Treaties (1925), outside the League,
instead of conducting negotiations
within it.
• The world economic crisis of 1929 and
its impact
» The situation really started drifting
out of control with the onset of the
economic crisis or the Great Depression
63
of 1929.
» Rising unemployment and decline in
living standards became common scene
in most of the countries. It resulted into
rise of extreme right-wing governments
in Germany and Japan; together with
Mussolini, they declined to follow the
rules and took a series of actions which
revealed the League’s weaknesses.
» For example, Manchuria was invaded
by Japan in 1931, Italy invaded Abyssinia
in 1935, the Spanish Civil War of 1936
saw military intervention by Hitler and
Mussolini in favor of France, Japan’s
invasion of China in 1937 and Hitler’s
annexation of Austria in 1938.
» In all the above cases, the League
looked like powerless and failed to
check the military aggression by the
member states.
» In case of Japan’s invasion of Manchuria
in 1931, the League’s decision was that
the Japan should evacuate Manchuria.
However, Japan did not follow this
decision and withdrew from the League
of Nations membership in 1933.
» Economic or Military sanctions against
Japan were not even discussed as
France and Britain were under economic
stress due to the Great Depression.
» Likewise, when Abyssinia appealed the
League against the Italian aggression
of 1935, the League imposed sanctions
which were enforced half-heartedly.
Italy was still permitted to import
important goods like steel, oil, and coal,
and hence, the sanctions failed to force
Italy to withdraw from Abyssinia.
Over the period of time, small states lost all
faith in the League because of its inaction
against the invasion of Manchuria and
Abyssinia by Japan and Italy, respectively.
The seeds of Fascists started taking
roots. This boosted Hitler’s confidence
to violate the Treaty of Versailles. Due to
these reasons, World War II could not be
prevented.
Rise of Fascism in
Italy - Mussolini
• Fascism's rise in Italy had fueled by
bitter disappointment over the failure • Finally,
to win significant territorial secures
at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference.
Rising inflation and unemployment
also caused a widespread social
uproar. Italy's upper and middle classes
scared a Communist revolution, like
Russia. To growing numbers of Italians,
their government appeared helpless
to deal with the country's problems.
They needed a leader who would take • In October 1922, about 30,000 Fascists
action.
Rise of Mussolini and March on
Rome (1922):
• A newspaper editor and politician
who backed Benito Mussolini openly
promised to save Italy by improving its
economy and reorganising its military
forces. He promised to provide Italy
Why Was Mussolini Able to Come to Power?
Popularity
of Mussolini
Violence by
Communists Reasons
Mussolini
came to the
power
I M A G E 8.1: R E A S O N S M U S S O L I N I
• Disappointment with the Treaty of
Versailles:
» Italy was not given all the territory she
64
with strong leadership. Mussolini
founded the Fascist Party in 1919. In
the beginning, he failed to win support.
As economic conditions worsened, his
popularity rapidly grew.
Mussolini criticized Italy's
government openly. Groups of Fascists
wore black shirts and attacked
Socialists and communists on the
street. This campaign terrorizes his
opposer. Because Mussolini played on
the fear of a workers' revolt, he began
to win support from the middle classes,
aristocrats, and industrial leaders.
stormed on Rome. They called for that
King Victor Emmanuel III should let
Mussolini lead the government. The
King decided that Mussolini would
be the best hope for his dynasty to
get through and let Mussolini make
a government. Thus, after extensive
violence and a threat of armed uprising,
Mussolini took power "legally." At the
time, a foreign diplomat described him
as "an actor, a dangerous rascal, and
possibly slightly off his head."
Disappointment
with the Treaty
of Versailles
Poor
Economy
C A M E TO T H E P OW E R
was promised in 1915 to enter WW I on
the Allies' side. For example, some of
the parts promised to Italy were given
to Yugoslavia. Also, Albania, which
 had pledged to Italy, was made an
independent country. That decreased
the prestige of the government, and
the public sentiment turned against the
government.
• Poor Economy:
» That was a significant reason for the rise
of Mussolini. The economic conditions
worsened due to high war expenditure.
Also, Italy had incurred massive debt
from the US to fund its war effort. This
debt would now repay in dollars.
» Also, there was massive unemployment
as heavy industries had to cut down
their wartime production levels. Because
of the cost of World War I, the post-war
economic crisis, and the debt from the
US, which now repaid- Italy's currency
"lira" depreciated (as there was an out-
rush of dollars and lessen in production),
and consequently, there was inflation
that hurt the ordinary people who
were unemployed. The 2.5 million ex-
servicemen were unable to find a job.
• System of Proportional representation:
» In the 1919 elections, voting for only "men"
and the proportional representation
system had been introduced (women
were given the voting right in 1945 for
the election of the constituent assembly
after World war II).
» As in the System of Proportional
Representation, the parties had
allocated seats in the Parliament in
proportion to each party's votes in the
elections. This system resulted in many
parties coming to Parliament (the
Liberals, the Nationalists, the Socialists,
Communists, Catholic Popular Party,
and Italian Fascists Party).
» Thus, it could form only a weak coalition
government as no single party could
get most seats. These governments
remained unstable (five governments
from 1919-22- all unable of decisive
action). That led to a decline in the
65
Parliamentary form of government's
credibility. However, as the economy
deteriorated, his popularity rapidly
increased. The masses felt that the
system was impotent to provide a
decisive government.
• Violence by Communists:
» The communist-led a surge of strikes
during 1919 and 1920. From 1919
onward, there were many violent strikes,
rioting, looting of shops, and factories'
occupation.
» Soviet-like organizations began to
prop up and evicted wealthy landlords
from their lands. Thus, there was a real
danger of the communist revolution
in 1920. But after that, the threat, of
course, declined as suppliers did not
supply raw materials to workers. Hence,
the factory occupation began to fail.
» Also, the formation of the Communist
party in 1921 decreased the chances
of revolution because it implied a split
in the left-wing (Socialists Party and
Communists party).
» In 1922, the communists had tried out
a general strike. The credibility of the
government declined due to depriving
the security of the property. In such an
atmosphere, Mussolini led the March
on Rome.
• Popularity of Mussolini:
» Mussolini was a well-known journalist
who started as a socialist but turned
against them because they opposed
Italy's inclusion in World War I. He then
founded a newspaper.
» He had a socialist view and, in 1919,
found the Italian Fascist Party with a
'socialist and republic program.' He
had supported factories' occupation by
workers during 1919-20, but he changed
course when the trades began to fail.
» From 1920 onward, he increasingly
adopted a reforming stand against
 the communists, and his Black Shirt
squads began to attack the socialist
headquarters. The propertied class
viewed him as a savior by the end of
1921, especially after the formation of
the Communist Party in 1921. He gave
pro-Church speeches in 1921-22 to
reach out to the Catholic Church.
» In 1922, he dropped the republican
party of his party program, and thus,
the King's attitude towards Mussolini
softened. Therefore, Mussolini's policies
from 1920-22 made him popular
among the conservative and right-wing
sections like the army, the church, the
industrialists, and the landlords. Also
blamed socialists for failing to work
with the government to check violence
by Fascist squads.
What Does the Term 'Fascism'
Stand for?
It is critical to try to define what the term
"fascist" meant because it was later applied
to other regimes and rulers, such as Hitler,
Franco (Spain), Salazar (Portugal), and
Peron (Argentina), who were very different
from the Italian version of Fascism.
Fascism, unlike communism, had no
clearly specified ideology or programme.
The Fascism of Mussolini had certain basic
characteristics:
• A stable and autocratic government
» The Italian fascist movement made
stable democratic government
impossible, just when solid and decisive
leadership was needed.
» An authoritarian government was
aroused with mobilizing the great mass
of ordinary people and also control
many aspects of people's lives possible
with solid discipline. One aspect of this
was the 'corporate state’.
» That was a way of promoting efficiency
by setting up a separate organization
66
of workers and employers for each
economy branch. Every 'corporation'
had a government official appointed
to that, which was a good way of
managing the workforce.
• Extreme nationalism. An emphasis on
the nation's rebirth after the declined
period, building up the standing and
prestige of the state, with the inference
that one's own country is higher than
other countries.
• A one-party state was important.
» There was not a place for democratic
debate, which made decisive
government impossible. Only Fascism
could provide the necessary advanced
action to guarantee Italy a great future.
» It also involved the huge charismatic
leader cult who would guide and
arouse the nation to prominent things.
Mussolini did not see himself as prime
minister or president - rather, he took
the title il Duce ('the leader') as Hitler
called himself Fisher.
» Economic self-sufficiency (Autarky)
This was absolutely important in
developing the state's greatness; the
government must therefore direct the
nation's economic life (though not in
the Marxist sense of the state-owned
land and factories).
• Great use was made of all the latest
modern forms of propaganda -
uniforms, marches, songs, and displays,
to demonstrate that fascists were a
wholly new and dynamic alternative
to the bland, old-fashioned traditional
parties and mobilize mass support
behind the determined leader.
• Military strength and violence were
a basic part of the fascist way of
existence. In domestic affairs, they
prepared to use utmost violence
against opponents. Mussolini also gave
the idea to pursue a forceful foreign
policy; he also remarked: 'Peace is
 absurd: fascism does not believe in it.' when Mussolini had been invited to
The Italian fascists promoted the myth form a government by the King.
that they had seized power by force

Fascism and Communism:

Unlike communism, Fascism had no defined theory or program.
• Yet, most Fascists gave many ideas. They addressed an extreme form of nationalism
or loyalty to one's country. Fascists believed that nations must struggle—peaceful
states were doomed to be conquered. They pledged allegiance to an authoritarian
leader who guided the state. Fascists wore uniforms of a specific color in each
nation, held mass rallies, and used special salutes.
• In some ways, Fascism was like communism. Both systems are ruled by dictators
who allowed only their political party (one-party rule). Both denied individual rights.
The state was supreme and did not practice any democracy.
• However, unlike Communists, Fascists had not sought a classless society. Instead,
they believed that every class had its function and place. Communism professed to
be a dictatorship of the working class. In most cases, fascist parties were made by
industrialists, aristocrats and war veterans, and the lower middle class. Communists
were internationalists, and Fascists were nationalists hoping to unite workers
worldwide.

Changes Introduced by Mussolini's were abolished. The towns were to be

Fascist State:
There was no sudden change in state
institutions, government; at first, Mussolini
was merely the prime minister of a union
cabinet in which only four ministers were
fascists out of twelve, and he needed to
forward cautiously. However, the King
had specified him special powers until the
end of 1923 to deal with the crisis. At the
beginning of the summer of 1924, using a
mixture of violence and intimidation, and
helped by divisions among his opponents,
Mussolini gradually developed the Italian
government and society along fascist lines.
• Only the fascist party was authorized
» Constant opponents of the government
were either barred or killed, and the
most infamous case was the murder of
Giacomo Matteotti, the socialist leader
in the Italian Parliament.
• Local Government
» Elected town councils and mayorships
run by officials appointed from Rome.
The local fascist party bosses (also
known as ras) were as powerful as these
officials.
• Censorship
» The anti-Fascist newspapers and
magazines were banned, or their
editors replaced by pro-fascists. The
media was under instruction to glorify
war and popularize the achievements
of the Fascist Party. The media used
to propagate a cult of personality of
Mussolini, the Il Duce.
• Education System
» The secret police closely supervised
education. The focus was on promoting
the idea of "believe, obey, fight," as
everything was viewed as a struggle.
Removed Anti-fascist teachers from the
system and children were forced to join
youth organizations that indoctrinated
them in favor of the Duce and extreme
nationalist ideology.

67
• Employment policies anticipated working together to settle
over working conditions and pay.
» The 'Corporate State' was one of the
critical parts of the Fascist system.
» Strikes and work stoppages were
not accepted. By 1934 there were 22
The government declared that it was
corporations, each one dealing with
designed to promote co-operation
a different industry, which included
between employers and workers and
a government employee among its
end class conflict.
members, and there was a minister of
» Fascist-controlled unions had the sole corporations in charge of the whole
right to work out for the workers and system.
organized both unions and employers'
associations into corporations. They

How totalitarian was Mussolini’s system?

• Despite his best efforts, Mussolini did not create a completely totalitarian system in
the fascist sense of either "no individuals or groups not controlled by the State" or
the Nazis did in Germany. Mussolini never wholly eliminated the influence of King
Victor Emmanuel or the Pope.
• The Pope became highly condemn of Mussolini when he began to harass Jews in
the later 1930s. The masses only tolerated Fascism till it brought them benefits.
• The corporate state did not lead to complete state control over business people
as they only made gestures of submission and instead bought their freedom by
making significant contributions to the funds of the Fascist Party.
• A correct description of Mussolini's system would be authoritarian rather than
totalitarian.

Analysis of Mussolini's Rule and
Different Aspects Brought by
Fascism for the Italian People.
Mussolini took various measures to improve
the economy and the life of people.
(Positive aspects)
• Industry: Mussolini’s government
promoted industry by giving them
subsidies where they were required.
By 1930, iron and steel production
had doubled from 1922 levels. The
improvement in the textile sector was
significant. Production of artificial
silk had increased ten folds by 1930.
Similarly, saw improvements in
the energy sector. Initiated Many
hydropower projects, and hydropower
production doubled by 1937.
• Agriculture: Italy, under Mussolini,
won the "Battle of Grain," which was
initiated by Mussolini for achieving self-
sufficiency in food. The farmers got
many incentives to grow wheat. Still, the
negative side to this success story was
that the increase in wheat production
came at the expense of dairy farming
and production of other crops (unlike
India, where wheat and rice production
driven by rising MSP).
• It launched Land Reclamation
Programme: It undertook many
activities to bring more land into
productive use. It included activities like
planting forests in mountainous areas
and draining marshes. The program
had partial success as by 1939 achieved
only 1/10th of the plan target.

68
• Public Works Programme: It was
an awe-inspiring program and was
successful in tiding over the challenge
of unemployment and building
infrastructure.
• Public Morale: The stress on nationalism
in propaganda, the economic recovery,
the reduction in unemployment, and
better crop production boosted the
public's morale. Mussolini’s regime was
also able to provide for law-and-order
stability.
• “After Work” Organization: created
This organization for providing leisure
activities for workers. For example, the
organization organized cruises, and
workers were given allowances to go
for holidays. That helped in boosting
the morale and the general happiness
quotient and work satisfaction among
the workers.
• Foreign policy successes: Mussolini
was also successful in his foreign policy,
initially in the Corfu incident (1923), the
annexation of Fiume in 1924, and the
invasion of Abyssinia. These events
raised the prestige of Italians as they
began to view themselves as citizens of
reliable power.
• The promise made by Mussolini's rule
was never fulfilled. Even before Italy
was involved in the Second World War,
Fascism had not solved many of Italy's
problems. (Negative aspect)
• Economic issues:
» Even though the 'Battle of Grain' was
a victory won only at the expense of
arable farming and dairy production,
both of which fell, the climate in the
south is far better suited to grazing
and orchards than growing wheat, and
these would have been much more
profitable for the farmers.
» Italy continued to have shortages of
critical raw materials like coal and oil.
Thus, energy security was always a
challenge for Italy. More effort should
69
have been made for capacity creation
in hydropower.
» Exports were harmed because
Mussolini overvalued the lira in order
to demonstrate that Italy had a strong
currency. Thus, state control of the
market had adverse effects on foreign
exchange earnings.
• Economic Crisis of 1929: The Great
Depression harmed Italy's economy.
The Italian exports began to fall as the
export destinations in Europe, and the
US was undergoing depression and
put-up trade barriers. Yet, Mussolini
did not allow the lira to depreciate,
which made the exports uncompetitive.
Instead, Mussolini cut wages and
salaries that hurt the commoner. The
economic crisis led to unemployment,
and the buying power of people further
decreased. Although the cost of living
declined because of "depression," the
wages fell faster than the prices of
commodities resulting in "real" inflation
experienced by the people.
• There was a regional disparity in
economic prosperity in Italy. The north
was prosperous and had most industries,
while the south was impoverished
and had an agricultural economy. It is
important to note that today also the
Italian south lags the northern part of
economic development.
• Social Services: Mussolini failed in
the provision of social services. For
example, there were no government
health insurance schemes until 1943,
and thus, Mussolini's Italy was not a
welfare state.
• Corruption and Inefficient:
» The regime was inefficient and corrupt,
and much money went into the official's
pockets. For example, despite all of the
publicity surrounding land reclamation,
they only completed one-tenth of the
programme until 1939, and construction
was halted even before the war began.
• Over-centralization of administration:
A significant issue was that Mussolini
did not delegate work which left
him overburdened. He gave many
orders, and the officials would take
those orders but not do anything
as Mussolini had not put in place a
comprehensive mechanism to monitor
the implementation.
Factors Eventually Responsible for
the Mussolini Downfall:
Entering the Second World War on
Germany's side was a tragic mistake. The
majority of Italians were opposing that;
they already disapproved when Mussolini
began to dismiss Jews from important
jobs (1938), and they felt that Italy was
becoming a German satellite. Italy was
incapable of conducting a major war,
equipped army with outdated rifles and
artillery. There were a thousand planes
and no heavy tanks.
• The general public suffered hardships.
Increased taxes to pay for the war; there
was food rationing, massive inflation,
and a 30 percent fall in real wages. After
November 1942, the British raided major
cities. By March 1943, disruption strikes
in Turin and Milan, the first since 1922.
After some early successes, the Italians
distressed defeats in line, culminating
in the give up of every Italian troop in
North Africa (May 1943)
• Mussolini seemed to have lost his touch.
He had a stomach ulcer and nervous
strain. All he could think of was to sack
some of the ministers who had criticized
him. The breaking point came with the
Allied capture of Sicily (July 1943).
• Many of the fascist leaders realized
the absurdity of trying to continue the
war, but Mussolini disapproved making
peace because, that would mean
betraying Hitler. The Fascist Grand
Council opposed Mussolini, and the
King discharged him. Nobody came to
70
save him, and Fascism disappeared.
Rise of Nazism in
Germany – Hitler
Background:
• In 1918, as Germany moved towards
defeat, public opinion became negative
for the government. The Kaiser, in a
desperate move to retain the power,
appointed Prince Max of Baden as
Chancellor. He was known to be in
favour of a more democratic form of
government in which parliament
had more power. But it was too late:
in November revolution broke out,
the Kaiser escaped to Holland and
abdicated, and Prince Max resigned.
• The left-wing Social Democrat Party
came to head the government after
the January 1919 democratic elections.
(Social Democrats: They had some
Marxist ideas but believed that socialism
is best achieved by peaceful means and
through a Parliamentary democracy
rather than violent revolution).
• At the same time, the Spartacist Uprising
(January 4, 1919 - January 19, 1919)
was taking place in Germany. It was
a violent revolution (including general
strike and street battles) by the more
radical communists who were inspired
by Russian Revolution (1917) and they
took over many cities including Berlin.
The Spartacist Uprising degraded the
authority of the government because
the government had to take the help of
Freikorps (a private army raised by anti-
communist ex-army officers) to crush it.
• A new Constitution was adopted at
Weimar in August 1919 (because Berlin
was in turmoil in 1919 so the Constituent
Assembly met at Weimar and therefore
the name “Weimar Republic”). Thus
Weimar Republic came into existence
and it lasted from 1919 to 1933.
• Meanwhile Hitler and his National
Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis
- NSDAP) had been carrying out a
propaganda campaign blaming the
government for all the ills Germany
was suffering from and portraying
Nazi solutions to the problems.
President Hindenburg appointed Hitler
as Chancellor in January 1933, and
immediately afterwards democracy
ceased to exist in Germany; the Weimar
Republic was about to end, and from
then until April 1945, Hitler remained
the dictator of Germany. Only after
the defeat in the World War II and the
Weimar Republic
passed through
three phases
• Instability (1919-23): During this phase,
the Republic was struggling to survive
due to various attempts to overthrow
it viz. Spartacist Uprising, Kapp Putsch,
and the Beer Hall Putsch. The harsh
provisions of the Treaty of Versailles
weakened the economy of Germany,
degraded the image of the government,
and hurt the self-esteem of the people.
• Stability and Economic Growth (1923-
29): Under the able leadership of its
foreign minister Gustav Stresemann,
Germany eased tensions with the
Britain, France, and USA. Germany got
US loans under the Dawes Plan (1924)
and its economic recovery began.
• Instability (1929-33): Due to the Great
71
death of Hitler (30 April 1945) freed
the German population from the Nazi
tyranny.
About Weimar Republic
By the end of 1919, a new Constitution had
been drafted and agreed by the National
Assembly (parliament). This Weimar
Constitution (sometimes referred as the
most perfect democratic Constitution of
modern time, at least on paper) gave its
name to the Weimar Republic, which was
lasted until 1933, when it was destroyed by
Hitler.
Instability
(1919-23)
Stability and
Economic Growth
(1923-29)
Instability
(1929-33)
Depression of 1929, US economy was
down and thus no more US loans
were available. This hurt the German
economy. Its exports declined and the
currency depreciated. Also, there was
high unemployment. Simultaneously,
the Nazis had been carrying on an anti-
government propaganda blaming the
government for all the ills of Germany.
Reasons for the Downfall of the
Weimar Republic:
It began with serious disadvantages and
lack of credibility:
• Treaty of Versailles: The government
 had accepted the Treaty of Versailles
which was very humiliating due to its
harsh clauses and the nationalists
could never forgive them.
• Anti-Democracy sentiments: Unlike
France and Britain, democracy as
an ideology had not entered the
mainstream consciousness in Germany.
There was a traditional lack of respect
among the public towards democracy as
German people had been accustomed
to viewing the officer class and the
army as the rightful leaders of the
country. Many sections like teachers,
lawyers, civil servants, and judiciary
were against the Weimar democracy.
• Instability: Weimar Republic failed to
provide a stable decisive government.
Unnstable coalition governments kept
coming and going because Weimar
Constitution had adopted the system of
proportional representation, leading to
all political groups (Social Democrats,
Communists, Catholic Centre Party,
National Socialists or Nazis) getting
seats in proportion to the votes polled
by them. This led to a situation where no
single party was in a majority ever. Thus
no party in power could fully implement
its programme.
• Inexperience: Lack of experience
among the political parties in running the
government resulted in lack of smooth
conduct of Reichstag (Parliament).
Before Weimar Constitution, the real
power was vested in the office of
Chancellor and the Reichstag had less
powers. This system had run for many
years. But the Weimar Constitution
vested more powers in the Reichstag
and the Chancellor’s powers were
decreased. The Chancellor was now
made responsible to Reichstag which
had the final decision-making powers.
But there was continuous chaos in
Reichstag due to lack of consensus
among the parties and thus Reichstag
failed to get the admiration of the
people.
• Private Armies: Private armies of
political parties decreased the authority
of the government. The disagreements
among the parties had become so
bitter that they organized their own
private armies to get done what they
wanted and for their protection from
rival parties.
• Nationalists and Communists did not
believe in the Republic anyway and
refused to cooperate with the Social
Democrats. The Communists wanted
a violent overthrow of capitalism
while Nationalists were in favour of a
dictatorship or military rule.
Outbreaks of violence
• Increase in violence on the streets
as private armies fought each other
(especially after 1929) and workers
organized violent strikes. Other events
included the Spartacist Uprising, the
Kapp Putsch, and the Munich Beer Hall
Putsch.

The Spartacist Rising:

• In January 1919, the communists tried to seize power in what was known as the
Spartacist Rising (Spartacus was a Roman who led a revolt of slaves in 71 BC).
• Inspired by the recent success of the Russian Revolution, and led by Karl Liebknecht
and Rosa Luxemburg, they occupied almost every major city in Germany. In Berlin,
President Ebert found himself besieged in the Chancellery.
• The government managed to defeat the communists only because it accepted the
help of the Freikorps These were independent volunteer regiments raised by anti-
communist ex-army officers.

72
Kapp Putsch (1920) by right wing sections:
• Putsch means a sudden overthrow of government illegally or through force. It
happened because the government tried to disband the Freikorps who refused to
disband and declared Dr Kapp, the Chancellor.
• The German army was sympathetic to the right-wing nationalists and thus took no
action. The government was finally helped by the communists who paralyzed Berlin
by a general strike. Kapp had to resign, and the Freikorps were disbanded, and the
Weimar Republic survived.

Hitler's Beer-Hall Putsch:

• Another threat to the government occurred in November 1923 in Bavaria, at a time
when there was much public annoyance at the French occupation of the Ruhr) and
the disastrous fall in the value of the mark. Hitler, helped by General Ludendorff,
aimed to take control of the Bavarian state government in Munich, and then lead a
national revolution to overthrow the government in Berlin.
• However, the police easily broke up Hitler’s march, and the ‘Beer-Hall Putsch’ (so-
called because the march set out from the Munich beer hall in which Hitler had
announced his ‘national revolution’ the previous evening) soon fizzled out. Hitler
was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment but served only nine months (because
the Bavarian authorities had some sympathy with his aims).

• The violence died down during 1924
to 1929 as the republic became more
stable, but when unemployment
increased in the early 1930s, the private
armies increased, and street fights
occurred regularly, usually between
Nazis and communist groups. All
parties had their meetings hamstrung
by rival armies and the police seemed
powerless to check such events.
• All this showed that the government
was not capable of keeping law and
order, and respect for it collapsed. The
large number of people began to favour
strong, authoritarian government, which
would maintain strict public order.
Economic Problems:
• Due to high war costs, a situation
of bankruptcy existed in 1919. Thus,
Weimar republic inherited a very poor
economy.
• World War I costs: High costs of war
reparations imposed by the Treaty of
Versailles resulted in the depreciation
of German Mark.
• In January 1923, French troops captured
the Ruhr (an important German
industrial region) in an attempt to seize
goods from mines and factories. As
the German government ordered the
workers to follow the policy of passive
resistance the German industry in the
Ruhr region was paralyzed. The French
had failed in their objectives, but the
effect on the German economy was
catastrophic - galloping inflation rate
and the collapse of the Mark, the
German currency. The exchange rate at
the end of World War II was 20 Marks per
dollar, but even before the occupation
of Ruhr, reparations difficulties had
caused the mark to fall in value.
• The Impact of the 1929 Economic Crisis
on Germany:
» US suspended loans and demanded
repayment on many short-term loans.
» German exports declined because of

73
 low demand from export markets.
» US actions caused a crisis of confidence
in German currency and there was a
run on the banks.
» Stresemann who was best suited man
to deal with the crisis, died in 1929.
» Many factories closed down and about
4 million Germans became unemployed
by 1931.
» Brüning’s (The new Chancellor from
1930-32) solution to this economic crisis
was decreasing pensions, wages and
unemployment benefits and other such
social benefits. As a result the Weimar
Republic lost the support of working
class and right wingers were already
against it. Hence by 1932 Weimar
Republic was on the verge of collapse.
Rise of Nazis and acceptance of Hitler’s
propaganda as an alternative:
• Hitler and the Nazi Party gave
what seemed to be an attractive
alternative just when the republic was
most ineffective. The fortune of the
Nazi Party was linked closely to the
economic situation: the more unstable
the economy.
• In July 1932 election, with unemployed
persons were increased over 6 million,
the Nazis became the largest single
party, with 230 seats out of 608
• Hitler constantly targeted the
government through his propaganda.
Though Hitler became Chancellor
(1933) under the Weimar Republic, he
did not believe in the Weimar Republic
and even its constitution. He constantly
called the politicians who had agreed
to the provisions of Treaty of Versailles
as the ‘November Criminals’. He argued
that Germany was "stabbed in the
back" by the November Criminals
only because they signed the Treaty
of Versailles. (in November 1918 Social
Democrats seized power in German
74
Revolution and entered into Armistice
with Allies).
Reasons Behind the Popularity of
Nazis and Rise of Hitler:
• The public perception was heightened
by the Nazi propaganda with the ‘stab
in the back’ myth - the idea which the
German armies could have fought on
but were betrayed by the traitors who
had surrendered unnecessarily.
• They offered national unity, prosperity,
and full employment to masses.
• They promised to undo the justice of
Treaty of Versailles, which was not so
popular with most of the Germans,
and to make Germany a great power
again. This would include bringing all
Germans (in Poland, Czechoslovakia,
and Austria) into the roof of Reich.
• The fear of communism spreading in
Germany resulted into mass support for
Nazis not only from the lower middle
class but also from the workers who went
on to support Nazis rather than Social
Democrats. It also led to support from
wealthy landowners and Industrialists
who funded Hitler especially after his
ascendancy to power.
• The private army of Nazi, the SA
(Sturmabteilung - Storm Troopers),
attracted young people who were
unemployed; it gave them much needed
small wage and a uniform.
• Hitler himself had extraordinary political
capabilities. He had tremendous will
power and energy and a remarkable
gift of public orator, which enabled
him to propagate his ideas with great
emotional force. Hitler used the latest
modern communication techniques like
mass rallies, parades, radio, and film; he
travelled all over Germany by air.
• The striking contrast between the
governments of the Nazi Party and the
Weimar Republic impressed people.
 The latter were respectable, dull, and
unable to maintain law and order;
the former promised strong, decisive
government and the restoration of
national pride which became an
irresistible combination.
• Without the economic crisis, though, it
was doubtful whether Hitler would have
had much chance of gaining the power.
It was the widespread social misery
and unemployment, together with the
fear of communism and socialism, that
gained the Nazis mass support.
Reasons Because of Which Hitler
Becomes Chancellor (January 1933)
In the end, Hitler came to power as a result
of a political conspiracy. A small group
of right-wing politicians with the support
from the Reichswehr resolved to bring
Hitler into a coalition government with the
Nationalists. The main conspirators were
General Kurt von Schleicher and Franz von
Papen. Their reasons for this momentous
decision were:
• They were afraid of a violent overthrow
by a Nazi-led Putsch.
• The inclusion of Nazis could provide
them with a more comfortable majority
which would provide not just stability
but also pave way for a return to pre-
Weimar situation when the Reichstag
had fewer powers.
• It would help them to check the
popularity of the communists.
• Many felt that Hitler could be best
controlled by co-opting him.
Hitler Consolidates his Power:
After getting Chancellorship in 1933, Hitler
called for general elections in hope of
winning a single party majority for the
Nazis.
• He used the State machinery before
elections to benefit Nazis. The police
75
was asked not to act against violent SA
and SS when they killed communists.
He also appointed Nazis to top police
posts.
• Reichstag Fire (1933): There was a
fire in the Reichstag started by a
few communists, but it was not a
planned act by the communist party.
Nevertheless, Hitler blamed the fire on
communists and used the incident to
stir up the fear of communism and thus
gain mass support in the elections.
• In the 1933 elections, Hitler won 44 per
cent of the total votes.
• Enabling Law (1933): This law gave
unfettering powers to Hitler and brought
an end to the Weimar Constitution.
Under this law:
» Government’s laws would not need the
approval of Reichstag for four years.
This implied that Hitler from now on
became a dictator and Weimar Republic
came to an end as the Chancellor’s or
Government’s law can be against the
Constitution and still be valid since no
parliamentary approval was required
for these laws to come into effect.
» This law needed 2/3rd majority which
was achieved by force. During voting,
the SA troops manned the Reichstag
and the SS troops chanted “Bill or Fire/
Murder” outside, thus creating a highly
intimidating atmosphere.
• After the passage of Enabling law, Hitler
followed the policy of “Gleichschaltung”
(Forceful Coordination) that turned
Germany into a totalitarian/fascist
State. He used the notorious Gestapo
(Secret Police) to crush any opposition.
Important Features of Hitler’s Policy
Which Were Popular with Many
Sections of the German People:
• Great wave of enthusiasm: Hitler’s
arrival in power in January 1933 resulted
 into a great wave of enthusiasm and
anticipation after the indecisive and
weak governments of the Weimar
Republic. He seemed to be offering
action and not shadow and a great
new Germany for all the Germans.
He carefully fostered this enthusiasm
through military parades, firework
displays and torchlight processions,
huge rallies held every year in Nuremberg
became very famous among people,
which seemed to appeal to the masses.
• Decrease in unemployment rate:
» Hitler successfully eliminated the
unemployment among youth. This was
probably the most significant factor for
his popularity with ordinary masses.
When he assumed the power nearly 6
million Germans were unemployed, but
by the end of 1935 Hitler successfully
brought it down to over two million, and
by 1939 it was negligible.
» The public works provided thousands
of additional jobs to people. A large
party bureaucracy was established as
the party was expanding at astounding
pace, and this gave thousands of
additional office and administrative
posts to people.
» There were clearances of Jews and
anti-Nazis from the civil service and
from many other jobs connected
with education, law, journalism,
broadcasting, the music, and theatre,
which created large number of
vacancies. In 1935 Conscription
was reintroduced. Germany started
Rearmament in 1934 and gradually
speeded up.
» Care was taken to retain the support
of workers once it had been gained
by giving employment and attractive
wages. This was important as the
abolition of trade unions still opposed
by many of them.
» The Strength through Joy Organization
(Kraft Durch Freude) offered benefits
76
like subsidized holidays in Germany
and abroad, skiing holidays, cruises,
cheap concert and theatre tickets and
convalescent homes.
• Support of Wealthy industrialists and
businessmen
» They were delighted with the Nazis
even though there was interference of
government with their industries. It was
partly because they now felt safe from
a communist revolution, and partly
because abolition of trade unions,
which had consistently pestered them
with demands for increased wages and
shorter working hours.
• Support of farmers
» Farmers, though initially doubtful about
Hitler, gradually offered support to the
Nazi Party as soon as it became clear
that farmers were in an advantageous
position in the state because of the
Nazi aim of achieving self-sufficiency in
food production. Prices of agricultural
products were fixed so that they were
assured of a reasonable profit.
• Hitler gained the support of the
Reichswehr (artny), which was crucial if
he were to feel secure in power.
Some of the Other Important
Policies and Intervention:
• Germany became a one-party state as
all other parties were banned.
• A Nazi Special Commissioner (an
appointed dictator) was appointed in
each state and state legislatures were
stripped of their powers. There were to
be no more state or municipal elections.
• Civil Services were cleansed of Jews or
anyone who was opposed to Nazis.
• Trade Unions were abolished which
were replaced by a single German
Labour Front which was under the
 strict control of Nazi Party. All workers
were to be members of this front.
Strikes were banned and government
was responsible for the redressal of all
grievances.
• Education system was closely monitored
for indoctrination of children.
» Stereotypes about gender, anti-Jewish
propaganda, racial superiority (i.e.
Aryans are the sole master race), pro-
Hitler propaganda- were features of
this indoctrination.
» Gestapo closely monitored teachers
and children could complain to the
Gestapo about anti-Nazi teachers.
» Jewish children were taken out of
schools.
» Hitler Youth (for boys) and League of
German Maidens (for girls) - all German
children were required to join these
organizations when they turned 14
years of age.
» Slogans like “Fuhrer is always right”,
“must obey Fuhrer” etc. were made
popular.
• Media was brought under control of the
Ministry of Propaganda.
• Religion was brought under State
control and Hitler cracked down on
nuns, priests by arresting them and
sending them to concentration camps.
• Euthanasia campaign: here Nazis killed
the mentally ill. It was based on the Nazi
Party's policy of ‘racial hygiene’; the
belief that the German people needed
to be ‘cleansed’ of ‘racially unsound’
elements, which included people with
disabilities. It was an example of the
Nazi’s belief in Social Darwinism, a
theory which seeks to apply biological
concepts of ‘natural selection’ and
‘survival of the fittest’ to politics and
sociology.
• Germany became a police state under
Hitler.
• Anti-Semitic Policy:
» Jews were blamed in Nazi propaganda
for every German problem.
» Jews were removed from jobs.
• The campaigns were given legal status
by the Nuremberg laws (1935) which:
» Deprived Jews of German citizenship.
» Forbade Jews from marrying non-Jews
to preserve purity of the Aryan race.
» Person with even one Jewish
grandparent was to be classified as a
Jew.
• The “Final Solution” was the Holocaust
with an aim to exterminate all Jews
by starving them to death or to put
them in poison gas chambers in the
concentration camps after making
them work to death.

NAZISM AND FASCISM

Similarities:
• Both were intensely anti-communist and, because of this, drew a solid basis of
support from all classes.
• They were anti-democratic and attempted to organize a totalitarian state, controlling
industry, agriculture, and the way of life of the people, so that personal freedom was
limited.
• They attempted to make the country self-sufficient.
• They emphasized the close unity of all classes working together to achieve these
ends.

77
• Both emphasized the supremacy of the state, were intensely nationalistic, glorifying
war, and the cult of the hero/leader who would guide the rebirth of the nation from
its troubles.
Differences
• Fascism never seemed to take root in Italy as deeply as the Nazi system did in
Germany.
• The Italian system was not as efficient as that in Germany. The Italians never came
anywhere near achieving self-sufficiency and never eliminated unemployment;
in fact, unemployment rose. The Nazis succeeded in eliminating unemployment,
though they never achieved complete autarky.
• The Italian system was not as ruthless or as brutal as that in Germany and there
were no mass atrocities, though there were unpleasant incidents like the murders
of Matteotti and Amendola.
• Italian fascism was not particularly anti-Jewish or racist until 1938, when Mussolini
adopted the policy to emulate Hitler.
• Mussolini was more successful than Hitler with his religious policy after his agreement
with the pope in 1929.
• Finally, their constitutional positions were different:
• the monarchy still remained in Italy, and though Mussolini normally ignored
Victor Emmanuel, the king played a vital role in 1943 when Mussolini’s critics turned
to him as head of state.
» He was able to announce Mussolini’s dismissal and order his arrest.
» Unfortunately, there was nobody in Germany who could dismiss Hitler.

Evaluation of Hitler’s Rule Germany was able to take over and

• Positive outcome:
• Hitler had successes in the domain of
economy, unemployment, law, and
order. If Hitler could have prevented
World War II, then he would have been
a total success.
• Thus, Hitler’s great popularity with the
masses, which endured well on into the
1940s, in spite of the hardships of the war.
• Negative Outcome which make his
success superficial:
• Full employment became possible
only at the cost of a brutal anti-Jewish
campaign.
• Economic success was achieved only
through Violent means.
• Self-sufficiency was not possible until
exploit large areas of eastern Europe
belonging to Russia, Czechoslovakia,
and Poland.
• Measures like - employment creation
through Public Works schemes,
increasing wages of workers and giving
them subsidized holidays & other
benefits, introducing rearmament (1934),
conscription (1935) and paying high
price to farmers for their produce led
to increase in government expenditure
and unsustainable fiscal deficit.
• As a result, war became unavoidable
because it was the only way to cover the
costs of the preceding steps. A victory
would have enabled Hitler to obtain raw
materials from conquered territories
and contribute to the creation of the
Lebensraum (living space) for acquiring

78
 farm land to support Germany's rapidly
growing population.
• As focus on rearmament increased,
there were shortages of food and other
important goods; in fact, the per capita
consumption of many basic food stuffs
decreased in the mid-1930s. Any wage
increase came about only through
working longer hours.
The Great
Depression 1929
Introduction:
In the late 1920s, the world economy
was like a delicately balanced house of
cards. The key card that held up the rest
was American economic prosperity. If the
United States economy weakened, the
whole world’s economic system might
collapse. In 1929, it did.
Despite prosperity, three weaknesses
in the U.S. economy caused serious
problems. These were uneven distribution
of wealth, overproduction by business and
agriculture, and lessening demand for
consumer goods.
The Economic crisis of 1929 resulted in
high unemployment in Germany. By 1932,
there were 6 million unemployed men
in Germany. This resulted in boost to
the growth of Nazis and fall of Weimar
Republic. With the rise of Nazis, the French
attitude towards Germany hardened as
the Nazis thrived on an extreme nationalist
propaganda. They wanted to bring all
German areas into the Reich.
Reasons for the Great
Depression:
Domestic overproduction
» American industrialists, encouraged
by high profits and accompanied
by increased mechanization, which
79
created demand-supply mismatch as
industries were producing more goods
than the demand.
» This was not apparent in the early
1920s, but as the 1930s approached,
unsold stocks of goods started to pile
up, and manufacturers produced less.
» Since fewer workers were required,
men were laid off; and as there was no
unemployment benefit, these men and
their families bought less. And so the
vicious circle continued.
• Unequal distribution of income
» By 1929, nearly half of the world’s
industrial goods were produced
by American industries. The rising
productivity led to huge profits.
However, this wealth was not evenly
distributed among the people.
» The richest 5 % of the population
received 33 % of income in 1929. Yet 60
% of all American families earned less
than $2,000 per annum.
» Hence, most families were too poor to
buy the necessary goods. As the sales
declined dramatically, store owners
eventually cut back their orders from
factories.
• Declining demands for exports
» Though, exports began to decline, partly
due to foreign countries were restrained
from buying American goods as the
Americans themselves imposed tariffs
to protect their industries from foreign
imports.
» Though the Fordney McCumber tariff
(1922) kept the foreign goods at bay,
it also prevented foreign countries,
especially European, from earning
profits from trade with the USA.
Without those profits, the European
countries would not be able to afford
American goods. Because of this they
were struggling to repay their war debt
to the USA.
» The matter was worsened when many
states retaliated by introducing tariffs
against American goods. A slump of
some sort was clearly on the way.
• Overproduction affected American
farmers:
» During the 1920s, American farmers
affected by overproduction. Scientific
farming and new farm machinery had
dramatically boosted crop yields.
» Meanwhile farmers faced new
competition from farmers in Europe,
Latin America, and Australia.
Consequently, a worldwide surplus
of agricultural produce resulted into
decline of prices and profits.
» As farmers were selling their crops
without any profit, many of them could
not repay the bank loans. Their unpaid
debts weakened banks, and some were
forced to shut down their business.
• The Stock Market Crashes
» In 1929, Wall Street, in New York City,
was the financial capital of the world.
Banks and investment companies were
optimistic for investment in USA. At New
York Stock Exchange, optimism about
the booming U.S. economy reflected in
soaring prices of stocks.
» To reap the benefits of the boom, many
middle-income people started buying
stocks on margin. People paid a small
percentage of a stock’s price as a down
payment and borrowed the remaining
80
from the stockbrokers. This system
worked smoothly as long as stock prices
were increasing. But, if they fell, investors
had no money to pay off the loan.
» In September 1929, some investors
began to feel that stock prices were
unnaturally high. They started selling
their stocks, believing the rates would
soon decline. By Thursday, October 24,
the gradual decline of stock prices had
taken nose dive all of sudden. A panic
caused among the people and investors.
» Everyone wanted to get rid of their
stocks. Prices fell precipitously. The
crazy shouting of 1,000 brokers and
their assistants at the Stock Exchange
became a "weird roar," according to
one observer. On Tuesday, October 29,
prices fell to a new low. A total of 16
million stocks were sold, setting a new
high. The market then crashed.
» In the stock market crash, billions
of dollars in “paper wealth” simply
vanished. People failed to pay the
money they owed on margin purchases.
Stocks they had bought at high prices
became worthless. Within months of
the stock market crash, unemployment
rate began to increase as industrial
production, prices and wages
decreased. A long business slump, or
depression, followed.
» The Great Depression of 1929 touched
every corner of the American economy.
By 1932, factory production declined by
half. Thousands of businesses failed,
and banks closed.
Causes of Great Depression:
Long Term Causes:
• World economies are interconnected.
• Huge debt burden on some countries due to World War I.
• Dependence of Europe on American Loan and investments.
• Prosperity is built on borrowed money.
• Unequal distribution of wealth.

Immediate Causes:
• The Stock Market Crash of 1929 in the U.S.
• Failure of banks due to non-repayment of loans.
• Collapse of American banking system.
• Farms fail and factories close.
• American protectionism by reducing foreign trade to protect the economy.
• Americans stop loans to foreign countries.
• Over-dependence on American loans leads to Economic crisis.

• Impact of great depression on the contributed further to the economic

world downturn. Unemployment rates soared.
30 Hitler comes
» The dwindling of the American to power
economy caused shock waves around 25 Roosevelt
the world. As a result, American bankers begins
20 New Deal
started demanding repayment of their
Percent of Work Force

overseas loans and American investors 15

flee their money from Europe.
10
» The American market for European
goods decreased sharply as the U.S. 5
Stock market
Congress imposed high tariffs on crashes
0
imported goods to reduce the outflow 1928 1930 1932 1934 1936 1938
of American dollars and support Great Britain Germany United States
American workers. I M A G E 8.2: U N E M P L OY M E N T R AT E IN 1928-38
» The government was trying to force
Americans to buy American goods. This » Because of war loans and dependence
policy backfired. Conditions worsened on American loans and investments,
for the United States. Many countries Germany and Austria were particularly
who depended on exporting goods hard hit. In 1931, Austria’s largest bank
to the United States also suffered a failed. This started a financial panic in
setback. In addition to this, when the central European countries and sent
United States raised tariffs, it set off a their economies plunging.
chain reaction. Other nations imposed » In Asia, the Japanese economy also
their own higher tariffs. slumped. Japanese farmers suffered
» World trade dropped by 65 percent. This greatly during the Depression. In the rice
growing regions of the northeast, crop

81
 failures in 1931 led to famine. Starving
families ate tree bark and the roots
of wild plants. City workers suffered,
too, as the value of exports fell by half
between 1929 and 1931. As many as 3
million workers lost their jobs, forcing
many to go back to their rural villages.
» The economic crisis fell heavily in Latin
America as well. Many of its nations were
tied to the global economy by trade in
such cash crops or raw materials as
sugar, beef, copper, and tin.
» As European and U.S. demand for Latin
American products dried up in the
1930s, prices for these goods collapsed.
Alongside, the cost of imported goods
rose, pushed up by high tariffs. Latin
American nations that had borrowed
heavily from other nations could not
repay their debts. The worldwide crisis
spread rapidly.

Effects of Great Depression:

Immediate Effects:
• Rampant Unemployment: Millions of people become unemployed worldwide.
• Bankruptcy of Banks and Businesses.
• Capitalism and democracy were questioned by citizens.
• Harsh emergency measures taken by governments to protect economies.
• Concentration of power in the hands of few leaders turns National authoritarian.

Immediate Effects:
• Nazis take control in Germany.
• Fascists come to power in other countries.
• Social welfare programs were started in various Democratic countries.
• Economic rise of Japan in East Asia.
• World War II breaks out.

• Steps taken by Britain extremes and preserved democracy.

» Britain Takes Steps to Improve Its • Steps taken in France

Economy Because its economy
depended on foreign trade, the
Depression hit Britain severely.
» To meet the emergency, British voter
selected a multi-party coalition known
as the National Government. This
government’s policies were designed
to rescue the nation from economic
calamity. It imposed high protective
tariffs, increased taxes, and regulated
the currency.
» By 1937, unemployment rate declined
by half, and production had risen above
1929 levels. Britain avoided political
» Unlike Britain, French economy was
more self-sufficient. In 1930, it was
still heavily agricultural dependent
and less dependent on foreign trade.
Thus, France was somewhat cushioned
against the Depression. However, by
1935, nearly one million French workers
were thrown out of work.
» The economic crisis resulted into
political instability. In 1933, five coalition
governments were formed but fell.
» Thus in 1936, Communists, Socialists
and moderates formed The Popular

82
 Front coalition. The government
passed series of legislations in favour of
workers.
» These reforms included pay increases,
holidays with pay, and a 40-hour work
week. Unfortunately, price increases
quickly offset wage gains.
» Unemployment remained high. Yet
France also preserved democratic
government.
• Recovery in the United States:
» On March 4, 1933, the new president
tried to restore Americans’ faith in their
nation.
» Roosevelt immediately began a program
of reform ‘The New Deal’. Large public
works helped to give employment to the
unemployed people. New government
agencies provided financial assistance
to farms and businesses. Huge amount
of public money was earmarked
for relief and welfare programmes.
Roosevelt and his advisers believed
that government expenditure would
generate employment and economy
would recover. Regulations were
introduced to reform the stock market
and the banking system. Despite these
efforts, recovery was slow.
» The New Deal did ultimately reform the
American economic system. Roosevelt’s
leadership helped to preserve the
country’s faith in its democratic political
system.
Spanish Civil War
(1936-39)
Background:
Spain in the 1920s and 1930s
• The Constitutional Monarchy under
Alfonso XIII (king since 1885) had never
been very efficient. In 1921 it reached
rock bottom when the Spanish army,
83
sent to crush the revolt led by Abd-el-
Krim in Spanish Morocco, was brutally
massacred by the Moors.
• In 1923, in a bloodless coup Genera
Primo de Rivera seized power, with
Alfonso’s approval, and ruled for the
next seven years. The king revered him
as ‘my Mussolini’. However, Primo was
a military dictator, he was not a fascist
like Mussolini. He was credited for a
number of public works such as roads,
railways and irrigation works; industrial
production increased at three times
as compared to the rate before 1923;
most impressive of all, he succeeded in
ending the war in Morocco (1925).
• When the world economic crisis reached
Spain in 1930, unemployment rose,
and Primo and his advisers bungled
the finances, causing depreciation of
the currency. The army withdrew its
support, whereupon Primo resigned.
• In April 1931 municipal elections were
held in which the Republicans won
control of all the large cities. As huge
crowds gathered on the streets of
Madrid, Alfonso decided to abdicate
to avoid bloodshed, and a republic was
proclaimed.
• A coalition government of Socialists
and Middle-Class radicals came to
power.
• The monarchy had been overthrown
without bloodshed, but unfortunately
the slaughter had merely been
postponed until 1936.
Why did civil war break out in Spain
in 1936?
• There was much hostility between
the Church and the new Republican
government.
• Two provinces wanted independence
from Spain.
• The 1929 economic crisis led to an
economic depression in Spain. Prices of
 agricultural commodities fell, wine and
olive exports decreased, and land went
out of cultivation.
• There was also a threat of a coup by
the army generals.
• The Spanish Civil war was result of
a conflict between the left wing and
the right-wing factions. The left wing
in general included trade unions
(anarchists and syndicalists), the
socialists and the communists while
the right-wing factions included the
church, the army, the landowners, and
the industrialists.
• The right and the left wing both opposed
and thus weakened the Republic which
was trying to follow a middle path (as the
government was a coalition of left wing
socialists and the middle class radicals,
thus trying to balance the demands
of both the sides). Example right wing
opposed government decisions like:
» Granting self-government to one of the
two provinces that were demanding
independence.
» Implementation of Secularism: The
Church and the State were separated.
The Priests were removed from the
payroll of the government. Church’s
control of education was removed.
Thus, the powers of the Church were
reduced, and thus Church and other
Right-Wing factions were opposed to
the government.
» To remove the threat of coup, many
important Army Generals were removed.
» Nationalization of large private estates
(land) to meet demands of the left-wing
sections.
» Increase in wages of the workers which
antagonized the industrialists.
• The left wing opposed the socialists for
cooperating with middle class radicals.
They wanted a violent revolution
against capitalism for establishing a
communist state and started general
84
strikes, riots, and assassinations of the
right-wing leaders.
• In 1933, a right-wing government came
to power and reversed most of the
steps taken by the former coalition
government. This angered the left-
wing factions who now organized
themselves into Popular Front that
increased revolutionary activity. The
Popular Front was repressed brutally
by the right-wing government and
the army under General Franco. For
example, Franco ordered shooting on
striking miners. Meanwhile, the right-
wing fascists organized themselves into
a new Falange Party.
• Due to severe repression, the Popular
Front came to power in 1936. One of the
right-wing leaders was murdered and
this triggered the Civil War which was
begun by the Army and the Falange
Party with an aim to overthrow the
government and establish a Military
Dictatorship.
Important Information/events
Related to Spanish Civil War:
• The civil war was fought between the
right wing and the left-wing forces. The
Right Wingers called themselves the
Nationalists while the Left forces called
themselves the Republicans.
• The trouble began when the Nationalists
under General Franco began a revolt in
Spanish Morocco.
• During the Civil War, Italy and Germany
supported the Nationalists with tanks,
troops, air shelling, food supplies and
raw material. Germany bombed the
town of Guernica in 1937 and 1600
innocent civilians died.
• The Nationalists slowly but surely
wore down the Republicans, capturing
Barcelona and the whole of Catalonia
in January 1939. Only Madrid remained
in Republican hands and the war ended
 in March 1939 when Madrid surrendered
to Franco’s forces.
• Reasons for the Nationalist victory.
» Franco was extremely skilful in holding
together the various right-wing groups
(army, Church, monarchists and
Falangists) so that they worked as a
single military and political unit with
one central aim -to crush the godless
republicans.
» Disunity among the left wing (example
Anarchists and Socialists fought against
each other in Barcelona).
» Support from Italy and Germany who
aided Franco with a hope of creating
another Fascist state in Europe.
Franco in Power
• Immediately after the World War II,
thousands of republicans fled the
country, many of them crossing the
frontier into France. But thousands more
were captured by Nationalist forces
and imprisoned. Meanwhile General
Franco, taking the title Caudillo (leader),
set up a government which was similar
in many ways to those of Mussolini and
Hitler.
• But in other ways it was not fascist:
for example, the regime supported
the Church, which was given back its
control over education and other areas.
That would never have happened in a
true fascist state.
• Franco was also clever enough to keep
Spain out of the Second World War,
though Hitler expected Spanish help
and tried to persuade Franco to get
85
involved. When Hitler and Mussolini
were defeated, Franco survived and
ruled Spain until his death in 1975.
• As Spain moved into the 1950s the
regime became less violent, but it
continued to be repressive. Franco tried
to enforce a rigid nationalism based on
traditional Spanish culture.
• For example, bullfighting and flamenco
were encouraged, but the Sardana,
the national dance of Catalonia, was
banned because it was ‘not Spanish’.
The use of the Galician, Catalan and
Basque languages in official documents
was forbidden.
• All civil servants had to be Catholic,
and non-church weddings, divorce,
contraceptives, and abortion were
forbidden. Homosexuality and
prostitution were criminal offences.
All the Republic’s legislation designed
to improve the position of women in
society was cancelled.
• However, the USA and the IMF
persuaded him to change to a more
free-market economy. In the mid-1950s
the economy slowly began to revive.
• During the 1960s Franco gradually
relaxed the repressiveness of his regime:
military courts were abolished; workers
were permitted a limited right to strike
and elections were introduced for
some members of parliament (though
political parties were still banned).
• In 1977, first free multi-party elections
were held to establish a democracy with
constitutional monarchy. In 1986, Spain
became part of European Economic
Community and its tourism industry
grew by leaps and bounds.
 CHAPTER - 9
WORLD WAR II (1939-1945)
Introduction:
Unlike the 1914-18 war, the Second World
War was a much more complex event, with
important campaigns taking place in the
Pacific and the Far East, in North Africa
and deep in the heart of Russia, as well
as in central and western Europe and the
Atlantic.
The German invasion of Poland in 1939
set off World War II after which the two
competing alliances were the Axis and the
Allies. Allied victory in the war had been
achieved at very high cost.
World War II had altered the political
landscape of Europe. It weakened some
countries and strengthened others. The
Soviet Union and the United States had
come out of the war as allies. Nevertheless,
once World War II ended, the differences
in their postwar goals emerged. These
differences stirred up disputes that would
shape the modern world for decades.
Background:
• By the mid-1930s, Germany and Italy
seemed to be bent on military defeat.
The significant democracies like Britain,
France, and the U.S.—were diverted by
economic problems at home, wished
to remain at peace. The Soviet Union
wasn't committed to camp. The world
on the edge of war, many people
looked to the League of Nations for
peace. Fascism spread in Europe, and
a powerful Asian nation also applied
a similar system. Following a period of
progress and reform in the 1920s, Japan
fell under military rule.
• Japan's military leaders had dreams
of an empire like Hitler. Japan was
86
overcrowded and met shortages of raw
materials. To solve these problems—
and encourage nationalism—the
Japanese began an empire-building
program that would lead to war.
• During the 1930s, Hitler took advantage
of the hopes and fears of democracies
of western world. Every time the Nazi
dictator grabbed new territory, he
would declare an end to his demands.
Peace seemed guaranteed—until Hitler
started expanding again.
Causes of World War II:
The debate is still going on about reasons
that led to World War II.
• The Versailles Treaties blamed for filling
the Germans with the desire for revenge
and bitterness.
• The concept of collective security
and the League of Nations has been
criticized because they failed to control
potential aggressors and secure general
disarmament.
• The world economic crisis mentioned
since; without it, Hitler would probably
never have been able to take power.
While these factors certainly contributed
to the development of stress and an
environment conducive to battle,
something more was needed. Therefore,
some of the other important factors
responsible for World War II are:
• Appeasement and its effect:
» Some historians have proposed
that appeasement was primarily
accountable for the deteriorated
situation into war. They argue that
Britain and France would have taken a
 healthy way with Hitler before Germany
became much stronger.
» In 1930, an Anglo-French attack on
western Germany at the time of the
Rhineland occupation would have
toppled Hitler from power. By giving
way to him, the appeasers increased
his reputation at home.
» Hitler might not have had any proper
plans for war, but after the give up at
Munich, he was convinced that Britain
and France would remain passive
again and decided to gamble on war
with Poland.
• Nazis and Soviets Sign Nonaggression
Pact:
» The USSR accused of making war
unavoidable by agreeing on the non-
aggression pact and Germany on
August 23, 1939, which also covered
a secret agreement for Poland to be
divided between Germany and the
USSR.
» It is asserted that Stalin ought to
have federated with the West and
with Poland, thus panicking Hitler into
keeping the peace.
» On the other hand, the British were
most hesitant to ally with the Russians;
Chamberlain suspected them (because
they were communists) and Poles. He
thought they were militarily fragile.
» Russian historians defend the pact
because it gave the USSR time to
prepare its defenses against a possible
German attack.
• Distrust between USSR and the would-
be Allied Powers
» Britain and France appealed to the
Soviet Union to join them in halting
Hitler's aggression. Negotiations went
87
slowly. The two democracies doubted
the Communist government, and Stalin
resented having been left out of the
Munich Conference.
» The right-wingers in France were
sympathetic to Hitler and in awe of
his achievements. The conservatives in
France prevented a clause for Military
cooperation in the agreement signed
by France and the USSR in 1935. If
the military treaty between the two
had occurred, then Germany would
have been defeated in a limited war
in Eastern Europe, or it might not have
ventured into war at all.
• Role of Hitler:
» By attacking Poland on all fronts rather
than merely occupying Danzig and the
Corridor, it seemed that Hitler intended
not only to get back the Germans lost
at Versailles but also to destroy Poland.
Martin Gilbert argues that he intended
to remove the stigma of defeat in the
First World War. The German non-
aggression pact with Russia was simply
easing Russian suspicions and keeping
it neutral until Poland had been dealt
with.
» Hitler was a brilliant opportunist taking
advantage of the appeasers' mistakes
and events, such as the Czechoslovakia
crisis in February 1939.
» Hitler set himself two goals: a war of
conquest and the elimination of the
Jews.
» The ultimate goal was the establishment
of a greater Germany that had ever
existed before in history.
» In 1936, Hitler had made alliances with
Japan and Italy. The military alliance
of this trio nation was called the Axis
Powers.
 FINLAND
Leningrad
NORWAY SWEDEN
ESTONIA
41

194
19

0
LATVIA Moscow
DENMARK Baltic

1
GREAT

194
Nort h Sea LITHUANIA SOVIET
BRITAIN EAST
Sea UNION
PRUSSIA
IRELAND Berlin 1939
NETH. 1
London 194
Dunkirk 1940 GERMANY 1 9 39
Warsaw
BE POLAND
h LG 1941
g l i s . C Z
En nel E CHOSLO
V Stalingrad
Cha n 0
Paris 194 AKIA
FRANCE R IA A R Y
AUS T HUNG 1941
SWITZ.

1941
1 9 40

19
ROMANIA
41
VICHY ITALY
YUG
FRANCE OSL
(Unoccupied AVI BULGARIA Black Se a
zone) Rome A

1941
N IA
PORTUGAL

SPAIN
AL B A

TURKEY
GREECE

ALGERIA TUNISIA Crete

(Fr.) (Fr.) SYRIA
Mediterranean Se a LEBANON
MOROCCO IRAQ
(Fr.) PALESTINE
Axis-controlled, 1941 TRANS-
LIBYA JORDAN
Allies (It.)
EGYPT
German advances SAUDI ARABIA

I M A G E 9.1: G R O U P I N G IN WW- II

• Japan’s Militarism » To manufacture more goods, Japan

wanted natural resources for their
» As long as Japan remained prosperous, factories. The Japanese army annexed
the civilian government had kept power. the Chinese area rich in minerals and
In 1930 the great depression had struck, resources. China requested help from
which the government was to blame. the League of Nations. Japan avoided
Military leaders gained support and the League of Nations and carried on
soon won control of the country. to occupy Korea and China.
» Unlike the Fascists in Europe, the » As Japan conquered other areas of
militarists did not try to establish a new South East Asia, including Vietnam,
system of government. They wanted the United States grew concerned
to replace traditional control of the about its territories in Asia, such as
government with the military. Instead the Philippines and Guam. Japan felt
of a forceful leader like Mussolini or that the United States military could
Hitler, the militarists made the emperor threaten its expansion and attacked
the symbol of state power. Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in December 1941.

88
 September 1931 Japan October 1935 Italy March 1938 Germany September 1938 Germany
invades Manchuria. attacks Ethiopia. annexes Austria. takes Sudetenland.

1930 1935 1939

March 1936 Germany July 1937 Japan March 1939 April 1939
occupies Rhineland. invades China. Germany seizes Italy conquers
Czechoslovakia. Albania.

I M A G E 9.2: A G G R E S S I O N IN EUROPE AND A S I A 1930-39

Different phases of Second World War: were taking place in the Far East, the
Unlike the 1914-18 war, World War II was a Pacific and, in North Africa and deep in
war of swift movement; it was a much more the heart of Russia, in central and western
complex affair, with effective campaigns Europe and the Atlantic.

Opening moves: The Axis powers

September 1939 to widens: from held in check: defeated: July
December 1940 1941 to the summer 1942 to 1943 to August
summer of 1942 summer 1943 1945

Opening Moves: September Major Events of This Phase:

1939 to December 1940 Poland defeat

• By the end of September, the Germans, • The Poles were defeated rapidly by the
and Russians preoccupied Poland. German Blitzkrieg (lightning war), which
they were ill-equipped to handle. It
• After a seven-month pause (known
consisted of rapid propel by motorized
as the ‘phony war'), German troops
divisions and tanks (Panzers) supported
occupied Denmark and Norway (April
by air-power. The Luftwaffe (the
1940).
German air force) set the Polish railway
• In May, attacks made on Holland, system out of action and destroyed the
Belgium, and France, who soon lost, Polish air force.
left Britain alone to face the dictators
(Mussolini had declared war in June,
• Britain and France helped their ally
directly because the French mobilization
just before the fall of France).
procedure was slow and old, and it was
• Hitler’s attempt to bomb Britain into difficult to transport adequate troops
submission was thwarted in Britain's to Poland to be effectual.
Battle (July to September 1940), but
Mussolini's armies invaded Egypt and
• When the Russians conquered eastern
Poland, resistance collapsed. On
Greece.
September 29, Poland was divided

89
 up within Germany and the USSR (as
agreed in the pact of August 1939).
The Phony War
• For almost seven months after Poland's
fall, there was an unusual calm in
the land war in Europe. After their
declaration of war, the British and
French had mobilized their armies.
They stationed their troops along the
Maginot Line, a fortifications system
along France's border with Germany.
• There they waited for the German's
attack—but nothing happened.
The bored Allied soldiers Glared
eastward toward the enemy. Equally
bored, German soldiers glared back
from their Siegfried Line some miles
away. Germans humorously called
it the sitzkrieg, or "sitting war." few
newspapers called it "the phoney war."
• On April 9, 1940, the phony war stopped.
Hitler started a surprise invasion of
Denmark and Norway. He planned to
build bases across the Norwegian and
Danish coasts to hit Great Britain. In
four hours after the attack, Denmark
dropped. Two months later, Norway
surrendered as well.
Denmark and Norway invaded, April 1940
• Hitler's troops captured Denmark and
landed at the main Norwegian ports in
April 1940.
• He arranged to build bases across the
Norwegian and Danish coasts to hit
Great Britain. In four hours after the
attack, Denmark fell. Two months later,
Norway surrendered as well.
• This Norwegian campaign had
significant results'.
» Germany was assured of its bases and
iron-ore supplies.
» It showed the inability of Chamberlain's
government. He was forced to leave, and
90
Winston Churchill turned into British
prime minister. Although there has
been criticism of Churchill's omission,
there is no doubt that he supplied what
was needed at the time.
Attacks were made in Holland, Belgium,
and France.
• In the month of May 1940, Hitler started
a dramatic rush through Holland,
Belgium, and Luxembourg. This was
part of a plan to hit France.
• Belgium held out for long, but its
surrender at the end of May left the
British and French troops in Belgium full
of risky exposure. German automated
divisions swept across northern France;
only Dunkirk continued to be in Allied
hands.
• The British navy had a major role in
evacuating over 338 000 troops - two-
thirds of them British - from Dunkirk
within May 27 and June 4.
• The events at Dunkirk were important
because a third of a million Allied troops
were rescued from fighting again,
and Churchill used it for information
purposes to boost British morale with
the 'Dunkirk spirit.'
• Following Dunkirk, France seemed
ordained to defeat. On June 10, sensing
a swift victory, Italy's Benito Mussolini
joined forces with Hitler and declared
war on Great Britain and France. Italy
attacked France from the south. By
June 14, Paris fell to the Germans. Nazi
troops marched enthusiastically down
the city’s main boulevard.
• Paris was caught on June 14, and France
surrendered on June 22.
• The Germans took control over the
northern part of the country. They
left the southern region to a counter
government headed by Pétain. The
headquarters of the government was in
the city of Vichy.
• After France fell, a French general
named Charles de Gaulle (duh GOHL)
ran away to London. There, he made
up a government-in-exile committed to
recapturing France. On June 18, 1940,
he called to people on broad-casted
England. He asked the people of France
to withstand.
The Battle of Britain (1940)
• With the fall of France, Great Britain had
stood alone against the Nazis. Winston
Churchill, British prime minister, had
declared that his nation would never
surrender. In a speech, he said, "We
shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight
on the landing grounds, we shall fight in
the fields and in the streets . . . we shall
never surrender.”
• In September, the Germans radar
stations, aerodromes bombed harbors
and munitions factories; in September,
they started to bomb London, in revenge,
they asserted, for a British raid on Berlin.
The Royal Air Force (RAF) thrust heavy
losses on the Luftwaffe (1389 German
planes lost against 792 British); when it
had cleared that British air power was
far from being demolished, Hitler called
off the invasion.
• The Battle of Britain was the first vital
turning point of the war; for the first
time, the Germans demonstrated that
they were not invulnerable. Britain was
able to last in the struggle, thus facing
Hitler (who was about to attack Russia)
with the grave war situation on two
fronts.
Mussolini invades Egypt, September 1940
• Mussolini dispatch an army from
the Italian colony of Libya, which
infiltrated about 60 miles into Egypt
(September 1940), while another Italian
army annexed Greece from Albania
(October). However, the British drove
the Italians out from Egypt, pushed
91
them back into Libya, and defeated
them at Bedafomm, catching 130 000
prisoners and 400 tanks.
• The Greeks forced the Italians back and
annexed Albania. Mussolini was starting
to be an embarrassment to Hitler.
The Axis Offensive Widens:
From 1941 to the Summer of
1942
• The war has now escalated into a
global conflict. First, Hitler, assured of
a quick victory over Britain, initiated
an annexation of Russia in June 1941,
breaking a non-aggression treaty
signed just two years earlier.
• Then the Japanese pushed the USA
into the war by attacking the American
naval base at Pearl Harbor (December
1941). They followed this up by occupying
regions such as the Philippines, Malaya,
Singapore, and Burma, scattered over a
wide area.
• There seemed to be no way of pausing
the Germans and Japanese at this
stage of the war, though the Italians
were less successful.
Important Events of This Phase:
North Africa and Greece
• Hitler sent forces to help Italy. German
troops drove the British out of Libya
and partially from Egypt.
• They also invaded Greece and forced
out the British troops.
• The campaigns in Greece had
significant effects:
» It was upsetting for the Allies, who lost
about 36 000 men.
» Many troops had been detached from
North Africa, thus weakening British
forces when they needed to be most
productive against Rommel.
» More important in the long run was
Hitler's engagement in Greece and
Yugoslavia (which the Germans
invaded at the same time as Greece)
might well have retarded his attack
on Russia. This was firstly planned for
May 15 and delayed for five weeks. If
the annexation had occurred in May,
the Germans would have conquered
Moscow before the winter arrived.
Operation Barbarossa (1941)
• Hitler Invades the Soviet Union. With
the Balkans firmly in control, Hitler
could move ahead with his plan to
invade the Soviet Union. He called that
plan Operation Barbarossa.
• Early on Sunday morning, June 22, 1941,
the roar of German tanks and aircraft
announced the beginning of the
blitzkrieg invasion. The Soviet Union
was not prepared for this attack. With
its 5 million men, the Red Army was the
largest in the world. But it was neither
well equipped nor well trained.
• The German attack was three-pronged:
» In the north towards Leningrad,
» In the center towards Moscow,
» In the south through Ukraine.
• Hitler’s motive behind the attack
» He feared that the Russians would
attack Germany while his troops were
still preoccupied in the West.
» He expected that the Japanese should
attack Russia in the Far East.
» The more powerful Japan became,
the less chance there was of the USA
participating in the war (or so Hitler
thought).
» But except, there was his hatred
of communism and his desire for
Lebensraum (living space).
• Germany attacked from the center,
92
south, and north and marched towards
Moscow, Leningrad, and Ukraine,
respectively, using Blitzkrieg tactics
which included simultaneous and swift
attacks by airplanes, men, and tanks.
• Germans were highly successful at
first as they confront an inexperienced
Russian army. The Stalin removal of
1937 had led to inexperienced young
officers substituting the experienced
Generals. Slow mobilization policy was
also a cause.
• But Germany lost to get Moscow and
Leningrad (now called St Petersburg) in
1941. Because of high rains in October
that turned the Russian roads to mud
and then the frost during November-
December (temperature as low as
minus 38 degree Celsius) also limited
the forward march by the Germans.
• The German army was short of winter
clothes as they had expected to defeat
Russia by November. In 1942, the
Germans lost the Battle of Stalingrad.
Entry of USA
• Japan attacked Pearl Harbour, and with
this attack, the U.S. ended the Policy of
Isolation and joined on the side of the
Allies.
• Although through the Lend-Lease
Act (April 1941), the United States of
America had already been supporting
the Allies with massive financial aid to
Britain and war material to Russia.
• Pearl Harbour was a Naval Base in
the Hawaii islands. At the Washington
Conference, Japan had reached an
agreement on the naval limit with
Britain, France, and the USA. In 1930, it
had reiterated its commitment to the
naval limit, but it soon breached it, thus
breaking its Washington conference
pledge.
• It had also agreed to maintain
the neutrality of China under the
 Washington Conference (1921-02), but
in 1931 it invaded Manchuria. By 1937,
Japan had begun the full invasion of
China, and this 2nd Sino-Japanese war
merged into the second World War.
The causes for the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbour are as follows:
» Japan wanted domination of the
Greater East Asia Co-prosperity
Sphere. This was an imperial concept
and implied all the Asian nations in
East Asia under the Empire of Japan
and free of western powers.
» Japan wanted raw material and thus
desired British possessions of Malaya
and Burma, which were rich in rubber,
oil, and tin. It also wanted to colonize
the Dutch East Indies, which was rich in
oil.
» Japan never wanted a war with the U.S.,
but the latter was proving to be a hurdle
in the Japanese plans. The U.S. was
helping China in the war against Japan.
The U.S. had also placed an oil embargo
on Japan because Japan would not
heed the U.S. demand of withdrawing
from the French Indo-China (Indo
China is the region comprising of Laos,
Vietnam, and Cambodia).
» The Japanese had obtained Indo-
China from Vichy France, a puppet
government set up by Hitler after
the Battle of France (1940). The talks
had reached a stalemate when the
US insisted on Japan's withdrawal
from Indo-China and China. Also,
when the brutal General Tojo became
Prime Minister of Japan, war became
unavoidable. After the attack on Pearl
Harbour:
− Japan got control of the Pacific.
− It captured the British colonies of
Malaya, Singapore, Burma, and
Hong Kong.
− It captured the Dutch East Indies,
Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island,
93
the latter three being U.S. colonies.
Declaring war on the USA was Hitler's
most serious fault.
• He did not have to commit to war with
the United States at this stage, in which
case the Americans might have focused
on the Pacific war.
• However, the Germans had already
assured the Japanese that they would
come to Japan’s aid if she was ever at
war with the USA. Hitler assumed that
President Roosevelt of the USA would
declare war on Germany sooner or
later, so he wanted to get Germany’s
declaration of war in first, to show the
German people that he, and not the
Americans, controlled events.
• In fact, the U.S. Congress was naturally
determined to take their revenge on
Japan but was reluctant to get tangled
in Europe. Roosevelt would have a
difficult job convincing Congress to
declare war on Germany; Hitler’s action
saved him from the trouble.
• Germany was now faced with the
enormous potential of the United
States. This meant that, with the vast
resources of the USSR and the British
Commonwealth, the Axis had less
chances of success if the war continued.
It was critical for them to land knockout
blows quickly before the American
contribution became successful.
The offensives held in check:
summer 1942 to summer 1943
• This phase of the Warsaw had three
important battles in which the Axis
forces got defeated.
• In June 1942, the Americans drove off
a Japanese attack on Midway Island,
administering heavy losses.
The Battle of Midway (1942) served as a
turning point as during this Battle; the U.S.
bombers destroyed Japanese Aircraft
Carriers. It was almost impossible to win
naval battles without aircraft carriers.
After this Battle, the U.S. started what
came to be known as 'Island Hopping'
whereby between 1942-44, it won back
from Japan the Pacific islands one by
one, via a strategy of aerial bombing of
islands followed by ground assaults on
them.
• In October, the Germans under Rommel,
proceeding towards Egypt, were halted
at El Alamein and later driven out of
North Africa.
The defeat in Egypt [Battle of El Alamein
-October 1942] was a turning point
because this prevented the important
Suez Canal from falling under the control
of Germany. It also ended the possibility
of an alliance between the Axis powers
and the Middle East. The war in the desert
drained Germany of its resources which
could have been better utilized against
the USSR. Thus Italy's non-performance
hurt Germany. Most importantly, the
Battle of El Alamein led to the complete
exit of Axis powers from North Africa.
This allowed the Allied forces to land in
Morocco and Algeria to attack the Axis
troops from the West. After this, Libya
and Tunisia were won back, and Italy was
invaded.
The third battle took place in Russia, where
the Germans infiltrated Stalingrad on the
Volga River in September 1942, where the
Russians put up such fierce resistance that
the German army was surrounded and
forced to surrender the following February.
94
The Battle of Stalingrad (1942) was fought
in Southern Russia. Germany had reached
Stalingrad by August 1942 and destroyed
the infrastructure. But Russians refused
to surrender and started a counter-
offensive in November. By February 1943,
the Germans were trapped, their supply
lines were cut, and they surrendered. The
Battle of Stalingrad was an important
point because had Germany won, then it
would have been able to cut the oil supply
lines of Russia, which transported oil from
the Caucasus. With Stalingrad under
its control, Germany would have been
able to attack Moscow from the south-
east. The victory boosted the morale of
Russian troops, and soon Germany was
ousted from Leningrad and eventually
from Russia.
The Axis Powers Defeated: July
1943 to August 1945
• The huge power and resources of the
USSR and the USA, combined with
an all-out effort from Britain and its
Empire, slowly and surely took the Axis
powers down.
• Italy was removed first, and this was
followed by an Anglo-American invasion
of Normandy (June 1944) which saved
Belgium, France, and Holland.
• Later, Allied troops crossed the Rhine
and captured Cologne.
• In the east, the Russians drove the
Germans out and advanced on Berlin
via Poland.
• Germany surrendered in May 1945 and
Japan in August, after the Americans
had dropped an atomic bomb on
Hiroshima and one on Nagasaki.
Important Events of This Phase:
Fall of Italy (1943):
As the Battle of Stalingrad fulminated,
Stalin continued to persuade the British
and the Americans to conquer France. In
January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met
at Casablanca, Morocco, and determined
to attack Italy first. On July 10, 1943, Allied
troops of 180,000 soldiers arrived in Sicily
and captured it from Italian and German
troops by August.
• The conquest of Sicily deposed
Mussolini from power. On July 25, King
Victor Emmanuel III deposed the tyrant
and arrested him. Italy surrendered
on September 3rd. But the Germans
got control of northern Italy and put
Mussolini in charge again.
• Finally, the Germans withdraw from
northward, and the victorious Allies
entered Rome on June 4, 1944. Fighting
in Italy pursued until Germany fell in
May 1945.
• On April 28, 1945, as the Germans
were withdrawing from northern Italy,
the Italian resistance ambushed some
trucks. Inside one of them, resistance
fighters found Mussolini covered up as
a German soldier. The following day, he
was shot to death, and his body was
hanged in the Milan town square.
Operation Overlord (1944):
This was the invasion of France that began
on the so-called D-Day to liberate it from
German occupation. The operation was
carried out due to multiple reasons. The
Russians had been demanding to open
this second front since 1941.
• The German U-boats had sunk by this
stage. In addition, Allied air supremacy
had been developed, and Italy had
been brought on board with the
Allies. As a result, the Allies could now
concentrate on freeing France, Belgium,
and Holland.
95
Invasion of Germany (1944-45):
There was disagreement over this
invasionbetween U.S. and Britain.
• While Britain wanted to reach Berlin
before the Russians, the U.S. demanded
to practice caution due to an earlier
failed attempt at German invasion in
1944.
• The Battle of Bulge was fought in
December 1944. It is named due to the
fact that German troops were able
to break through American lines and
advanced 60 miles leading to a huge
bulge in the front line between the two
forces.
• U.S. and Britain pushed them back.
As a result, Hitler had spent all of his
resources on this war, and they could
not be replaced. Germany's demise
was now a foregone conclusion. In April
1945, Russia invaded Berlin, and Hitler
committed suicide..
The defeat of Japan (1945):
On August 6, 1945, the USA dribbled an
atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing perhaps
as many as 84 000 people and leaving
thousands more slowly dying of radiation
poisoning. After three days, they dropped
an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, which killed
perhaps another 40 000; after this, the
Japanese government surrendered. The
dropping of these bombs was the most
disputable action of the entire war.
• The nuclear bomb was used in Japan
because the U.S. wanted to end the
war as soon as possible so that Russia
could not make further territorial gains
in the Pacific. USSR had promised to
join the Allies in the invasion of Japan,
but the U.S. did not want Russia to gain
any territory in Japan. There is also a
view that the U.S. wanted to threaten
the USSR by displaying the power of
the new bomb and wanted to establish
itself as a super military power.

Events in Europe
Aug. 1939
Non Aggression pact
between Germany and the
production away from the theatre of
war. Also, the axis powers could not
match the U.S. in the production of
Events in Pacific arms.
Region
1939 • In Germany's case, Mussolini was

somewhat to blame: his incompetence

Soviet Union

Sept. 1939
Germany invades poland
world war II begins
was a constant drain on Hitler’s
May 1940 resources.
Evacuation of British forces at 1940
Dunkirk
• The Allies soon learned from their early
Jun. 1940
France surrenders; the battle
of British begins
failures: - By 1942, they knew how to check
Blitzkrieg attacks and appreciated the
Jun. 1941
1941 importance of air support and aircraft
Germany invades the Soviet
Union
Japanese attack Pearl
Harbor; U.S. declares war on
Japan
carriers. Consequently, they built up air
and naval superiority, which won the
Apr. 1942
Aug. 1942 Allies surrender in
Philippines; Bataan Death
battles of the Atlantic and the Pacific
Hitler ordered attack on
Stalingrad 1942 March begins
and slowly starved their enemies of
May 1942
Nov. 1942
Allies land in North Africa
Allies burn back Japanese
fest In Battle of the Coral Sea
supplies.
Feb. 1943
Jun. 1942
Allies defeat Japan in Battle
• Hitler did not seem to understand
Germans surrender at
Stalingrad 1943 of midway
that war against Britain would involve
Feb. 1943
Japanese abarden the Island
her empire as well and that his troops
of Guadalcanal
were bound to be spread too thinly-
on the Russian front, both sides of
Jun. 1944 Oct. 1944
Allies invade Europe on
D-Day
1944 Allies defeat Japan in Battle
of Leyte Gulf
the Mediterranean, and the western
Mar. 1945 coastline of France.
Dec. 1944 Allies capture lwo Jima
Battle of the bulge begins
Jun. 1945
• The Japanese failed to learn the
May. 1944
Allies capture Okinawa
importance of aircraft carriers and
Germany surrender 1945 Aug. 1945
Atomic bombs dropped on concentrated too much on producing
Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Sep. 1945 battleships.

I M A G E 9.3: E V E N T S OF
Factors Responsible for the
Defeat of Axis Powers:
• Shortage of raw materials:
• Both Japan and Italy had to import
supplies, and Germany was short of
rubber, cotton, nickel, and, after mid-
1944, oil.
• The Allies, on the other hand, had vast
resources in the form of the resource-
rich United States, Soviet Union, and
British Commonwealth. The USSR
moved its factories to the east of the Ural
Mountains, which ensured continuous
Japan surrender
• Hitler failed to supply food and artillery
for a winter campaign in Russia
and completely misjudged Russian
W O R L D W A R II
resourcefulness and resolution. The
deeper the German army forwarded
into Soviet territory, the more its supply
and communication lines became
opened to enemy counter-attacks.
Hitler also became preoccupied with
the idea that the German armies must
not retreat.
• Hitler made a huge mistake by declaring
war on the USA after Japan's attack on
Pearl Harbor.
Effect of second world war
• Alliance victory in the war had been
achieved at a high cost. World War II

96
 had caused more destruction and death
in history. It causes 60 million dead, 50
million uprooted from their homes, and
property damage that ran into billions
of U.S. dollars.
• About 40 million Europeans had
died—two-thirds of civilians. Constant
shelling and bombing had reduced
hundreds of cities to ruin. The ground
war has destroyed the countryside.
Displaced persons from many nations
were battling to get home.
• Even after the war was ended, misery
in Europe continued for years. Europe
lay ravaged by the fighting. Agriculture
was destroyed. Most young men had
served in the military, and the women
had worked in war manufacture. Some
remained to farm the fields. With
destroyed transportation system, the
meager harvests often did not reach
the cities.
• A number of respective treaties were
signed.
» Italy lost its African colonies and gave
up its claims to Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
Albania and the USSR took the eastern
section of Czechoslovakia, the Petsamo
district, and the area around Lake
Ladoga from Finland and held on to
Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia, which
they had occupied in 1939.
» Romania recovered northern
Transylvania, which the Hungarians
had occupied during the war.
» Trieste, claimed by both Italy and
Yugoslavia, was declared a free territory
protected by the United Nations
Organization.
» Later, in San Francisco (1951), Japan
agreed to surrender all territory
obtained during the previous 90 years,
which included a full withdrawal from
China.
» However, the Russians denied agreeing
to any deal over Germany and Austria,
97
except that they would be occupied
by Allied troops and that East Prussia
should be divided between Russia and
Poland.
• Many Germans migrated to Germany
from their homes in Allied-occupied
areas outside Germany. This was
done to ensure that no future German
government claimed these territories.
• World War II led to the production of
nuclear weapons.
• The European domination ended with
World War II, and the balance of power
shifted in favor of the USSR and the U.S.
Due to high war prices, Italy, Britain,
Germany and France was on the edge
of bankruptcy. Britain was under huge
U.S. debt, which is obtained due to the
U.S. aid provided under the Lend-Lease
Act (1941).
• The USA and the USSR came out as the
two most powerful nations in the world,
and they were no longer as remoted
as they were before the war. The USA
had suffered the war partly and had
enjoyed great prosperity from supplying
the other Allies with war materials and
food.
• In the post-world war, however,
enemies not only became allies. Allies
also became enemies. World War II
had changed the political scenario of
Europe. It weakened some nations and
strengthened others. The USA and the
USSR come out of the war as allies.
Nevertheless, once the fighting was
over, the differences in their postwar
goals emerged. These differences
stirred up conflicts that would shape
the modern world for decades.
• The war uplifted the movement towards
decolonization. The defeats wreaked
on Britain, Holland, and France by
Japan, and the Japanese invasion of
their territories - Burma (British) and
Malaya, Singapore, French Indo-China,
and the Dutch East Indies-destroyed
 the tradition of European superiority
and invincibility.
• The new nations, which were typically
underdeveloped and industrially weak,
were often deeply confused about the
motivations of both capitalism and
communism, and they resented their
own economic dependency on the
world's wealthy powers.
• MacArthur was adamant about being
fair and not laying the groundwork for
a potential war. Nonetheless, in order
98
to guarantee the end of the war, he
started a phase of demilitarisation,
disbanding the Japanese armed forces.
He accomplished this in a short period
of time, leaving the Japanese with only
a small police force.
• The United Nations Organisation
emerged as the inheritor to the League
of Nations. Its main goal was to try
to maintain world peace and socio-
economic development across the
world.
 CHAPTER - 10

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Introduction: nations and promoting societal

progress, better living standards and
human rights.
• The Japanese surrendered to General
Douglas MacArthur on September 2,
• Due to its unique international character,
and the powers vested in its founding
1945 and with Japan’s surrender, the
document, the Organization can take
second world war had ended. After this,
action on a large range of issues, and
countries faced the task of rebuilding a
provide a platform for its 193 Member
war-torn world. Some of the significant
States to express their opinions, through
events after the second world war are:
the General Assembly, the Security
establishment of United Nations, Non-
Council, the Economic and Social
aligned movement, Formation of NATO
Council as well as other bodies.
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
and Cold war between Russia and • The activity of the United Nations
United States. reaches every corner of the world.
Although best known for peacekeeping,
peace building, conflict prevention
Formation of United and assistance for humanitarian
needs, there are various other ways
Nations in which the United Nations and its
specialized agencies affect our lives
and make the world a reformed
• UN as an international organization
place. The Organization works on a
was established on October 24, 1945.
large range of issues, starting from
The United Nations (UN) was the
sustainable development, environment
second multipurpose international
and protection of refugees, disaster
organization that was worldwide in
relief, counter terrorism, disarmament
scope and membership. Its predecessor,
and non-proliferation, to promoting
the League of Nations, was formed
democracy, human rights, gender
by the Treaty of Versailles, in the year
equality , women advancement,
1919 and disbanded in 1946. UN is
governance, economic and social
Headquartered in New York City and
development , international health,
also has regional offices in Geneva,
clearing landmines, expanding food
Vienna, and Nairobi.
production, and more, in order to
• The United Nations is an international achieve its purpose and coordinate
organization founded by 51 countries efforts for a safer world, for this and
committed for the maintenance of future generations.
international peace as well as security,
nurturing friendly relations among

99
 Developing other to improve the lives of
poor and disadvantaged people,
to eradicate hunger, disease and
among various illiteracy, and to prosper respect
for one other's rights as well as
freedoms

Peace keeping To be a mid-point for

throughout the 4 main harmonizing the
world purpose achieve these goals
of UN
I M A G E 10.1: M A I N PURPOSE OF UN

Structure of United Nations

(UN):
The UN has six principal organs -
General Assembly, Security Council,
the Economic and Social Council,
Trusteeship Council, the International
Court of Justice, and the UN
Secretariat. The UN System includes
various specialized agencies, such
as the World Bank Group, the World
Health Organization, the World Food
Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF.

100
Principal Organs of the United Nations

UN General Assembly UN Secretariat International Court of

Deliberative assembly of Administrative organ of the Justice
all UN member states. UN. Universal court for
international law.

• May resolve • Supports the other UN • Decides disputes

not compulsory bodies in administration between states that
recommendation (for example, in the abide its jurisdiction.
to several states or organizing conferences, • Issues legal opinions.
suggested measures the writing of reports
to the UN Security and studies budget • Gives judgment by
Council. preparation). relative majority.
• Decides on the • The chairperson of the • Its fifteen judges are
entrance of new UN Secretary General – elected by General
members, following is elected by the General Assembly for nine-year
initiative by the UNSC. Assembly for a five-year terms.
• Adopts the budget. term and is the foremost
representative of UN.
• Elects the members of
the UNSC who are of
non-permanent nature
• All members of
ECOSOC.
• The UN Secretary
General (following his/
her proposal by the
UNSC).
• The fifteen judges of
International Court of
Justice (ICJ).
• Every country has 1
vote.

101
UN Security Council UN Economic and Social UN Trusteeship Council
Council

— For international — For global economic and — For administering

security issues social affairs trust territories (currently
inactive)

• Responsible • Responsible for • Was originally made

for maintaining synchronization between
international peace as states as regards
well as security economic and social
• May adopt resolutions matters
which are of • Coordinates co-
compulsory nature operation between the
• Has fifteen members, specialized agencies of
five permanent UN
members with power • Has total of 54 members,
of veto and ten elected elected by the General
members. Assembly to serve three-
year mandates
to manage colonial
establishments that
were former mandates
of League of Nations
• Has not been active
since 1994, when Palau,
the last trust territory,
attained independence

suggest measures for maintaining

General Assembly:
• With regards to the General Assembly,
every member of the United Nations
is a member of this Assembly. Going
by rule, the Assembly meets once in a
year but there can be a special session
under varied circumstances.
• The General Assembly has been
given mandate of discussion, review,
deliberation, supervision, and criticism
of the work of the United Nations
comprehensively. It can discuss and
international peace as well as
security. It directs as well as supervises
cooperation in international, economic,
and social field. It overviews the working
of the trusteeship system. It controls the
finances of the organization.
• It admits suspended and expelled
members. It adopts conventions of
international nature. It proposes, studies,
and makes recommendations for the
nurturing the progress of international
law. It appoints a quite large number of

102
 members of the several organs of UN. It
can discuss amendments to the Charter
of the United Nations Organization.
Security Council:
• The meeting of Security Council
takes place more often than the
General Assembly. It consists of some
members who are permanent, and
others selected for two years by the
General Assembly by rotational system.
Region specific considerations are
taken into domain while electing the
members. Each member has one vote
and the approval of all the permanent
members is necessary in all case. Every
permanent member of the Security
Council possesses veto power. To start
with, the Soviet Union exercised the
veto power many times and the same is
repeated now by the United States.
• The veto power has drawn a flak, but
it seems that the Big Powers do not
want to become members of the United
Nations if they are not provided with
veto power. They would dislike anything
to be done by the UN simply because
smaller states who may be in majority
in the United Nations may decide for
something which is disapproved by the
influential Powers.
• With regards to the functions of the
Security Council, its main duty is of
maintaining international peace as
well as security. It has to give annual
or some special Reports to the General
Assembly. It can submit proposal to
the General Assembly for regulation of
armaments among the members. While
executing, it can avail of the help of the
Military Staff Committee.
• The Security Council has the mandate
to establish region specific agencies.
It has to supervise and control Trust
Territories, which are under the charge
of the several states. It has to use
its offices for resolving international
103
disputes through peaceful ways.
Whenever it considers appropriate, it
can call upon parties to settle the same
by negotiations, inquiry, mediation,
conciliation, arbitration, and judicial
settlement, action by regional agencies
or other peaceful means.
Economic and Social Council:
• The Economic and Social Council
includes members who are elected
for three-year period by the General
Assembly. However, one-third of them
retire every year. Its foremost function
is to initiate studies and reports with
respect to international, economic,
social, cultural, educational, health and
other relevant matters.
• It can prepare blue print of conventions
on the same subjects and forward
them to the General Assembly It can
coordinate the work of the specialized
agencies and also regulate the flow
of the reports from those particular
agencies at regular time frame. It has
to do those functions which have been
given to it by the General Assembly
and also such functions for which the
request has been made by the member-
states and the specialized agencies.
Trusteeship Council:
• The Trusteeship System is considered
one step ahead improvement on
the Mandate System provided in the
Charter of the League of Nations.
The Trusteeship Council remains in
charge of this work. It considers reports
submitted to it by the administering
authority and also to examine the
petitions in consultation with the same
authority.
• It makes visit to the territories under
the Trusteeship System to see the
way administration is going on. The
 Trusteeship Council can send a list of
questions to the states concerned with
the intent of getting information about
the political, economic, social, and
educational progress of the mandated
territories.
International Court of Justice:
• It is an improvement on the Permanent
Court of Arbitration. It includes 15
members elected by the General
Assembly. It has two kinds of jurisdiction.
It decides on cases which are the
subject of dispute between two or more
states. It has also been given advisory
jurisdiction.
Secretariat:
The Secretary General is the chief
administrative officer of the secretariat. He
is assisted by a number of subordinates who
looks after the details of various aspects of
the works of the UN. The headquarters are
in New York. The members have to foot the
bill for the maintenance of the Secretariat.
Collective Security under
United Nations:
• Article I of the United Nations Charter:
It calls for "effective collective action
for preventing and removing threats to
peace and for vanquishing aggressive
acts or some other forms of breach of
the peace.
• It is given that the Security Council is
to determine the presence of any threat
to the peace or act of aggression and
shall make suggestions or decide what
steps ought to be taken to maintain or
restoring with international peace as
well as security.
• To prevent situation getting worse,
the Security Council may call upon
104
the concerned parties to abide by
such temporary measures as it deems
adequate. Such measures will be bereft
with prejudice to the rights, claims or
position of the concerned parties.
• The Security Council shall rightly take
measures in case of failure to abide by
the provisional measures. It must decide
what type of measures, not to involve
armed forces, are to be applied to put
into practice its decisions and may call
upon the UN members to apply such
measures. The measures may include
full or partly blockage of economic
relations and of rail, sea, air, postal,
telegraphic radio as well as other forms
of communication and the aggravating
of relations diplomatically.
• If such measures are considered not
adequate by the Security Council,
it may take such steps by air, sea or
land troops as may be required for
maintaining or restoring international
peace as well as security. Such steps
may include demonstrations, blockade
and other operations by air sea or land
troops by members of the UN.
• All members of the UN, in order to
bring international peace as well as
security, have undertaken to present to
the Security Council, on its call and in
accordance with a special agreements,
armed forces, assistance as well
as facilities including the passage
right, adequate for the objective of
maintaining international peace and
security. Such agreements shall govern
the members and types of troops,
their degree of readiness and general
location and the type of facilities as
well as assistance to be provided.
• The agreements shall be negotiated
as early as possible with the initiative
of the Security Council. They shall
be conducted between the Security
Council and the members and the
signatory states must ratify the treaty
in compliance with their respective
 constitutional process.
• When the Security Council has taken
the decision to use force, it shall, before
calling upon a member not represented
by it to provide armed forces, invite that
particular member to take part in the
Security Council's decision concerning
the employment of contingents of the
armed forces of the member.
• In order to enable the UN to take
urgent military steps, the members shall
immediately place available national
air force contingents for combined
international action. The robustness
and degree of readiness for their action
shall be decided by security Council
with the assistance of the Military Staff
Committee. Plans for the application
of armed forces shall be made by the
Security Council with the assistance of
the Military Staff Committee.
• The action required for carrying out
the decisions of the Security Council
for the maintenance of international
peace and security shall be taken by
all the members of the United Nations
or by some of them as the Security
Council may determine. Such decisions
shall be carried out by the members
of the United Nations directly and
through their action in the appropriate
international agency of which they are
members.
• The members of the United Nations shall
join in affording mutual assistance in
carrying out the measures decided upon
by the Security Council. If preventive
or enforcement measures against any
state are taken by the Security Council,
any other State, whether a member of
the United Nations or not, which finds
itself confronted with special economic
problems arising from the carrying out
of those measures, shall have the right
to consult the Security Council with
regard to a solution of those problems.
• Article 51 provides that nothing in the
Charter shall impair the inherent right
105
of individual or collective self-defense
if an armed attack occurs against a
member of the United Nations, until the
Security Council has taken the measures
necessary to maintain international
peace and security.
• Measures taken by the members in the
exercise of the right of self-defense shall
be immediately reported to the Security
Council and shall not in any way affect
the authority and responsibility of the
Security Council to take at any time such
action as it deems necessary in order to
maintain or restore international peace
and security.
• Experience shows that the system of
collective security as provided in the
United Nations Charter has failed to
achieve its objective. In spite of the
salutary provisions, there has been
plenty of aggression in all parts of the
world and the members of the United
Nations have failed to come together
to meet the danger.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization)
• The founding members of NATO signed
the Treaty on April 4, 1949. It worked in
sync with the UN, the World Bank, as
well as International Monetary Fund
which was created during Bretton
Woods Conference in 1944.
• NATO's main aim was to protect their
members from threats by mainly
communist countries. The United States
had also desire to maintain its presence
in Europe. It aimed at preventing
resurgence of aggressive nationalism
and work on bringing political union.
In this way, formation of the European
Union was made possible by NATO. U.S.
protection gave European nations the
required environment to rebuild after
second world war destruction.
• During the Cold War, NATO's mission
 got expanded to prevent nuclear war.
After West Germany entry into NATO,
Warsaw Pact alliance was formed
by the communist countries. USSR,
Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, and East Germany
were included in it. In response,
"Massive Retaliation" policy was
adopted by NATO. It made promise of
nuclear weapon usage if the Pact was
attacked. NATO's deterrence policy
allowed European nations to focus on
economic development. It did not have
to diversify its focus towards building
large conventional armies.
• The Soviet Union continued to
strengthen its military capabilities.
Towards the end of the Cold War, it
was spending about three times what
the United States was, with only a one
-third of the economic power. When
Berlin Wall fell in the year 1989, the
reasons were both economic as well as
ideological.
• NATO's relationship with Russia had
defrost after fall down of Soviet Union
in late 1980. In 1997, NATO-Russia
Founding Act was signed to build
cooperation bilaterally. In 2002, NATO-
The principles of the NATO were:
The members of NATO will solve themselves the disputes
which arise among them
They will help each other for individuals as well as
Common Security
As Sovereignty was concerned, they will help each other
106
Russia Council was formed to partner
on shared issues on security.
• The collapse of the USSR resulted
in disruption in its former satellite
states. NATO got involved when civil
war in Yugoslavia became genocide.
NATO's initial support by United
Nations naval embargo led to a no-
fly zone. Violations then led to some
airstrikes until September 1999. That
is when a nine-day air campaign was
conducted by NATO which ended the
war. By December 1999, NATO placed
a peace-keeping troop of 60,000
soldiers, that concluded in 2004 when
NATO transferred this function to the
European Union.
• Protecting democratic freedom among
its 28-member nations remains main
purpose of NATO. Being political as
well as military alliance, the coalition's
value to global security continues to
be paramount. Its longevity, since its
formation in 1949, is attributed to its
members' shared values championing
democracy, freedom, and free market
economies. NATO has remained
America's most important alliance.
The Objectives of NATO were:
• NATO was meant to bring fear for Union
Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR).
• It warned Russia that if it attacked any
country of Europe or America, the USA
would help that affected country.
• This organization also aimed at the
unification of all the countries of Europe
and America under one umbrella. It
also aimed at the economic stability of
these countries and advancement on
the military front.
• This organization also mentally
stabilized European nations.
• NATO's fundamental objective was to
save Europe and America, which was to
be attacked by Russia.
• All agencies as well as organizations
of NATO are integrated into civilian
administrative as well as military
executive roles. For most of the part,
they execute roles and functions that
support both directly and indirectly, the
security role of the alliance.
The civilian structure includes: -
• The North Atlantic Council (NAC)
has effective governance authority
and decision-making power in NATO,
consisting of members and permanent
representatives or representatives at
higher level (foreign affairs minister or
defence, or the heads of state). The
NAC meeting takes place at least once
a week and makes important decisions
regarding policies of NATO. The
meetings of the Council are headed
by the Secretary General and, when
decisions are to be taken; action is
agreed on the basis of unanimity and
common accord. Voting or decision
by majority do not take place. Each
nation represented at the Council or
in its subordinate committees retains
full sovereignty and responsibility of its
decisions.
107
• NATO Headquarters, located in Haren,
part of the City of Brussels. The
Headquarters composes of national
delegations of member countries and
composes of civilian as well as military
offices and officers or diplomatic
missions as well and partner countries
diplomats, as well as the International
Staff and International Military Staff
filled of working members of the
armed forces of member states. Non-
governmental groups have also grown
up in favour of NATO, broadly under the
banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic
Treaty Association movement.
The military structure includes:
• The Military Committee (MC) of NATO
includes member states' Chiefs of
Defence (CHOD) and directs the North
Atlantic Council (NAC) on military
policy as well as strategy. The national
CHODs are frequently represented in
the MC by their permanent Military
Representatives (MilRep), who are
mostly two- or three-star flag officers.
Like the Council, Military Committee
also meets at a higher level from time
to time, namely the Chiefs of Defence,
the most senior military officer in
each nation's armed forces. The MC is
headed by its chairman, who directs
NATO's military operations.
• Until the year 2008, the Military
Committee did not include France,
due to the 1966 decision of France to
remove itself from the NATO Military
Command Structure, which it joined
again in 1995. Until France rejoined
NATO, it was not represented in the
Defence Planning Committee, and this
led to conflicts between France and
NATO members. The case was in the
lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom.
International Military Staff supports the
operational work of the Committee.
• Allied Command Operations (ACO) is
the command of NATO responsible for
 its operations worldwide.
• Allied Command Transformation (ACT)
is liable for transformation and training
of NATO forces.
• The Rapid Deployable Corps include
Euro corps, German Corps, Multinational
Corps Northeast, and NATO Rapid
Deployable Italian Corps among
others, as well as High Readiness naval
Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied
Command Operations.
The organizations as well as
agencies of NATO composes of:
Headquarters for the NATO Support
Agency in Capellen Luxembourg (site of
the current NATO Maintenance and Supply
Agency – NAMSA.
• The NATO Communications and
Information Agency Headquarters
is in Brussels, as was the very small
staff, which will design the new NATO
Procurement Agency.
• A new NATO Science and Technology
(S&T) Organization was formed before
July 2012, including Chief Scientist, a
Programme Office for Collaborative
S&T, and the NATO Undersea Research
Centre (NURC).
NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO
PA) sets broad strategic purposes for
NATO, which meets at two sessions
every year. NATO PA interaction takes
place directly with the parliament of the
concerned governments of the member
states which appoint Permanent Members
or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO
Parliamentary Assembly consists of
legislators from the members of the North
Atlantic Alliance and thirteen associate
members. However, it is officially a different
structure from NATO, and aims to join
together as deputies in order to debate
and deliberate security policies.
108
CENTO (Central Treaty
Organization)
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO),
formerly Middle East Treaty Organization,
or Baghdad Pact dating 1955 to 1979
included Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, as well
as the United Kingdom. Until March
1959, it was known as the Middle East
Treaty Organization, included Iraq,
and had its headquarters in Baghdad.
• Formed at the initiative of Britain as
well as the United States, the Central
Treaty Organization was aimed to
counter the threat of Soviet expansion
into important Middle Eastern oil-
producing areas. It never became
effective organization. Iraq took out
itself from the alliance in 1959 after its
anti-Soviet monarchy was removed.
The same year the US was made an
associate member, the name changed
to CENTO, and its headquarters was
moved to Ankara. After the debacle
of the shah in 1979, Iran withdrew, and
CENTO was dissolved.
• Central Treaty Organization was
another name for Baghdad Pact. In
the year 1955 Iraq and Turkey signed
Baghdad Pact whose purpose was to
prevent Middle East from the influence
of Russian Communism. Later on, Great
Britain and Pakistan joined it. The US
gave financial help to Baghdad Pact.
However, in 1959 Iraq resigned from
Baghdad Pact and the organization was
named as ‘Central Treaty Organization’
or CENTO.
The CENTO had the following
principles:
• The members were to pay attention
to their own security and to make the
defense of other countries strong.
• A member country should not interfere
in the affairs of another country.
• The member countries would not keep for 5 years.
relations with other countries of the • This organization was to be given new
world. shape after the expiry of five years.
• This organization would remain in force

It had the aim to keep Soviet Russia away from the Middle East.

This also acted as warning to Soviet Russia and other Arab

Countries.

The member countries wanted help from the United States

of America.

It seemed that peace would be established in the Middle East,

it would help the growth of trade and commerce among the
member countries.

The Southeast Asia NAM (Non-Aligned

Treaty Organization Movement)
(SEATO) • After the World War 2, two countries
• The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO) was established for collective
defense in Southeast Asia, formed by
the Southeast Asia Collective Defense
Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in
September 1954.
• Mainly created to obstruct further
communist motive in Southeast Asia,
SEATO is generally regarded a failure
because of internal conflict as well as
dispute paralyzed general objective of
the SEATO military; however, it funded
cultural and educational programs that
left long-lasting effects in Southeast
Asia. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June
1977 after many of its members lost
interest and withdrew.
started to showcase their higher
position. These were USA and USSR.
• They sided many countries on their sides
by the formation of several alliances.
On the other side, the African as well
as Asian countries which had gained
independence, did not go with either
America or Soviet Russia.
• They came together with the theory of
Non-alignment with the super powers.
These countries came to be known as
'Non-aligned Countries'.
• The chief proponents of the Non-
aligned countries was Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru, Ahmed Sukarno, Indonesian
President, Gamal Abdel Nasser.
Egyptian President and Marshall
Tito, Yugoslavian President, Kwame
Nkumah, the President of Ghana were
also the affirming personalities who

109
 championed the cause of Non-aligned
Movement (NAM).
Causes of NAM
• Firstly, the countries of Asia and Africa
dislike to be under a capitalism promoter
country like America or a Communism
promoter country like Soviet Russia.
• Secondly, all the nation of Asia as
well as Africa wanted negotiation for
themselves to make economic progress.
• Thirdly, they realized thatarmament
race is certainly not good for every
nation.
• Fourthly, they imagined a ‘Third World’
which would help them in developing
the economic and cultural co-operation.
• Finally, the underdeveloped nations
strived for helping each other and
decided not to interfere in internal
affairs of any country. So these countries
came together to form the Non-aligned
Movement.
110
Primary Steps were taken for Non-aligned
Movement on 18 April 1955. A Conference
took place at Bandung, the capital of
Indonesia in which 29 countries from
Asia and 6 from Africa participated. This
conference not only united Asian and
African countries but also strictly opposed
Colonialism.
The former Prime Minister of India
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s Principles of
‘Panchsheel’ (Mutual respect for each
other’s territorial integrity and Sovereignty,
Non-aggression, Non-intervention in each
other’s domestic affairs, Mutual benefit
and equality and Peaceful co-existence)
were adopted by this Conference.
This Conference took resolution to fight
against the apartheid system to establish
friendly relations with all member countries,
to solve the intentional problems in a
peaceful way, to respect other's territorial
sovereignty, to give respect to the law
and ideas of the UNO etc. The Afro-Asian
countries were inspired.
 CHAPTER - 11
COLD WAR AND UNIFICATION OF
EUROPE
Cold War
Causes of Cold War:
» The Soviet Union desired to spread its
ideology of communism throughout the
world, which alarmed the Americans
following democracy.
» The possession of atomic weapons by
America led to fear in the Soviets.
» Both countries had a fear of an attack
from each other.
» The Soviet Union's step of getting
control over Eastern Europe was a
major factor behind suspicion of US.
» The US President personally disliked
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.
» America was not happy with Soviet
Union's actions in German parts, it had
taken possession of.
» The Soviets had a fear that America
would use Western Europe as a base to
attack it.
» Ideological: The United States and
the Soviet Union forecasted two
alternative forms of government. In the
US, the government was elected by free
elections which was not the case of the
Soviet Union. The people were able
to form political parties to voice their
political opinions.
• Economic: The United States desired
to prosper free trade around the world.
The Soviet Union wanted to seal it's own
sphere from international commerce.
These differences led to harsh feeling
between US and Soviet Union.
• Power rivalry: After the World War
2, with the debacle of Europe, power
domain largely lied between the Soviet
111
Russia and the US. As one wanted to
dominate the other, conflicts were
inevitable.
Several causes responsible for the
outbreak of the Cold War:
At first sight, the difference between
Soviet Russia and the USA was the cause
behind the Cold War. The US was unable
to tolerate the Communist orientation of
Soviet Russia. On the other side, Russia
could not accept the dominance of the US
upon the other countries of Europe.
• Secondly, the Armament race between
the two superpowers was another cause
behind the Cold War. After the World
War 2, Soviet Russia had enormously
increased its military strength which
was considered threat for the West.
This caused America to start the
manufacturing of the Atom bomb,
Hydrogen bomb and other weapon of
deadly nature. Participation in this race
took place by other European countries
also. So, the whole world was bifurcated
into two power and paved the way for
the Cold War.
• Thirdly, the difference in ideology
was another reason for the Cold War.
When Soviet Russia spread Communist
ideology, at that time America favoured
Capitalism. These circumstances
ultimately encouraged the Cold War.
• Fourthly, Declaration by Russia made
another reason for the Cold War. Soviet
Russia showed Communism through
mass-media and encouraged and
added flavour to the labour revolution.
On the other hand, America aided the
Capitalists against Communism. So it
helped the growth of the Cold War.
• Fifthly, the America’s Nuclear
Programme was majorly responsible
for another cause of the Cold War.
After the bomb disposal of America on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Soviet Russia
got afraid of its existence. So, it also
took the same path to combat America.
This led to the growth of the Cold War.
• Lastly, the Veto Enforcement by Soviet
Russia against the western countries
made them dislike Russia. When the
western countries put any sort of view
in the Security Council of the United
Nations Organization, Soviet Russia
immediately opposed it through
veto power. So western countries got
annoyed by Soviet Russia which gave
birth to the Cold War.
Phases of the Cold War
The Cold War did not occur in a day. It
passed through several phases.
First Phase (1946-1949):
In this phase America and Soviet Russia
did not believe each other. America
always wanted to control Russia’s Red
Regime. Without any doubt Soviet Union
established Communism by destabilizing
democracy in Poland, Bulgaria, Romania,
Hungary, Yugoslavia, and other East
European Countries.
• In order to diminish Russia's hegemony,
America helped Greece and Turkey
by following Truman Doctrine which
came into force on 12 March 1947.
According to the Marshall Plan which
was declared on 5 June 1947 America
gave financial assistance to Western
European Countries.
• In this phase, non-withdrawal of the
army from Iran by Soviet Russia, Berlin
blockade etc. made the cold more
furious. After the formation of NATO in
1949, there was a halt in Cold War.
112
Second Phase (1949-1953):
In this phase a treaty took place between
Australia, New Zealand and America in
September 1957 which was formally known
as ANZUS. America too signed a treaty
with Japan on 8 September 1951. At that
time by taking arms from Russia and army
from China, North Korea declared war
against South Korea.
• Then with the assistance of UNO,
America gave military aid to South
Korea. However, both Korean countries
signed a peace treaty in 1953 which led
to end of the war. In order to decrease
the impact of Soviet Communism,
America spent a huge amount in
influencing a propaganda war against
Communism. On the other side, Soviet
Russia tried to be equal with America
by testing atom bombs.
Third Phase (1953-1957):
Now the United States of America formed
SEATO in 1954 in order to reduce Soviet
Russia's influence. In 1955 America formed
MEDO in the Middle East. Within a short
period of time, America gave military
assistance to 43 countries and formed
3300 military bases around Soviet Russia.
At that time, the Vietnamese War started
in 1955.
• To reduce the American Power, Russia
signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Russia
also signed a defence treaty with 12
Countries. Germany was divided into
the Federal Republic of Germany
which was under the American control
whereas German Democratic Republic
was under Soviet Union. In 1957
USSR included Sputnik in its defence
programme.
• In 1953, death of Stalin took place and
Khrushchev became Russia’s President.
In 1956, an agreement took place
between America and Russia with
regards to the Suez Crisis. America
 First Phase (1946-1949)
Second Phase (1949-1953)
Third Phase (1953-1957)
Fourth Phase (1957-1962)
Phases of
the Cold War
agreed not to help its allies like England
and France. In fact, West Asia was
rescues from a major threat.
Fourth Phase (1957-1962):
In 1959 the President of Russia Khrushchev
went on a historical tour to America.
Both countries were annoyed by the U-2
accident and the Berlin Crisis. On 13 August
1961, USSR made a Berlin Wall of 25 Km
to check the immigration from east Berlin
to West Berlin. In the year 1962, Cuban
Missile Crisis was a major cause behind
aggravating of the cold war.
• This incident created an atmosphere
of conversation between American
President Kenedy and Russian President
Khrushchev. America assured Russia
that it would not attack Cuba and
Russia also withdrew missile stations
from Cuba.
Fifth Phase (1962-1969):
The Fifth Phase which began in 1962 also
marked a mutual suspicion between the
US and Soviet Union.
113
Sixth Phase (1969-1978)
Last Phase (1979-1987)
• There was a concern throughout the
world demanding ban on nuclear
weapons.
• In this period, Hotline formally came
between the US and USSR.
• This was the reason behind both the
parties refraining from nuclear war.
• In Spite of that, the Vietnam problem
and the Problem in Germany kept the
Cold War between the USA and USSR
intact.
Sixth Phase (1969-1978):
This period starting from 1969 was marked
by DETENTE between the US and Soviet
Union- the President of America Nixon
and Russian President Brezhnev played
an important role in bringing cold war to
an end. The SALT treaty of 1972, the 1975
summit Conference on Security' in Helsinki
and 1978 Belgrade Conference brought US
and Soviet Union closer.
• In 1971, Foreign Secretary of America
Henry Kissinger paid a secret visit to
China to look out for the possibilities
of making connection again with
 China. The US move to reorient Diego
Garcia into a military base was mainly
designed to check the Soviet presence
in the Indian Ocean. During the 1971
Bangladesh liberation war and the
Egypt-Israel War of 1973 the two
superpowers extended support to the
opposite sides.
Last Phase (1979-1987):
In this phase some changes were noticed
in the Cold War. That is why historians
call this phase the New Cold War. In 1979,
the President of US Carter and Russian
President Brezhnev signed SALT II. But in
1979, the prospects of mitigating the Cold
War were hampered by development t
in Afghanistan.
• Vietnam (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia
(1972) and Afghanistan (1979) issues
brought success to Soviet Union which
was unbearable for US. American
President Carter's approach of Human
Rights and Open Diplomacy were
disliked by Russia. US Senate did not
ratified SALT 2 treaty. In 1980 America
boycotted the Moscow Olympics.
• In 1983, Russia withdrew itself from
a missiles talk with America. In 1984
Russia boycotted the Olympic game
held at Los-Angeles. The Star War of
the American President Ronald Regan
annoyed Russia. In this way the 'New
Cold War' between America and Russia
continued till 1987.
Impact of Cold War:
Both the US and the USSR piled up large
number of arsenals of atomic weapons as
well as ballistic missiles.
• The formation of military blocs, NATO
and the Warsaw Pact took place.
• It led to conflicts of destructive nature
like the War in Vietnam and the Korean
War.
114
• The Soviet Union fell down due to
economic weaknesses.
• The Berlin Wall got demolished and the
two German countries became unified.
• The Warsaw Pact got disintegrated.
• The Baltic States and some former
Soviet Republics gained independence.
• America became the supreme power of
the world.
• Communism collapsed worldwide.
• The Cold War led to diminishing
Communism and the rise of
globalization worldwide.
The impact of the Cold War on the
development of many countries was
enormous. The consequences of the
Cold War were derived from numerous
internal problems of the countries, which
were connected with the USSR, especially
developing countries (India, Africa, etc.).
This fact means that foreign policies of
many states were transformed.
Thus, it is relevant to conclude that the Cold
War was an important worldwide conflict,
which was due to various ideological
perceptions as well as experiences,
depending on one's locations and societal
standings. The importance of the Cold
War in Modern World History is clear.
Both the US and the USSR were founded
on the ideology which mainly aimed for
improvement of human life. However, not
same approaches to economy as well as
social development led to the conflict
between two countries. The Cold War
assisted in shaping Modern World History,
provided huge opportunities for political,
economic, and social development of the
countries. Modern World History would be
different if Cold War would not have taken
place. The collapse of the USSR and its
communist system provided considerable
changes in foreign policies of many
countries, including the United States.
Unification of
Europe
• Rather than war, the European Union
was forged in unity. It all started in
an unusual way: The Treaty of Paris,
signed in 1951 by Belgium, France, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and
West Germany, merged their coal and
steel industries. The idea was that, this
would be the beginning step toward
forming a "United States of Europe,"
which would combine France's and
Germany's interests to prevent potential
conflicts. The European Economic
Community was formed in 1957, but
further integration had to wait until
the end of the Cold War. The European
Union was formed in 1992 with the
signing of the Maastricht Treaty. The
Euro was introduced by the EU in 1995,
and most single-nation currencies were
phased out in 2002. The EU currently
has 27 member nations, including some
that were once part of the Soviet Union.
• Following 1945, Europe saw a strong,
although incremental, move toward
cooperation over conflict. Nations
were in shambles in the aftermath of
WWII, and the continent was about
to be broken in half, with spheres of
influence dominated by the US and
the Soviet Union. Beginning with the
countries west of the ‘Iron Curtain,'
a new environment arose in which
leaders promised to never allow such
widespread destruction as occurred
during the two ‘Great Wars.'
• Since then, a growing sense of loyalty to
one another has emerged, transforming
‘The Six' initial delegates into an
organization with a broad mandate
for control of primarily economic,
but also social and defence policies
through its 27-member membership.
In terms of supranational governance
and integration, the European Union
115
is a global leader today, with its single
market and multilateral currency, as well
as an increasing perception that the
entire group's prospects are intertwined.
It serves as a blueprint for other East
and South American intergovernmental
organizations (ASEAN, USAN etc.).
• After 1945, tensions between the
historically opposing Allied and Axis
powers, as well as the new question
of Russian supremacy in the East,
persisted in Europe. The Red Army
had marched into Berlin, which had
now been divided into four spheres of
influence: the United States, the United
Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union.
Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia,
and East Germany, among others, had
slipped from the grasp of the Western
Powers, and the continent had never
been more fragmented.
• The concept of the all-powerful nation
state had been debunked, and the
mainland's major players, namely
France and Germany, were eager to
forge closer ties. For France, this was as
much about limiting the German state's
control as it was about advancing
their own. Jean Monnet proposed the
European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) as a starting point; a lowest
common denominator on which these
two countries could agree, with the
aim of extending cooperation in the
future. Six nations (France, Germany,
Italy, and the Benelux countries) agreed
to join this group, and from that, seed
has developed over half a century
of ever-expanding European central
governance. This paper will attempt
to describe the key reasons for the
change from conflict to international
cooperation in the post-World War II
period, as well as to clarify the reasons
for their occurrence and the motivations
of the key players.
• The sheer destruction and loss incurred
by World War II was a crucial factor in
changing the perceptions of influential
 actors after the war. In total, 60 million
people died across the world, with
37 million civilians and 6 million Jews
among them.
• This defeat was unprecedented, even
in comparison to the First World
War, and it prompted key European
players to challenge both the tactics
of peacemakers at Versailles and the
traditional strength of the ‘nation-state'
itself. The Treaty of Versailles, especially
the reparations and the 'War Guilt
Clause,' almost certainly contributed to
Hitler's rise to power and the simmering
discontent within Germany. It would
have been foolish to dismiss this lesson
and seek to punish the aggressors once
more.
• Nationalism as well as the "Fascist
glorification of the nation-state" served
as a stark reminder of the issues caused
by a lack of coordination among
European governments, with many
debating the feasibility of a Federalist
structure and close cooperation.
• The French had concerns about restoring
Germany, and some saw integration as
a way to gain leverage over German
policy. If they could convince Germany
to commit to supranational control
and intergovernmental cooperation
when it was weak, future governments
would find it difficult to pull out of these
agreements.
• Jean Monnet identified coal and
steel as a first field for collaboration,
allowing the French to dismantle the
German war machine and exert some
leverage over its finances. Having joint
control over these main manufacturing
industries would make it almost
impossible for one country to target the
other, given the feasibility of obtaining
the resources needed and the massive
economic impact.
• It was critical for Europe as a whole to
improve multilateral security through
collaboration and joint projects in order
116
to avoid the form of "security rivalry"
that caused problems and divisions in
the run-up to WWII. It could be argued
that Monnet was a federalist, proposing
strong powers for European government,
but he was wise enough to recognize that
people would only support the concept
in small steps; it would be impossible
to turn to a "United States of Europe"
overnight, but he had much grander
plans for the ECSC's growth.
• A fall in global influence is a second
important factor. Following World War
II, those countries that had previously
been major world powers, especially
Britain and France, realized that they
no longer had sufficient influence in the
world if they acted alone.
• With their large populations and
regional dominance, the United States
and the Soviet Union had the economic
and military strength to fully envelop
Europe in a "Cold War" with pressure
applied by both sides. It became
clear that the only way for European
governments to exert influence over
the conduct of these main players on
European soil was for them to speak up.
• While Britain preferred to downplay its
European ties in favour of the Atlantic
Alliance and Commonwealth, the
French, in particular, were concerned
that they no longer possessed the global
hegemony or economic firepower that
once saw these two nations conquer
the world with large empires; it became
apparent that only a united Europe
could bear any global weight... Any
proposal that avoided continent-wide
despair and an invasion of Communism
was accepted by the United States. The
provision of Marshall Aid, at least in part,
contributed to the establishment of the
Organization for European Economic
Cooperation (OEEC), which was tasked
with determining how the money should
be distributed. This was the first official
union of the major nations of Europe
and the initiation of an ‘economic
 community’ which has further evolved
into the modern European Union.
• With regards to those states also which
did not accept the development of
mainstream economic union. Though
the ECSC, did not totally rejected the
idea of cooperation. Britain, the Swiss,
Austrians, Portuguese and Scandinavian
countries did not accept the Coal and
Steel Community but in place formed
a separate alliance, the European Free
Trade Association (EFTA). Cooperation
was observed as the most effective way of
economic development and the division
between ‘The Six’ and the EFTA was over
the style of its execution, not principles.
• Thirdly the western European powers
had to observe outwards as well as
internal issues of the European states.
They were to protect themselves from
the external threat of USSR and the
impact of the Cold War. Europe was
bifurcated in half through Berlin and
countries to the west of the wall had
the major aim to prevent a domino
effect and the spread of Communism.
The Treaty of Rome (1957) set up a
European Economic Community; a
unity of the same six nations of the
ECSC but with even stronger links and
broader cooperation. Article 2 of the
treaty set out its key objectives, which
included increased stability and steady
expansion; a clear sign that those six
nations were consciously defending
themselves against the 'Evil Empire'
and sought closer cooperation with
other European states. The uprising
in Czechoslovakia in 1948 had been
a real cause for concern, as was
the development of Soviet nuclear
arms. These Cold War security issues
amongst many others evidenced the
fact that 'The Six' had to work together
and expand to find safety in numbers.
• The European states were, to an extent,
duty bound to act against the USSR
because of the level of aid from the USA
and the debts they owed. US troops
117
were stationed in West Germany, which
was seen to be the most vulnerable,
but the neighbouring states were
uncomfortable with the idea of German
rearmament The North Atlantic Treaty
Alliance (NATO), formed in 1949, was an
effort to defend Germany and the rest
of Europe under the banner of unity and
integration while avoiding the risk of a
renewed German attack (Taylor 2007).
It was another case of integration in
motion, but this time on a much larger
scale. NATO had 12 members at the
time, while Europe had just six.
• Following the initial victories of the
1940s and 1950s, the ‘European Project'
grew in popularity, and in 1961 and
1967, Britain, which had been “of Europe
but not ‘in' Europe” (Churchill 1946),
applied for membership. The progress
of integration is the fourth element in
the drive for integration. The increase in
living standards aimed at by the Rome
Treaty made those countries, mostly
in the South and Scandinavia, see the
economic benefits of integration, and
this remained a key selling point until the
collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989-1991,
when the former Eastern Bloc states
were similarly eager to join the EC.
• The notion of an "ever-closer union"
gained traction"...and it has its own
prophets who are zealous in their belief
in its destiny." Because of its utility
and reciprocal benefits, the concept
of integration gained traction among
many political leaders, and despite a
degree of separation from the general
public, levels of collaboration increased
in the second half of the twentieth
century. In conclusion, it is formidably
clear that after some half a century of
tension and conflict, there was a real set
up for closer ties and cooperation within
European nations after 1945. While the
East stagnated under the shadow of the
USSR, virtually every nation west of the
Berlin Wall saw the benefits of a single
European union as a means to economic
 development and stability, even if they
did not want to be a part of it at first (as
with Britain). Containment and control
of Germany was critical, especially for
the French. The ECSC brought these
two countries together through mutual
wealth, resulting in a 60-year friendship.
Second, former European powers had
lost much of their global clout, falling
well behind the United States and the
Soviet Union They could only have a
major presence on the international
stage if they banded together to work
for mutual benefit. The third issue was
Communism's external stability, which
was addressed through the NATO
alliance and defensive cooperation
Finally, the combination of both of
these factors resulted in an increase in
living standards and levels of stability
unprecedented in Europe for centuries.
The integration project's success served
as a catalyst for the Community's
development and "ever-closer union."
• After World War II, the European
Coal and Steel Society (ECSC) was
an international body that brought
together a range of continental
European countries. The Treaty of
Paris included Belgium, France, West
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg in 1951, formally created
it. The ECSC was the first international
organization founded on supranational
principles, and it paved the way for the
European Union to emerge.
• On May 9, 1950, French Foreign Minister
Robert Schuman suggested the ECSC
as a way to avoid another war between
France and Germany. His stated goal
was to make future European wars
impossible through increased regional
integration, with the ECSC serving
as the first step in that direction. The
treaty would establish a common
market for coal and steel among
its members, reducing competition
between European nations for natural
resources used in wartime mobilization,
especially in the Ruhr.

The Schuman Declaration by ECSC had several distinct aims and purposes:
• It would be marked by the birth of a united European nation.
• It would make no war zone between member nations impossible.
• It would prosper world peace.
• It would lead to transformation of Europe incrementally, leading to the democratic
integration of two blocks separated by the Iron Curtain.
• It would lead to the creation of world’s first supranational institution.
• It would lead to the creation of world’s first international anti-cartel agency.
• It would result in creation of a common market across the Community.
• It would, beginning with the coal and steel sector, revitalize the entire economy of
Europe by the same community processes.
• It would result in improvement of the world economy as well as the of developing
country economies, such as those of African nations.

118
• The European Economic Community
(EEC) was a region-specific organization
that majorly aimed to integrate its
member nations economically.
• EEC was formed by the Treaty of Rome
of 1957.
• Important accomplishments of the EEC
included the establishment of common
price levels for agricultural products in
1962 as well as the removal of internal
tariffs between member nations on
certain products in 1968.
» Member-state disagreements erupted
over sovereignty infringements and the
funding of the Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP).
• The Unification Treaty, which combined
the ECSC and EURATOM institutions
into the EEC, entered into force on July
1, 1967. The European Communities
was their collective name. In the 1960s,
the first attempts at enlargement were
made, which led to a willingness to
extend areas of collaboration over time.
As a result, foreign ministers signed the
Single European Act in February 1986.
• The European Union (EU) is a political
and economic union consisting of
28 member states mainly located
in Europe. It covers 4,324,782 km2
(1,669,808 sq. mi.) and has a population
of over 510 million people. The EU has
established an internal single market
based on a uniform set of laws that
apply to all member states. EU policies
aim to ensure free movement of citizens,
products, services, and resources within
the internal market, enforce justice and
home affairs regulations, and preserve
common trade, agriculture, fishing,
and regional growth policies. Passport
controls have been eliminated within
the 'Schengen area'. A monetary union
was created in 1999 and became fully
operational in 2002, consisting of 19
EU member states that use the euro
currency.
119
• The EU runs through a mix system of
supranational and intergovernmental
decision-making system. The seven
main decision-making parties are
known as the institutions of the
European Union, the European Council,
the European Parliament, the European
Commission, the European Union Court
of Justice of the Central Bank of Europe,
and the European Court of Auditors.
• The European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC) and the European
Economic Community (EEC) were
created in 1951 and 1958, respectively,
by the Inner Six countries. The Group
and its predecessors have increased in
size and strength as new member states
have joined and policy areas have been
added to their remit.
• The Lisbon Treaty, which took effect
on December 1, 2009, reformed several
elements of the EU. It changed the legal
framework by integrating the three
pillars system into a single legal body
with legal personality; it established a
permanent President of the European
Council; and it formed a permanent
President of the European Commission
and made the position of the High Union
Representative for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy more secured. Several
problems, including a debt crisis in some
Eurozone countries, increased migration
from the Middle East, and the United
Kingdom's exit from the EU, put the EU's
stability to the test in the 2010s. The
United Kingdom has withdew from the
European Union as of July 2020 and is
currently negotiating an agreement with
Brussels on its formal withdrawal.
Post War Europe:
• The division of Europe was the first
major characteristic of postwar Europe
until the 1980s, with communist
parties aligned with the Soviet Union
controlling Eastern Europe, while the
Western part of Europe adopted a
 range of democratic political structures
with a capitalist economy and was
influenced by the US.
• The three most backward countries
in Europe—Portugal, Spain, and, for
several years, Greece—were the key
exceptions to the above.
• Portugal: Salazar's dictatorial rule in
Portugal lasted from 1932 until 1968,
when ill health forced him to step down.
In 1974, a coalition of junior army officers
overthrew the dictatorial government
with the aid of Portuguese leftists,
communists, and other democrats, and
a new democratic Constitution was
adopted.
• Spain: After Franco's win in civil war,
he created a fascist regime in Spain
that lasted until his death in 1975.
After his death, there was a period
of liberalization and the release of
political prisoners. For more than four
decades, the first free election was held
in 1977. In Spain, the Socialist Party has
developed into a significant political
power.
• Greece:
• The end of the civil war in Greece did
not result in the development of a stable
democratic political structure. In 1967, a
tyrannical regime was formed after a
group of army officers seized power.
» For several years, the restoration of
democracy in Greece has been a major
concern among European citizens.
Many well-known Greek political and
cultural figures had fled the country,
while others languished in Greek
prisons.
» As a resistance movement developed
within the nation, it was reinforced
by a strong protest movement on the
outside. The Colonels' rule, as the Greek
military dictatorship was known, came
to an end in 1974, and Greece reverted
to democracy.
120
• The European people's political thinking
was radicalized as a result of the
Second World War. In several European
countries, left-wing governments came
to power soon after the war. Until 1947,
communists were also part of the
government in France and Italy.
European Unity:
• The advent of a movement for Western
Europe's unification was a major
development that would aid Western
Europe's rise as a great world power.
France was the first big country to take
the lead in this direction. It considered
itself to be the natural leader of a
unified Western Europe.
• The European Economic Community
was formed in 1957, which was the
first big step in this direction (EEC).
The EEC's member countries—France,
West Germany, Belgium, Holland,
Luxembourg, and Italy—created the
"Common Market".
• This was meant to be a warm-up for
the establishment of a West European
union. Britain initially refused to join the
EEC, but when it attempted to do so in
1961, France refused.
• In 1973, Britain and two other countries—
Denmark and Ireland—were officially
admitted to the EEC. The European
Parliament was later formed by the
EEC's nine members. Greece, Spain,
and Portugal were later added to the
EEC as well.
• The advent of a united Western Europe
as a political force in the coming years
has become a real possibility. Already,
proposals are in the works to implement
a shared currency in the EEC countries
and to remove the need for Europeans
to travel from one EEC country to
another with a passport.
• In the meantime, Germany had emerged
 as the EEC's strongest economic force.
Germany's power was likely to expand
even further with her unification. Despite
the loss of their empires, the countries
of Western Europe had joined to create
a new world power. Their economic
dependence on the United States was
reduced and they were likely to play
more independent role in international
affairs.
• The European Economic Community
(EEC) was renamed the European Union
on November 1, 1993. It grew from a
coalition of mostly Western European
countries to a union of 27 European
nations by 2007. Its priorities included
strengthening political, economic, and
social cooperation, as well as ensuring
the free movement of citizens, goods,
services, and resources across European
borders. In 2004, seven Eastern European
countries—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia (the
former Czechoslovakia had broken
up into two independent countries by
then), Poland, and Hungary—joined
the European Union, having previously
been controlled by communist parties
and aligned with the Soviet Union.
• Former communist countries Bulgaria
and Romania, as well as Slovenia, soon
joined them (which had broken away
from Yugoslavia). It is something to
accomplish that all of these countries
have successfully transitioned to free
market economies. Also, all these new
member nations of the European Union
have become member countries of
NATO. In two of them— Poland and
Czech Republic—missiles have been
deployed which the leaders of the
Russian Federation think are directed
against their country.
• This recent trend is causing new
tensions in Europe. Other countries,
such as Turkey and the former Yugoslav
republics, have applied for membership
in the European Union. NATO has
already accepted Turkey as a member.
121
• Worthy progress has been made in
the integration of Europe into a single
body. The euro is the shared currency
of the European Union's fifteen member
countries. Most member countries allow
citizens to travel freely without requiring
a passport.
• A unified institutional architecture is
also emerging. There is a European
parliament, for example, that is made
up of representatives elected from all of
the European Union's nations, but their
grouping in the parliament transcends
national borders.
• There is a European Court of Justice that
can hear complaints from individual
citizens of European Union member
countries on some topics. The European
Union has established a popular stance
on a number of foreign relations issues.
• However, on a number of other topics,
each country has taken its own stance.
For example, Britain has been a close
ally of the United States in the Iraq
War, while France has been a vocal
opponent of the US invasion, and Spain,
which had sent troops to Iraq when the
war broke out, withdrew them after the
country elected a socialist government.
• Communist parties and their backers
had gained exclusive power in the
European countries liberated by Soviet
troops. As Warsaw Pact members,
these countries were allies of the Soviet
Union.
• They were sometimes referred to as
Soviet Union's "satellites." The latter
often placed its will on the communist
parties and governments of these
nations, often with the use of armed
forces. These countries were not eligible
for the European Recovery Program
and were forced to depend primarily on
their own resources. The Soviet Union
was unable to offer the kind of massive
assistance that the United States had
given to Western Europe.
• The type of socialism that these
 countries aspired to build was based
on the Soviet model. These countries'
economies were intertwined with the
Soviet economy, and they shared many
of the latter's ills. The majority of these
countries' economies were based on
agriculture.
• Despite the fact that their economic
growth was not equal to that of
advanced West European countries,
these countries' industrialization
was a major move forward. In these
nations, the evils associated with the
accumulation of economic power in
private hands were avoided, and the
old ruling classes and big landlords'
grip was broken.
It has already been said that the communist
parties' rule in Eastern Europe is coming
to an end. After 1985, activities in the
Soviet Union had a strong effect on these
countries' political developments. Between
1989 and 1991, communist rule in almost all
of these countries came to an end.
Romania & Albania:
• Following the dissolution of the Soviet
Union and China in the 1960s, two
of these countries (Romania and
Albania) were able to break free from
Soviet influence. Albania had entered
the Warsaw Pact as well. However,
the communist parties' exclusive
dominance over these countries
remained unchanged. In fact, the
communist regimes in these countries
were more authoritarian than in most
other Eastern European countries.
• In December 1989, a widespread
uprising in Romania took place against
the government of Nikolai Ceausescu.
Many army units joined the opposition
to the government. Ceausescu and his
wife were apprehended, convicted, and
put to death. Following the elections,
122
a coalition government was formed. In
1992, Albania's communist rule came to
an end.
Poland, Hungary &
Czechoslovakia:
• Solidarity, a Polish organization, was
at the forefront of the anti-Communist
Party movement. In 1989, Unity and the
communist government reached an
agreement. Following the free elections,
Poland's Prime Minister was chosen by
a non-communist.
• In 1956, there was an uprising in
Hungary that was put down by Soviet
troops. Free elections were held in 1990,
and a non-communist government
was established. After the military
intervention of Warsaw Pact countries in
Czechoslovakia in 1968, the Communist
Party deposed Alexander Dubcek, who
had begun to implement political and
economic reforms.
• The Communist Party's dominant
position came to an end in December
1989, following mass protests and
strikes. Vaclav Havel, a well-known
Czech journalist, was elected President
of Czechoslovakia. In 1918, the country
became an independent nation.
• It has been a Federal Republic since
1968, consisting of the Czech Republic
and the Slovak Republic. The two
republics voted to form two separate
independent states after communist
rule ended. In 1993, the Czech Republic
and the Slovak Republic were created.
East Germany:
• This was the culmination of a sequence
of events that started in 1989. In
1989, the leadership of the Socialist
Unity Party, the German Democratic
 Republic's (GDR) governing party, and
the government all shifted.
• The Berlin Wall was officially opened
in November 1989 by the new leaders
of East Germany (GDR). Soon after,
political parties and organizations that
were not dominated by East Germany's
ruling party were allowed to operate
openly.
123
• Early in 1990, the East German
government declared its support for
Germany's reunification. On 3rd October
1990, talks between the governments of
East and West Germany culminated in
Germany becoming a united states. After
country-wide elections in December
1990, a new coalition government was
elected in united Germany.
 CHAPTER - 12
CHINESE REVOLUTION AND
KOREAN WAR
Introduction:
End of World War II shifted the international
balance of power and created a bi-polar
world led by two competing superpowers
i.e. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) and The United States (US). Along
with that some of the other important
events that took place after the second
World War were Chinese Revolution,
Korean war, Unification of Europe, and
Arab nationalism.
Chinese Revolution
• In August 1945, the Soviet Union invaded
and conquered Manchuria, seizing
all the factories, goods and rolling
stocks. They also deployed most of
Mao's Communists into Manchuria and
conscripted much of the population to
increase his numbers.
• They left behind massive amounts of
military equipment for him. The KMT
had rapidly lost support, the communist
gained popularity. Not only did they
organize effective guerilla campaigns
against the Japanese, but they also
restrained land policy which varied
according to the needs of particular
areas. They freed many areas from
control of the warlords and as they did
all of this, they enforced Communist
ideals and won people over to their side.
Chiang’s forces moved into Manchuria
after the Soviet’s left.
• After the revolution of 1945, China was
left with a strong centralized government
under the communist party of China
set up by Mao Zedong and Zhou
Enlai. Along with a new government,
124
China also held extreme poverty
and starvation along with incredible
population growth. The territories
under the landlords were freed and
incorporated into the Chinese republic.
The communist declared themselves
the ruling party of China and ignored
Taiwan. For this reason, Taiwan is not
a separate country, but they have two
separate governments. As a result, the
Communist party’s rule was a disaster
and led to the death of millions while
they were isolated from the rest of the
world. It was not until the 1970s until
new leaders gained control and started
making more rational and economically
sound policies. The People’s Republic
of China took Taiwan’s seat in the
United Nations and eventually opened
up to foreign countries and allowed
more free-market trade. The Chinese
government opposes independence of
Taiwan and China remains communist
as the Communist Party does not want
to lose control.
• Among the warlords was Chiang-Kai-
Shek, who began reuniting the empire,
but the Communists under Mao-Tse-
Tung resisted the unification of China
under Chiang-Kai-Shek. He was able to
chase the Communists from their urban
homes to the mountains where they
were no longer a threat.
• However, under Chiang, the
Kuomintang government that was
established by Sun-Yat-Sen grew
increasingly inefficient and corrupt.
The KMT government spent a lot of
time looking after the interests of the
industrialists, bankers, landowners and
made no effective efforts to organize
mass support. Factory conditions were
 terrible and child labour was widely and a personality cult grew around Mao
prevalent and workers were not paid as well. The objectives of the Revolution
their rightful wages. were not met as the Great Leap failed
(mentioned in Timeline below) to create
an industrialized economy. Classes
Causes, Effects & Analysis of remained and failed to establish
communes.
the Chinese Revolution:
• The Chinese society was hierarchical,
and the upper classes enjoyed higher Effects
standards of living and peasant poverty
• The Chinese Revolution of 1949 was
increased as a series of droughts and
caused by an effort by the Soviets
bad harvests occurred in the 1930s,
to expand communism. Prior to the
resulting in famines. Aid from America
Revolution, China had been under
was given to the officials due to the
Manchu rule, and due to the resistance
corruption of the KMT administration.
to adopting foreign innovations, the
The administration also paid for wars
Chinese lost many of the qualities that
by printing extra money which resulted
made them Chinese. To an extent, the
in inflation.
Manchu rulers were more Chinese than
• As Chiang attempted in reorganizing the Chinese.
China, the Japanese annexed
• Because of this rule, China was unable
Manchuria and in 1932 attacked
to modernize itself. Chinese economy
Shanghai and seized Jehol. Until
was dominated by agriculture and
1937, Chiang was able to keep a truce
crafts were practiced with primitive and
between the Japanese until Japan gave
outdated techniques. Heavy revenue
full scale efforts in conquering China.
burdens were imposed on the peasants.
Although by this time, half of China had
fallen to the Japanese, they were able Causes:
to stabilize the lines from 1938-1945.
• The process of modernization began
The Chinese were treated poorly and
in 1911 when the Manchu emperor was
during the war and the Communists
overthrown by followers of Sun-Yat-
maintained a series of truces with the
Sen. He wanted to build a modern,
Japanese.
unified, and prosperous China and
• The origins of the revolution were forged cooperative alliance with the
rooted in Marxist beliefs. Mao and the Communist party for this purpose.
Communist Party wanted to create However, after Sun-Yat-Sen’s death in
equal status among the people, 1924, the empire broke up into small
eliminating the bourgeoisie. They states under the rule of warlords who
wanted to increase industry and make were usually previous army generals.
that the focus of the economy. The Under rule of the warlords, taxes were
revolutionary process began after they demanded in advance and led families
defeated the KMT and Nationalists. to poverty. They controlled a larger part
Russia supported the Communists of the nationalist government that was
while the United States supported the established previously.
Nationalists, but they did not have
large effects on the war.
• The Cultural Revolution encouraged
Maoists beliefs of equality between the
classes. The Red Guards supported Mao

125
 1911 The Manchu emperor was overthrown
by followers of Sun-Yat-Sen
1924 Sun-Yat-Sen died and the empire broke
up into small states
1921-49
of the People's Republic of China
• The Chinese Communist Revolution,
led by the Communist Party of China
and Chairman Mao Zedong, resulted
in the proclamation of the People's
Republic of China, on 1 October 1949.
The revolution began in 1946 after the
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–
1945) and was the second part of the
Chinese Civil War (1945–49). In China,
the revolutionary period is known as
the War of Liberation.
Korean War (1950 -
1953)
The causes of the Korean War were multi-
fold, and but it can be summarized as:
• The war was over, and the results of
both world wars meant that the old
order was dead. The French, British and
smaller empires were in the process of
collapsing into nothingness (although
their influence is so far indelible.) The
Japanese Empire (which had included
Korea in a relationship almost as close
as the British had been to Ireland.) was
completely gone.
• On the other hand, the Soviet Union
and it's client states had reached its
high-water mark, without the splits, that
126
would develop later in what Churchill
(correctly) called the "Bolshevik
Conspiracy." The United States had not
yet developed the cold war policy and
had almost token forces in Japan.
• On a more local front, the United
Nations had essentially ceded the
most valuable parts of the country to
the Communists. The Soviet Union and
the newly Red China sensed weakness
and a lack of readiness among the
Western Allies. (The United States was
the dominant partner in this war, but it
really was a coalition, with heroic and
notable support from the Canadians,
British, French, Turks and even tiny
Luxembourg providing forces (actually,
the French and Commonwealth
components were some of the best
units of the war).
• It was therefore not long before the
North Koreans, then a satellite of the
Soviet Union, decided to invade. The
fact that this would test the resolve
of the Western Allies in the far more
crucial region of the Eastern frontier
was a good bonus.
Effects:
When someone asked Mao what the
effects of the French Revolution were on
history, he answered correctly by saying
"we don't know yet" (the origin/authenticity
of this quote is dubious).
This is true, but these are the effects we
know.
• Unaccounted millions died as a result of
the war, with the Communists getting
the bulk of the deaths. Some of which
could have been, for instance, potential
future geniuses (Salk), criminals (Bundy),
dictators (Hitler), madmen (Albert Fish)
or playwrights (Moliere).
• The Soviet influence in Asia was
dramatically weakened, with a containment policy of US policy would
corresponding weakness in Europe.
• The Red Chinese were correspondingly
strengthened and the much-weakened
North became a Chinese satellite state
(instead of a Soviet one.)
• American influence in the region
expanded dramatically, with the then
desperately poor South Korea and
still recovering Japan moving into
becoming an economic powerhouse in
only a few years.
• The cold war was now seriously on, with
the Soviet Union and the Western allies
(led by the United States) jockeying for
position world-wide.
• A former radical student turned
revolutionary named Ho Chi Minh
started looking to the Soviet Union and
China rather than the United States in
his war against the French and then
against the South Vietnamese.
• North Korea was now poorer than the
greater Korea was under Japanese
over-lordship.
• Douglas MacArthur would never be
President. (This has profound influence
on American history.)
127
What was the Korean War?
• It started on25th of June 1950 War and
took place with 90,000 North Korean
soldiers who invaded South Korea.
• Occurred during a discussion over the
next stage foreign policy of US.
• Many in Washington were in favour
of rearmament programme to hold
Communism worldwide as shown
in NSC-68 (entitled “United States
Objectives and Programs for National
Security”).
• Truman realized that if he fails to
take any action then the credibility of
be severely undermined.
• US, therefore, immediately gave aid
to South Korea and called UN for
sanctioning military action against
North Korea.
• 27th June 1950, a resolution military
sanction against North Korea was
passed by the United Nations.
• USSR was boycotting the Security
Council after the US decided not to
recognize Communist China and it had
fairly no say in the issue.
• Led by UN Commander,Douglas
MacArthur, forces from the US plus 15
other countries arrived on 1st July 1950.
• It the US to accept the recommendations
in document NSC-68 - Raise the budget
of military.
• The Cold War became a global war and
the US wanted to confront Communism
in European as well as Asian nations.
Events in Korean War:
• Began as a war of movement - Dramatic
change in the 1st year.
• Followed by a stalemate that lasted
until year 1953.
Stage First - North Korean Invasion:
• North Korea took over almost all of
the entire Korean peninsula apart from
Pusan (small pocket of land in the
South-East)
Stage Two - UN Counter-Attack:
• MacArthur led the United nations forces
to lead a strike on Inchon - Wanted to
divide the North Korean forces in half.
• Recaptured Seoul within a month
and compelled and pushed the North
Koreans back to the 38th parallel line.
• US decided on a 'rollback' policy -
Aimed to cross into North Korean
territory to reunite Korea.
• October Pyongyang was captured.
Stage Three - Chinese Counter-Attack:
• Chinese warned MacArthur and he
decided to push on the border with
China at Yalu River anyways.
• On 27th November 1950, more than
200,000 Chinese and about 150,000
North Korean troops pushed the UN
forces into back seat.
• In December 1950, Pyongyang as well
as all of the North Korea was captured
again - UN forces suffered huge losses.
Stage Four - Stalemate
War came down to stalemate along the
38th parallel.
• Truman went back to the 'containment'
policy - MacArthur did not agree and
threatened to use atom bombs against
China.
• Truman removed McArthur.
• 1951 Peace talks started.
• 1953 Peace talks continued, and an
armistice was signed at Panmunjom in
July.
128
Causes of the Korean War
• Failure to Unite Korea after World War
II.
• Agreed by the superpowers to
temporarily split Korea and take joint
responsibility for repatriating Japanese
troops.
• 38th Parallel was signified as a dividing
line with the USSR who took possession
of the north and the USA who took the
south.
• In December 1945, Council of Foreign
Ministers' Moscow Conference US
and the Soviet Union formally had
same voice for creating a provisional
government in Korea that would
eventually lead to independence.
• Independence never got achieved and
the Cold War developed superpowers,
who became less willing to cooperate.
• Separate form of governments emerged
on both sides. The South (US) appointed
Syngman Rhee an anti-Communist.
• In the North, the USSR supported a
Communist faction led by Kim Il Sung.
• Both fought the Japanese and wanted
to end the division of Korea - Had
different ideologies.
• The United States persuaded the United
Nations to create a commission to
oversee the Korean elections - Refused
admission to the North but witnessed a
separate election in the South in May
1948 –
• The Republic of Korea (ROK) was
founded in the South and led by
Synghman Rhee - Undemocratic and
anti-Communist but recognized as
legitimate by the UN General Assembly
September 1948, the North founded
the Democratic People's Republic of
Korea (DPRK) - Founded by Kim Il Sung,
recognized as a Communist Bloc.
The inability to establish a single Korean
government resulted in Korea's permanent
division. Each side claimed to represent
Korea, and each leader claimed to unite
the nation.
• THE UNITED STATES' PART: Both
superpowers started to withdraw
troops.
• In 1948, Soviet forces withdrew from the
North.
• By mid-1949, all US troops had left the
country.
• Dean Acheson's 'perimeter' speech in
January 1950 said that the US would
not commit troops to mainland Asia,
and that the withdrawal of troops had
left a power vacuum in Korea, which
could lead to hostile relations between
the two Koreas.'
The Role of Kim Il Sung:
• Both Kim Il Sung and Synghman Rhee
decided to reunify Korea on their own
terms - neither side was able to do so.
• Kim Il Sung attempted to convince
Stalin to support an assault on the
South.
• Both Kim Il Sung and Synghman Rhee
decided to reunify Korea on their own
terms - neither side was able to do so.
Kim Il Sung attempted to convince Stalin
to support an assault on the South.
The Role of Stalin
Stalin gradually started to support war
plans in 1950, when he became more
confident about winning a Communist
victory in China and the construction of
the USSR's first atomic bomb.
• The emergence of an anti-Communist
Japan posed a threat to Stalin's regional
hegemony. The successful invasion of
South Korea provided Stalin with an
opportunity to expand his power.
129
The Mao Zedong’s Role
• Kim Il Sung had China's support - Mao
was initially pessimistic about the
invasion's success. Kim convinced Mao
that Stalin was more enthusiastic. Mao
was eager to win Stalin's support and
prepared his assault on Taiwan.
• Mao eventually gave his permission to
invade the South.
Effects of the Korean War:
Effects on the USA
• The Korean War heightened US fears of
more Soviet aggression.
• NSC-68 proposals to tripe the budget
were approved.
• US powers were reinforced with NATO,
with new members Greece, Turkey, and
finally West Germany.
• The war served as a catalyst for new
policies to be developed and accepted.
In 1952 US and Japan signed the Treaty
of San Francisco - Allowed the US to
build military bases in Japan and the
USA to rebuild the Japanese economy.
• The United States expanded its support
for Chiang Kai-Shek in Taiwan while
continuing to isolate China.
• In 1954, Thailand, the Philippines,
Pakistan, the United States, the United
Kingdom, France, Australia, and New
Zealand formed the South-East Asia
Treaty Organization (SEATO), an anti-
communist containment bloc.
Effects on Korea
About 300,000 people had died, and
property loss was a big complication. The
Peninsula was permanently divided - with
no hope of reunification.
• 38th Parallel became as new defeated
frontier of the Cold War.
• North Korea to be under Communist
regime, South Korea formed itself into
a successful democratic as well as
capitalist-oriented nation.
Effects on China:
• China's image improved after the war
for successfully pushing American
forces back- Helped in consolidation of
the Communist revolution in their own
country.
• Stalin's hesitation to help Mao led to
division of two powers - China became
furthermore independent.
• Mao's resolve to integrate with Taiwan
was now harder as the United States
increased their support for Chiang Kai-
Shek.
Effects on the Soviet Russia
USSR was not directly involved in Korean
War, gave tacit consent to North Korea.
• The war harmed Russia’s interests.
• American will to triple military spending
and provide arms to Western Germany,
maintain forces in Europe and aim to
not spread Communist ideology in Asia
- USSR was being brought into a global
conflict.
• Stretch Soviet Economic commitments
throughout all around the world.
Effects on South-East Asia
Korean War was aimed at containment of
Communism in Asia by US - Asia was now
a battlefield for the Cold War.
• Nationalist oriented countries like,
Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia,
and Philippines wanted to gain
independence from their Colonial
powers. Some of the movements were
Communist in nature and relied on the
support of the USSR or China.
130
• The policies of America confused
national Communist groups allied with
Moscow led to the US going in the
Vietnam War.
Effects on the Cold War
Korean War gave Cold War a global status.
• Increase in military capabilities - Both
sides enhanced their military budgets.
• The Soviet Union enhanced the size of
the Red Army from 2.8 to 5.8 million.
Course:
Korea was split along the 38th Parallel at
the end of WWII
North Korea with Soviet Union meanwhile
South Korea relied on US support.
February 1948-the Korean People's Army
(KPA) was established in North Korea
25 June 1950-South Korea was invaded
by KPA
• Korea, which had previously been
occupied by the Japanese, was split
along the 38th Parallel at the end of
WWII. This was a circle of latitude-
based internal boundary between
North and South Korea.
• The North Korea soon fell under the
domain of the Soviet Union meanwhile
South Korea relied on US support. In
February 1948, the Korean People's
Army (KPA) was formed in North Korea
from Korean communist guerrillas who
had previously worked with the Chinese
People's Liberation Army but had been
'advised' by Soviet staff. By mid-1950,
the KPA had grown to 223,000 troops,
 with ten infantry divisions and other
units.
• On 25 June 1950, South Korea was
invaded by KPA and quickly moved
south, trapping South Korean and US
troops in a small area around Pusan
port. The United Nations responded
rapidly and urged its representatives to
rally behind the South. The US, United
Kingdom, Australia, Canada, India, New
Zealand, and South Africa were among
the countries that sent troops.
• General Douglas MacArthur, the
commander of the UN, ordered an
amphibious landing at Inchon, a port
halfway up the Korean peninsula. Their
131
forces were able to push the KPA back
into the north, all the way to the Yalu
River, which marks the Chinese-North
Korean border.
• At this point, China joined the conflict
and forced UN forces back into the
south. Fighting ceased in the first half
of 1951, and armistice talks began in
July. However, the initial talks were
unsuccessful, and for the next two
years, the opposing armies faced each
other in trenches less than a mile apart.
• At last, on 27 July 1953, an armistice was
signed which made an agreement that
Korea would remain undivided.
 CHAPTER - 13

ARAB NATIONALISM
• A movement that has since been called
Arab Nationalism "Arabism" emerged quickly, stressing

and Conflict in the Arabs' ethnic origin as well as their

Middle East
• Arab nationalism is a nationalist
philosophy that insists that Arabs are
a nation and promotes Arab unity
by honouring the accomplishments
of Arab culture, their language and
literature, and calling for the Arab
world's rejuvenation and political union.
• Some historians believe the first stirrings
of Arab nationalism occurred in the
1860s, but it is more widely agreed that
it started in the early twentieth century
as a continuous political movement.
This followed the reintroduction of the
Ottoman Constitution in 1908, which
resulted in greater press and political
freedom in the Arab provinces of the
Ottoman Empire.
shared cultural roots. It also requested
that Arabs be treated similarly to other
national groups within the empire.
Arabism was heavily influenced by
the emergence of nationalism among
the Arabs, Armenians, as well as by
European models and reinterpretations
of the Arab and Islamic history.
• The Middle East comprises Egypt,
Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Iran, the Sudan, Jordan, Turkey,
the Yemen republics, the United Arab
Emirates (UAE) and Oman. Most of
these countries, except Turkey and Iran,
are peopled by Arabs and Iran, though
not an Arab state, includes many Arabs
residing in the area around the northern
end of the Persian Gulf. The Middle East
also includes the small Jewish state of
Israel, which was established by the
United Nations in 1948 in Palestine.

King Faisal I of Iraq

Somalian President Major General Mohamed Siad Barre

the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party

132
 TURKEY

TUNISTA SYRIA

CO
LEBANON IRAN
IRAQ
RO ISRAEL
JORDAN KUWAIT
OR
M

ALGERIA LIBYA EGYPT BAHRAIN

QATAB
SAUDI UAE
ARABIA OMAN
MAURITANTA

SUDAN YEMEN
The Modern Middle East
0 200 400 600 800 1000
MILES
0 200 400 600 800
KILOMETERS

I M A G E 11.1: M O D E R N M I D D L E E A S T

• A Number Of attempts were made to Arab Republics', however it never

improve the unity amongst the Arab amounted to much.
states.
Some example of disagreement
− The Arab League established in 1945, • Saudi Arabia and Jordan were
comprised of Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, governed (and still are) by fairly
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Jordan, and conservative royal families who were
Yemen. Later the membership was frequently criticized for being too
expanded to include 20 states pro-British by the authorities of Syria
in 1980. But it attained very little and Egypt, which were pro-Arab
politically and was frequently nationalist as well as socialist.
hampered by internal disputes.
• In 1979, some of the other Arab
− During mid-1950s Arab unity states fell out with Egypt because
(sometimes also called as pan- government of Egypt signed a
Arabism, ‘pan’ meaning ‘all’) separate peace agreement with Israel.
obtained a boost with the energetic This caused Egypt to be expelled from
guidance of Colonel Gamal Abdel the Arab League (AL).
Nasser of Egypt, who achieved
enormous prestige in the Arab world
after the 1956 Suez Crisis. In 1958 The Establishment of Israel
Syria joined Egypt to establish the and the Arab-Israeli War, 1948-
United Arab Republic, with Nasser
as president. But this only lasted 49
until 1961 when Syria withdrew due Brief history about the establishment
to the resentment at Nasser’s efforts of Israel state
to dominate the union.
− President Sadat (After Nasser’s • Beginning of the problem went back
death in 1970) organized a loose roughly around 2000 years to the year
union between Egypt, Syria, and AD 71, when most number of the Jews
Libya, called as the Federation of people were driven out of Palestine,

133
 establishment of World
Zionist Organiza on at
Basle (Switzerland)
AD 71 1897
Huge number of the Jews
people were driven Germany by Nazi’s,
which was then their homeland, by the
Romans.
• In 1897, some Jews people residing
in Europe created the World Zionist
Organization at Basle (Switzerland)
and they believed that Jews ought to
be able to go back to Palestine and
have what they labeled ‘a national
homeland’.
• Government of Britain became engaged
in 1917, when the foreign minister, Arthur
Balfour, stated that British government
supported the idea of a Jewish national
home in Palestine.
• After 1933, persecution of Jews in
Germany by Nazi’s, caused a flood of
refugees, and by 1940 nearly around
half the population of Palestine was
Jewish. After 1936 onwards there were
violent demonstrations by Arabs and
an uprising, which the British oppressed
with some brutality by killing over 3000
Arabs.
• The Second World War made the
condition much harsher and in 1945,
the USA pressed British government
to permit 100 000 Jews into Palestine;
this request was echoed by David Ben
Gurion, one of the Jewish leaders,
however the British, not wanting to
offend the Arabs, refused.
• The British, weakened by the strain of
134
1933 November May
1947 1948
Independence of the new
state of Israel
the World War II, felt unable to cope.
The British asked the United Nations
(UN) to deal with this issue. In November
1947, the UN chose to split Palestine,
setting aside roughly half of it to create
an independent Jewish state.
• Fighting was already going on among
Arabs (who bitterly disliked the loss of
half of Palestine) and Jews and after
some time the British also withdrew all
their troops from this region.
• In May 1948, Ben Gurion confirmed
the independence of the new state of
Israel. After the independence, Israel
was immediately attacked by Egypt,
Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon.
Outcome of the War
• Most people anticipated the Arabs
to win very easily, however against
seemingly tremendous odds, the Israelis
defeated them and even seized more
of Palestine than the United Nation
partition had provided them. They
ended up with nearly around three-
quarters of Palestine along with the
port of Eilat (Egypt) on the Red Sea.
• Many of troops of Israel had earned
military experience fighting in the
British army during the World War two
(some 30 000 Jewish men volunteered
 to fight for the British).
• The most heartbreaking outcome of
the war was that the Palestinian Arabs
became the innocent victims: they
had unexpectedly lost three-quarters
of their homeland, and the majority of
their people were now without a state
of their own. Some were in the newly
formed Jewish state of Israel; others
found themselves living in the area-
called as the West Bank -occupied by
Jordan.
• The city of Jerusalem was divided
among Jordan and Israel. The Britain,
France and USA promised Israel’s
frontiers; however, the Arab states
did not consider the ceasefire as
permanent. They would not accept
the legality of Israel, and they viewed
this war as only the first round in the
struggle to demolish Israel and liberate
Palestine.
The Suez War of
1956
• During 19th century, Egypt went bankrupt
while trying for industrialization and
because of this the Governor of Egypt
had to sell his shareholding in the
company that controlled Suez Canal, to
the British. Therefore since 1875, control
of canal was with government of Britain
and France.
• Consequently, Egypt was colonized by
Britishers. It gained independence in
1922 however, British troops remained
there to maintain control over the canal.
The British government continued
to interfere in the internal affair of
Egypt. External foreign control of Suez
Canal was resented by the nationalist
Egyptian Army.
• Colonel Nasser continued with the
demand that the British should
evacuate Suez Canal region. In 1956,
Britain, Israel and France attacked
Egypt.

A very important sea-route of commerce opened in 1869.

towards India and it also provided an outlet from the Mediterranean Sea
towards the Indian Ocean region.
Before the opening of Suez canal or Without the Suez Canal the ships
would have to move and travel all around the Western coast of Africa and
then the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Asian coast.

• Various Reasons were: region.

» Nasser had also assisted the Algerian
» Anti-West policies of Colonel Nasser Arabs in their fight for independence
and his pro-Palestine attitude against
against the French.
Israel.
» In addition to this, in 1955 Colonel
» Colonel Nasser had organized
Nasser further upset the British by
Fidayeens to carry out various activities
signing a defence agreement with
related to murders and bombings in
Czechoslovakia. This agreement
Israel.
provided for training of the army of
» Further, Nasser also refused the renewal Egypt and arms supply.
of the 1936 British-Egypt Treaty that
» Circumstances of economic stress and
permitted British troops in Suez Canal

135
 given the significance of Aswan dam
to Egypt, the termination of the grant
by USA triggered Colonel Nasser to
Nationalize the Suez Canal. Colonel
Nasser intended to use the income
from the Suez Canal to finance the
construction of the Aswan dam.
There was an apprehension amongst
the Western powers that Egypt desired
establishment of a United Arabia under
Egyptian control which might be pro-
USSR. Such kind of Arab unity was against
the economic interests of the West since
Middle East and North Africa were the
major sources of the oil.
Outcome of Suez Canal war of 1956
• End of British control: Britain was
weakened after World War II. It
anticipated a quick victory however,
the army of Egypt fought with courage.
The Suez War was marked as the end
of British control in Egypt and from now
onwards Britain was greatly dependent
on USA in the domain of their foreign
policy.
• Decrease in oil supply: The French and
British failed to attain their war aims
and Egypt blocked the Suez Canal till
1957 and the Arab states reduced oil
supply to the European nations.
• Increase of Russian influence: There
was an escalation in the Russian
influence in the region as the US aid
was replaced by the Russian aid. Also,
British lost an ally in the form of Iraq.
• Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula of
Egypt and utilized it as a leverage in the
peace negotiations and there was brief
cessation of the Fidayeen attacks on its
territory.
• Ceasefire: Soviet union and USA
mediated a ceasefire by working along
with the UN. Israel returned Sinai
Peninsula region to Egypt.
136
• Iraqi Revolution in 1958: Inspired by
defeat of the British and French, in 1958
the nationalists in Iraq assassinated the
pro-British King Faisal and PM Said.
• Freedom struggle in Algeria: The defeat
of France in Suez War gave a morale
boost to the nationalists fighting for
independence which was achieved in
1962. Nasser helped Algerians in their
struggle for independence.
• Arab Unity under Colonel Nasser:
1956 was marked as the emergence
of a new face of Arab Unity in form
of Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. He
now appeared as the tall leader of the
Arab world who had stood against the
Western domination. Nasser helped the
Algerians further in their independence
struggle which was finally won in 1962.
India also backed the anti-neocolonialism
struggle of Egypt and Prime Minister of
India (Jawaharlal Nehru) shared good
relationship with Colonel Nasser. Both of
them along with leaders such as Nkumah
of Ghana, Sukarno of Indonesia and Tito of
Yugoslavia were the founding members of
the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961.
Six Day War (1967)
• The Arab states had not signed any
peace agreement after 1948-49 war
and were still refusing to provide Israel
official recognition. In 1967, Arab states
again joined together in a determined
attempt to destroy the state of Israel.
The lead was taken by Egypt, Iraq, and
Syria.
• Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon,
and Algeria (independent since 1962)
instructed troop mobilization however,
this was slow and provided early warning
and time to Israel which initiated
preemptive strikes and demolished the
Egyptian air crafts.

Territory conquered
by the Israelis
Mediterranean Sea
Port Said
Gaza strip
Su ez El Arish
Canal
EGYPT
Suez
Sinai
Gulf of Suez
Egypt
Red Sea
I M A G E 11.2: C O N D I T I O N
• Outcome of the War:
» Spectacular success for Israel:
− This time they had ignored a UN
order to return the captured territory;
this acted as a series of buffer zones
between Israel and the Arab states
and meant that it would be much
easier to defend Israel.
− Israel captured Golan Heights of
Syria, Sinai Peninsula of Egypt
and entire Jerusalem and West
Bank from Jordan, and Gaza Strip,
previously with Palestinians.
» It was an embarrassment for the Arab
states, and particularly for Nasser, who
now understood that the Arabs required
outside assistance if they were ever to
free Palestine.
» To try and improve their relationship
with Egypt and Syria, the Russians
started to provide them with modern
137
Lebanon weapons. Sooner or later the Arab
Syria
states would attempt again to destroy
Golan Israel and liberate Palestine. The next
Heights
important effort came in 1973 with the
West
Yom Kippur War.
Tel Aviv Bank
Jerusalem Amman
The Yom Kippur War
(1973)
Beersheba
ISRAEL
Negev
Jor dan
• Supported by the military arsenal
from Russia, Forces of Egypt and Syria
attacked early on the feast of Yom
Kippur (a Jewish religious festival),
expecting to catch the Israelis off
guard. After a few early Arab successes,
the Israelis were able to turn the tables
q
Saudi Arabia
of A
by utilizing mostly American weapons.
Gulf
• Outcome of the War:
AFTER 1967 WA R » Opening of Suez Canal: The end of
the battle brought some sort of hope
for permanent peace. Leaders of Egypt
and Israel came together (although
not in the same room) in Geneva. The
Israelis decided to pull their troops back
from the Suez Canal region (which had
been blocked since the 1967 war), which
allowed the Egypt authorities to clear
and open the Suez canal in 1975 (but
not to the ships of Israel).
» Oil crisis of 1973: By reducing oil supplies,
oil-producing states of Arab attempted
to bring pressure to bear on the USA
and on western European nations
which were having friendly relationship
with Israel. Due to this factor, it resulted
in inflation in the importing countries
and there were lot of oil shortages.
» October 6 is celebrated annually by
Egypt, as October War led to Camp
David Accord of 1979. This led to
removal of Israeli troops from Sinai
Peninsular region.
Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty or Camp David Accords (1979)
In March 1979, under the mediator role of USA President Carter, leaders of Israel and
Egypt signed a historic peace agreement, popularly known as the Camp David Accords.
Important points agreed under the treaty:
The state of war that had existed amongst Israel and Egypt since 1948 was now ended.
• Israel agreed to withdraw its troops from Sinai Peninsular.
• Egypt agreed not to attack Israel again and guaranteed to supply it with oil from
the recently discovered oil wells in southern Sinai Peninsular region.
• Egypt allowed Israeli ships to use the Suez Canal.

The Iran-Iraq War compelled Iraq to share control of it

(1980-88) with Iran.

In September 1980, the Middle East and

the Arab world were thrown into renewed
chaos when Iraqi troops of Iraq invaded
Iran.
Motives behind the launching
of the attack
• President Saddam Hussein of Iraq was
scared of militant Islam extending
across the border into Iraq from Iran.
In 1979, Iran had become an Islamic
republic under the leadership of the
Ayatollah Khomeini.
• The Iraq argued that the border
province of Khuzestan (continues
to be the part of Iran toady) in Iran
should rightfully belong to them. This
region was populated by Arab people
rather than the Persians and Saddam
expected that they would rally to
support Iraq (because most of the
Iranians were Persians, not Arabs).
• Dispute related to the Shatt-el-Arab
waterway: This was very important
outlet for the oil exports of both
nations, and it formed part of the
frontier amongst Iran and Iraq. This
waterway had once been entirely under
the control of Iran, however five years
earlier the government of Iran had
President Saddam Hussein assumed that
the forces of Iran would be weak and
demoralized after 1979 Islamic Revolution,
so he anticipated a quick victory. So, it
became clear that he had misjudged
badly, and the war went on for next 8
years. After some time, the border dispute
being overshadowed, the battle became a
Shia-Sunni conflict.
Outcome of Iran-Iraq War
• Though neither side had achieved
its objectives, however the overall
cost of the war was enormous, both
economically and in human lives.
• International oil supply reduced
because Iraq attacked and blocked
Iran’s oil exports. Oil shortage increased
the tensions and brought the USSR,
USA, Britain, and France’s warships in
the region.
• Impact on Arab Unity
» The more conservative nations such as
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Jordan were
Pro-Iraq in their approach. Saudi Arabia
had some other strategic interest and it
wanted to reduce the control of Iran on
the Persian Gulf region.
» Libya, Algeria, Syria, Palestinian
Liberation Organization (PLO) and

138
 South Yemen, were Pro-Iran in their
approach because according to them
Iraq was the aggressor and they thought
that Arab world should concentrate on
Israel.
» The United nations involved and
succeeded in arranging a ceasefire
(August 1988). However, before even
accepting the peace terms at the end
of the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein
attacked neighboring Kuwait and this
latter conflict came to be well-known
as the Gulf War (1990-91).
The Gulf War 1990-
91
In August 1990, forces of Iraq invaded and
quickly captured the small bordering state
of Kuwait.
• Motives of Saddam Hussain:
» Saddam Hussain wanted control over
oil reserves of Kuwait (though a small
nation but had valuable oil wells)
because after long Iraq-Iran war, it was
short of cash.
» Saddam Hussain argued that Kuwait
was historically part of Iraq, though
in fact many critics argued that since
1899, Kuwait had existed as a separate
territory-a British protectorate, while
Iraq had not been formed until after the
World War One.
» Once Again, as in the case related to
Iran, Saddam had miscalculated the
entire scenario and did not expect
any action from the outside world and
also believed that he possessed the
strongest army in the region.
139
• World Unite against Iraq:
» The United Nations placed trade
restrictions on Iraq, reducing off its oil
exports, which was the major source
of income for Iraq. At the same time
Saddam was also ordered to remove
his troops by 15 January 1991, after
which the United Nations would utilize
all essential means to clear them out.
» Over 30 countries participated in
military intervention which is also
known as Operation Desert Storm
against Iraq.
» Britain, USA, and France were against
Iraqi invasion because they thought
that by capturing state of Kuwait,
Saddam now managed and controlled
too much oil in the zone which damaged
the balance of power in the Middle East
region and provided too much leverage
to Iraq.
» Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Syria were
against Iraqi attack because they were
worried about the next following act of
aggression by Iraq which may endanger
their national integrity.
The outcomes of the war were very
revealing about the motives and intentions
of the West and the big powers. Their
main interest was not associated with
international justice and moral questions
of wrong and right. Their involvement
was linked with their own self-interest.
They only acted against Saddam in the
first place because they believed he
was threatening their oil supplies and
disturbing the balance of power. Often in
the past when some other small countries
had been attacked, no global action had
been taken. For instance in 1975, when East
Timor was captured by Indonesia, the rest
of the world overlooked it, because their
self- interest were not endangered.
 PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS

140
Mains
1. Explain how the foundations of the
modern world were laid by the American
and French revolution. 2019
2. Why indentured labour was taken by
the British from India to other colonies?
Have they been able to preserve their
cultural identity over there? 2018
3. What problems were germane to
the decolonization process of Malay
Peninsula. 2017
4. The anti-colonial struggles in West
Africa were led by the new elite of
Western-educated Africans. Examine.
2016
5. Why did the industrial revolution first
occur in England? Discuss the quality
of life of the people there during the
industrialization. How does it compare
with that in India at present? 2015
6. To what extent can Germany be held
responsible for causing the two World
Wars? Discuss critically 2015
7. What were the major political,
141
economic and social developments in
the world which motivated the anti-
colonial struggle in India? 2014
8. What were the events that led to the
Suez Crisis in 1956? How did it deal a
final blow to Britain’s self-image as a
world power? 2014
9. The New Economic Policy – 1921 of Lenin
had influenced the policies adopted
by India soon after independence.
Evaluate. 2014
10. “Latecomer” Industrial revolution in
Japan involved certain factors that
were markedly different from what west
had experience. 2013
11. Africa was chopped into states
artificially created by accident of
European competition. Analyse. 2013
12. American Revolution was an
economic revolt against mercantilism.
Substantiate. 2013
13. What policy instruments were deployed
to contain the great economic
depression? 2013
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1. New NCERT- India and The Contemporary World 1 &
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2 (Class 9th and 10th)

Page 25 / Image 4.2:

2. Mastering Modern World History” by Norman Lowe
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Deutsches_
3. World history book by Krishna Reddy Reich_%25281871-1918%2529-en.png&imgrefurl=https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_
Germany&tbnid=8b1gxz8ljzQgaM&vet=1&do
4. History of modern world- BV RAO cid=cTt4LsDONQb93M&w=2362&h=2362&so
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6. MODERN WORLD I & II – NIOS thumb/2/26/Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg/1024px-
Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg.png

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 AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary
& Mains examination in an integrated approach for “World History”. The purpose is to
enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.

Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of
identifying important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby
saving their precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff. We
have tried to link current issues with the static portion of the syllabus (wherever possible)
so as to develop a better understanding and have a better grasp over the subject.

All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.

However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners
to do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated
atupscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com.

Deepak Singh, Mayur Kale, Himanshu Parashar, Amit Kumar have contributed to the
creation of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC
and in the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing
of the content in the notes.

We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.

Team UNACADEMY

UPSC | World History

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UPSC | World History