Unit 2 Research Essay

The Enlightenment:
Humanity in the Hands of
Humans

Krystal Pham
C. Froese
CHY4U
April 23rd, 2019
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Sapere aude.
"Dare to know".
This was one of the burning quotes that German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, left
behind for the world in his renowned essay, What Is Enlightenment? (1784), effectively
emulating the metamorphic nature of the Age of Enlightenment in one phrase 1. The
Enlightenment (taking place from the years 1650 to 1800) projected the ideas of change that
were ignited during the Renaissance and were thoroughly defined through the 18th Century.
From the 1700s to mid 1800s, Europe saw an increase in population by over 150 million
people. That meant 150 million more minds, voices, and opinions. From the peasantry and
servantry to the royalty and nobility, people of all levels of social hierarchy felt the ripples
of change that were being sent into motion across Europe. Mankind was ordained to evolve
beyond the Medieval Ages, as observed through the Renaissance. It was its determination to
propel forwards and out of the Dark Ages which consequently provoked the breakthroughs
made in philosophy and science in regards to how man then started to perceive himself and
the world around him. Through the Enlightenment, mankind continued to set ablaze change
with the momentum that inspired it to revolutionize its perspectives on societal
conscientiousness, political advocacy (the French Revolution being a prominent movement
for these two reasons), and technological advancements that would continue to enable
Europeans to access new lands and new horizons, for better or for worse. The Enlightenment
was, indeed, a social extension of humanism and revolution of science that would forever
change Europe and the world.
Having begun anew since the Renaissance, Europeans were becoming more socially
aware of themselves and others, and society was shifting in and (more importantly) out of
its self-centralized mentality. Compassion, empathy, relativity to one another; these were all
these components that were redefining society and thus providing inspiration that led to the
collective overturn against statuary selfishness that poisoned society through capitalism.
The corruption and oppression of the upper classes were becoming more and more openly
opposed by the lower classes, when years previous, it would have been simply common
thought and nothing more. Those who lived through the Enlightenment saw a vast change
in the nature of how society accepted the terms of their lives. This period was appropriately

1
History.com Editors, "Enlightenment," History.com, December 16, 2009, , accessed April 16, 2019,
https://www.history.com/topics/british-history/enlightenment.
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described as: “an immensely diverse and pluralistic cultural phenomenon” 2. Pluralistic
emphasized, the movements of the Age of Enlightenment were very much a group effort by
the masses. The Renaissance was driven by people of higher status such as the nobility and
King Henry the VIII, however the Enlightenment saw the horizon of the governed people—the
greatest fractions of populations of countries. Now, oppressed people were becoming more
unrestful and resentful. It was during this era that philosophes were born: the title bestowed
upon French enlightened-thinkers who wrote and published in support of societal change—
an entire new genre of peoples was born in the middle class. This spoke volumes because it
was therebynow a time for the lower class people who were being governed (70% - 75% of
populations) to generate change, as opposed to a reformation of society that birthed itself
in the upper class (20% - 25% of populations) whose people held more symbolic and socio-
economic power. François-Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire, was one of these
philosophes and is regarded as the Father of the Enlightenment. He was a middle-class,
Bourgeoisie man who wrote out against the evils of society (corruption, oppression, control,
unjust social and governmental systems, etc.) through the eyes of a common person and is
3
considered a “courageous crusader against tyranny, bigotry, and cruelty” worldwide. He
admired English ways of democracy and ruling after the Glorious Revolution, as well as the
philosophies of John Locke. His beliefs resonated with and articulated well the beliefs of many
others like him which was what inspired action to take place.
The push for education and its accessibility for more of the population also was on
the rise through this period. The debate for ancient education (  ”education based on
canonized knowledge which drew on ancient authors, as well as textbooks and methods that
held that all knowledge needed in philosophy and science was already available” 4) and
modern education,
(“education which recognized that, ‘If future learning can bring new truths,
old knowledge can no longer be regarded as perfect; thus, ancient authors
cannot be the masters of the present. To study Plato or read Homer is not to

2
Colin Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999), 173
3
René Henry Pomeau, "Voltaire," Encyclopædia Britannica, November 17, 2018, , accessed April 13,
2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Voltaire.
4
Chloe Sinclair Edmundson and Chloe Sinclair Edmundson, "The Enlightenment: Movement Towards
"Modern" Education," Medium, August 01, 2016, , accessed April 16, 2019,
https://medium.com/@chloesinclair/the-enlightenment-movement-towards-modern-education-
b00e3718d899.
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fill the mind with eternal truths in philosophy or literature. Education must
be opened to a new learning, at least in terms of research and the production
of knowledge’.” 4),
Persisted. This conflict in curriculum was proof that enlightened ideas were
integrating into systematic relevancy. By formally educating younger generations with ideas
of the Enlightenment, modern ideas of change and possibility beyond classical teachings, it
really fortified proof of the caliber of the era’s revolutionary influence. Women were also
slowly beginning to find a voice in this time period. While they were still an entire realm away
from being on the same plane as men, women were gaining leverage in society. For starters,
it was the woman of the house to would send invitations to her salons (gatherings of men in
one of their households where they would discuss current events such as politics, science, etc.;
these gatherings would be moderated by the woman of the household so to not become too
exciting or vehement). Some very important women were also making a name for themselves
through their own achievements, such as Émilie du Châtelet, an incredibly well-educated
noblewoman who made many contributions to the scientific community through her written
work, Institutions de Physique 5, and her translations of works by Isaac Newton and Bernard
Mandeville among others, which was incredibly important to the intellectual exchange
between France and England. All while middle class people were becoming increasingly
enlightened, additionally were some of the highest nobility. Enlightened Despots were rulers
who were also inclined to enlightened thinking and presided over their countries, ruling
accordingly to some of the new principles of the era. Catherine The Great of Russia, one of the
most powerful women in history, reigned during this time. The mere fact that she was a
woman who was accomplishing so much during her reign was incredibly enlightened in itself
in a time where women were only tasting power for the first time. Catherine was proving just
how great of a ruler she really was after the death of her husband.
“As she reached the age of fifty Empress Catherine astounded the Western
World [. . .] Her achievements were legion: military conqueror, peacemaker,
lawgiver, patron of the arts, beacon of enlightenment to a benighted people

5
Kat Eschner, "Five Things to Know About French Enlightenment Genius Émilie Du Châtelet,"
Smithsonian.com, December 15, 2017, , accessed April 17, 2019,
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/five-things-know-about-french-enlightenment-
genius-emilie-du-chatelet-180967561/.
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in an iron age. Her praises were sung throughout Europe, her name known
wherever cultivated people gathered.” 6
Some of her most enlightened accomplishments were as follows: she made many
educational reforms and had established over 500 educational institutions that were free of
charge for its students (who were any children of the free class, excluding serfs who were not
free 7), she established formal educational institutions for women specifically, as well as the
8
first Russian College of Medicine which would go onto saving millions of lives, she was a
patron of the arts and sciences who contributed to the upholding of these studies which were
worshipped during the Enlightenment, she would discuss and exchange ideas with Voltaire
with whom she shared her Enlightened ideas, and more. Catherine the Great is not only one
of the highest regarded enlightened despots, but also one of the most respected sovereigns in
history. Her contributions to not only her monarchy and family legacy, but also to her people
and country were astounding and really emphasized the essence of the Enlightenment which
was pushing for the rights of man and the fundamental justice of humanity and knowledge.
When Joseph the II of Austria made his decree of religious tolerance, the new concept was
almost completely unheard of. It was such a radical idea but it united his country for the
better. By allowing people to worship without fear of persecution, he effectively was ruling
with an enlightened mentality. Through the social classes, societal change was coming in
many different forms and would rupture the age-old ways of how people tolerated
circumstances they were unwillingly subjected to.
After the impact humanism, politics was also a major entity that was changed
throughout the Age of the Enlightenment. Europe saw an immense transition from dormant
obedience to the sovereign, to strong advocacy for democracy, rights, and freedom from the
end of the 17th Century to the 20th Century. The Enlightenment saw the crumble of thrones
as the Divine Right of Rule began to be criticized and torn apart by unhappy citizens beneath
the crown. As economic unrest washed over the people of declining countries, suffering
common peoples took it upon themselves to insinuate the change that they were not getting

6
Carolly Erickson, Great Catherine: The Life of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia (New York:
Crown Publishers, 1994), 325.
7
Anirudh, "10 MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA," Learnodo
Newtonic, September 11, 2018, , accessed April 16, 2019, https://learnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-
the-great-accomplishments
8
Daily Herald, "Catherine the Great, Medical Heroine," Daily Herald, April 18, 2007, , accessed April
18, 2019, https://www.heraldextra.com/lifestyles/catherine-the-great-medical-
heroine/article_52f0024b-e7e6-526f-9b10-04fdc159b3c1.html.
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from their sovereigns. One of the earliest of these political movements was the Glorious
Revolution that took place in England towards the end of the 17th Century 9. After suffering
from the weakening of their country following too many unsuitable monarchs from the
Renaissance, the English were struggling to organize and unite as a country. It was during
the reign of James II that the English finally had an uprising and deposed the King, putting
in his place William III and Mary II (refer to Appendix B)), and the Constitutional Monarchy
was born. The crown would rule under regulations and restrictions of the Parliament whose
best interest was for the greatest good of the people. The upheaval of the people against their
monarch would not be unheard of again. The French Revolution underwent the same
conditions: a country whose majority was infuriated with the people at its head who were
failing to maintain the country’s stability and livable conditions. However, this time the
battle for rights would be much bloodier.
After France fell into economic despair following the defeat of the Seven Years’ War in
1763, the people found themselves inadequately governed. The uprisings from then onwards
were fuelled by the realization that absolute monarchy was perhaps not the most effective
mode of determining the leader of France. Poverty seized the land and hunger consumed the
country as money turned to dust, and the King of the time (Louis XVI) was not an effective
ruler who did more harm than he did help. With misguided advice, he made the rich richer
and the poor suffer tenfold through taxations. As his country fell to ruin around his palace,
he was rendered powerless to the citizens’ rage. The French Revolution would be the people’s
reaction to their dire circumstances and proved that change was not impossible and that
there is great power in numbers. The Father of the Revolution was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In
his Social Contract, Rousseau stated, “Man is born free, everywhere he is in chains”. He
recognized the difficulties in thinking about freedom and authority, as he tried to reconcile
the need for individual expression with the wellbeing of community life. One of the conditions
of human life, he believed, was freedom.
The Third Estate—the political party that represented the greatest majority of France,
the lower and middle class—declared themselves the National Assembly and vowed through
the Tennis Court Oath that they would together achieve the fair country they deserved and
take back the power from the First and Second Estates who were deteriorating France. At the
fall of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, it was clear that the people of the uprising were no longer

9
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Glorious Revolution," Encyclopædia Britannica, March
07, 2019, , accessed April 15, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/event/Glorious-Revolution.
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going to stay dormant and that they were going to change things themselves. The Bastille
was a symbol of the Bourbon monarchy and its tyranny10 and its fall was the pinnacle
moment of the Revolution. The revolutionaries were successful in seizing power, demanding
change, and their legacy lived with the Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) (refer to
Appendix A)) which were constitutionalized on civil and political rights which would be one
of the dawns of early democracy. Society was rebuilt in the best interest of the governed, not
the governing.
The Revolution shook Europe and soon the leaders of other countries were becoming
fearful of the radical change. Just as much as the French Revolution was a social and political
movement that advocated for justful conditions of the governed people, it was also a
monumental moment for the French absolute monarchy, who met its demise just like the
British monarchy. The rise of the lower and middle classes during the French Revolution called
for thousands of executions of the upper and noble classes.For these executions, the guillotine
was invented. Following the vein of “humanism” during the Enlightenment, unnecessary
torture was frowned upon and the guillotine (also known as The National Razor) meant to
make the executions as swift and “painless” as possible. Come 1791, France had then now
established itself as a Republic and the people have accomplished what they set out to do.
Their fight to take back their country which was rightfully the peoples’ was successful.
Lastly, while impacting society’s stance on humanism and politics, the Enlightenment
also brought new advancements in technology and science, and saw the dawn of the
Industrial Revolution. It was in 1701 that Jethro Tull invented the seed drill which changed
the nature of cultivating agriculture11. While turmoil was shrouding the home countries in
darkness, the journey to the new worlds beyond the European borders were still pressing
matters. According to History, the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution was Britain due to
its “great deposits of coal and iron ore” 12. Britain by then was also politically stable, which
meant that they could afford to focus on matters aside of the state of their governance and
could lend their interests in further developing their country. Their abundance of colonies
provided them with additional raw resources that they could utilize which was yet another

10
"French Revolutionaries Storm Bastille," History.com, November 24, 2009, , accessed April 18,
2019, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/french-revolutionaries-storm-bastille.
11
Mary Bellis, "Scientific and Technological Advancements of the 18th Century," ThoughtCo,
January 02, 2019, , accessed April 19, 2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/18th-century-timeline-
1992474.
12
History.com Editors, "Industrial Revolution," History.com, October 29, 2009, , accessed April 19,
2019, https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/industrial-revolution#section_1.
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advantage that Britain had over other countries. As product demand for goods escalated, the
development of factorization and manufacturing also escalated. On the water, Britain also
hailed the best navy due to its predisposition of being surrounded by water, and was only
more and more becoming with its naval forces also advancing in technology. Peter the Great,
the man who pushed greatly to Westernize his Russia (before passing away and leaving it in
the hands of his Catherine), even travelled to Britain to study their ways of seafaring
architecture. Guns were being improved and soon after the canon was introduced for the first
time. New models of ships were being designed and navy vessels were reworked to improve
mobility and serve their purposes better (transport, travel, battle, etc.) (refer to Appendix C)).
Innovations were also made in medicine to battle against man’s most fearsome enemy:
disease. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu of Britain helped introduced the inoculation of
smallpox to Britain to help weaken the disease in Europe, and eventually led to Edward
Jenner, a British doctor, who invented the vaccine in 179613. The evolution and innovation of
technology and science that progressed in the Renaissance did not cease when the new era
came. On the contrary, the Age of Enlightenment saw many advancements being made that
would further human development and understanding of the nature of life.
It was through these earth-shaking becomings of the Enlightenment Era that
progressed the way man saw himself, his neighbours, and his world. Where the Renaissance
centralized on rebirth and revival of man, the Enlightenment prioritized reason and
rationality. A new kind of humanity was born with more awareness and conscientiousness
for people, politics were rattled as people pushed for rights and strove for better livelihoods,
and science and technology paved new paths substantially bringing new discoveries to the
Europeans. It was no wonder that the French very poetically called this era Siècle des
Lumières which translates to “The Age of Lights”/”The Century of Lights”. It was the age in
which people who were unhappy took it upon themselves and built their own hope and
found a horizon of their own happiness and fought for it. That was one of the greatest
impacts of the Enlightenment: humanism found a voice in a world of merciless structure,
and melted the cold confines of class and prioritized being a person before being divided
and categorized into groups of people before determining the nature of how one should be
treated.

13
"History of Smallpox | Smallpox | CDC," Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, , accessed April
20, 2019, https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html.
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Appendix

A) Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, painted by Jean-

Jacques-François Le Barbier

B) The Coronation of William of Orange and Mary II

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C) H.M.S. Surprise painted by Geoff Hunt

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