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CAESAR’S
TRIUMPHS
CELEBRATING THE
SPOILS OF WAR
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SAVING THE TEMPLES OF
RAMSES THE GREAT
BIRTH OF BEAUTY
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Rome rewarded Caesar with a triumph for that victory, and history rewarded
him with something far more enduring: a catchphrase.
When you start to look, “Veni, vidi, vici” (or its English equivalent) turns
up everywhere. A 1724 Handel opera and the 1984 movie “Ghostbusters”
both reference it. Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, and Nat King Cole have all
crooned “You came, you saw, you conquered me,” in “These Foolish Things
(Remind Me of You).” Spaghetti Westerns got in on the act in 1968 with
“I Came, I Saw, I Shot.” Jay-Z’s 2003 song “Encore” employs it to remind
listeners of his swift, dominant rise to fame.
Victory celebrations end. Glory fades. Heroes fall. But a clever turn of
phrase? That can last forever.
The Lady Vanishes STEVEN HORNE, VICTOR LLORET BLACKBURN, SARAH PRESANT-COLLINS,
Amelia Earhart’s Mysterious Fate THEODORE A. SICKLEY, JANE SUNDERLAND
Consumer Marketing and Planning RICHARD BROWN, STEPHANIE CASTELLANO, PAULA COMMODORE,
MORGAN L. DECKER, ANDREW DIAMOND, SUSAN DIDONATO, KEVIN FOWLER, JASON GALLIGER,
SUZANNE MACKAY, KATHERINE M. MILLER, WILLIAM H. MCBEE, CHRISTINA OLNEY,
ROCCO RUGGIERI, JOHN SCHIAVONE, KATE SCOTT, MARK VIOLA, JANET ZAVREL
COPYRIGHT © 2019 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC PARTNERS, LLC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC AND YELLOW BORDER DESIGN ARE
TRADEMARKS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, USED UNDER LICENSE. PRINTED IN U.S.A.
National Geographic History (ISSN 2380-3878) is published bimonthly in January/February, March/April, May/June, July/August, September/October, and
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VOL. 5 NO. 3
SPRING AWAKENING
Botticelli’s “Primavera” features several
mythological figures (from left to right):
the goddesses Venus and Flora, a nymph
Chloris, and Zephyrus, god of the west
wind. Uffizi Gallery, Florence
Features Departments
Building the Aswan High Dam across the Nile in the 1960s would be a boon Found in a trash heap in Utah, a
for Egypt but a threat to many ancient sites. The world united to save these pointy 2,000-year-old tool has
treasures from rising waters with a massive feat of engineering, including a now been identified as a tattoo needle,
block-by-block relocation of Ramses II’s colossal Abu Simbel temples. the earliest evidence of tattooing in the
United States Southwest.
30 Education in Ancient Greece 6 PROFILES
Parents in ancient Athens gave their sons and daughters very different
educations. Expected to partake in public life as adults, boys received In 1772, a mystery woman
formal schooling, while educated girls were mostly an exception. charmed Europe and claimed to
be heir to the Russian throne. Seeing her
as a threat, Catherine the Great took steps
44 Caesar’s Victory Celebrations to neutralize “Princess Tarakanova.”
General Julius Caesar clinched four victories in Gaul, Egypt,
Pontus, and Africa, and Rome feted him with an unprecedented 10 ENIGMAS
four triumphs—one for each campaign—in 46 B.C.
Amelia Earhart’s around-the-
world flight was almost complete
58 Botticelli and Beauty when the record-setting pilot vanished
Backed by the patronage of the powerful Medici family, over the Pacific in July 1937. Her fate has
Sandro Botticelli created visions of Renaissance grace obsessed the world ever since.
in his paintings that enthrall viewers to this day.
90 DISCOVERIES
NEWS
A POINTED
HISTORY
TWO SPINES from a prickly pear area of the midden (trash heap)
cactus (above) form the sharp end in which it was found. The spines
of what has now been confirmed are mounted in a sumac-twig
was a tattoo tool used at an An- handle (below). Placement of the
ROBERT HUBNER, WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY
0.4 inch
ANDREW GILLREATH-BROWN, WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY
A NEW PICTURE
Turkey Pen
Bears Ears National
Monument Tattoos in North America
Ruin
Identification of an ancient tattoo needle confirms that the practice
began in the Southwest much earlier than was previously thought.
NG MAPS
R
TURKEY PEN RUIN esearchers have evi- archaeologists has concluded New research reveals that they
clings to the walls of dence that tattooists that a tool, found near Bears were used for inking patterns
Grand Gulch, Utah, were busy honing their Ears National Monument, onto people in the first or
in the Greater Bears skills nearly two thou- is a tattoo needle. The un- second centuries A.D., making
Ears landscape. The sand years ago, pushing back assuming artifact is made of the tiny instrument the ear-
site was occupied the timescale for the practice cactus spines, less than half liest evidence of tattooing in
intermittently by An-
in North America by almost an inch long, inserted in- the Southwest.
cestral Puebloan peo-
ples until about 1250. a millennium. to a sumac-twig handle, and
Drought may have led Presenting their findings tied in place with yucca-leaf Revisiting the Past
to its abandonment. in the Journal of Archaeologi- strips. Tips of the spines are Archaeologists first found the
cal Science: Reports, a team of stained with dark pigment. curious implement in 1972,
4 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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COLORFUL BASKETS
(RIGHT) ARE TYPICAL
OF THOSE MADE BY THE
BASKETMAKER II
CULTURE. A CLIFF
DWELLING NEAR
BEARS EARS NATIONAL
MONUMENT, UTAH
(BELOW), IS NAMED
“HOUSE ON FIRE,” FOR
ITS VIBRANT ROCK
BRIDGEMAN
FORMATIONS. IT WAS
SETTLED CIRCA A.D. 750.
PROFILES
Princess Tarakanova,
Pretender to the Throne
Catherine the Great of Russia faced many threats to her rule during her
30-year reign, but the attempts of one imposter princess became legendary.
E
mpress Catherine II of Russia nobility. In addition, Polish powers,
The Life was no stranger to conspiracies
and cabals orchestrated by her
opposed to Russia’s interference in
their country, also had a vested interest
of an enemies, but in the early 1770s, in undermining the new empress. Since
Imposter one mysterious woman’s claim
to the throne would expose deep insecu-
her accession to the throne, Catherine
had exerted increasing pressure on Po-
JANUARY 1762 rities underlying Catherine’s reign. The land, practically turning it into a Rus-
empress ordered that “Princess Vladi- sian protectorate.
Elizabeth of Russia dies, mir”(later known as“Princess Tarakano- In 1772, Russia annexed extensive ter-
and is succeeded by
her nephew, Peter III. va”) be imprisoned in the Peter and Paul ritories east of the Polish-Lithuanian
Peter’s wife, Sophie, is a Fortress in St. Petersburg. kingdom, while Prussia and Austria did
German princess. Although Catherine II is better now the same in the west and south. Many no-
known as Catherine the Great, her reign bles who had fought against Russia went
July 1762 had a rocky start. Empress Elizabeth, be- into exile, waiting for an opportunity to
Following a coup in which fore she died in 1762, had named Peter, her resume the struggle against Catherine. It
Sophie forces her husband nephew and Catherine’s husband, heir to was within this context of political tur-
to abdicate, Sophie the throne. Six months after her death, a moil that the threat of several pretenders
becomes Catherine II. Peter
dies in prison. coup, led by Catherine, forced Peter III to to the throne arose.
abdicate. About a week later, imprisoned The most dangerous uprising to
1772 in a palace in Ropsha outside of St. Peters- threaten Catherine’s rule came in 1773,
burg, Peter died while in the care of Cath- when a former army officer named Ye-
A young woman in Paris erine’s allies. Rumors spread that Catherine melyan Pugachev claimed to be Cather-
claims to be the daughter
of the late Empress had orchestrated her husband’s murder. ine’s dead husband Peter III. Pugachev
Elizabeth and attracts the led a group of armed peasants rebelling
support of wealthy men. Threats to the Throne against the harsh socioeconomic condi-
The new empress faced challenges tions of the times. With the help of thou-
1774 from many sides. Her sands of supporters, Pugachev captured
Catherine II orders Count
sweeping political re- a large amount of Russian territory, but
Alexei Orlov to lure the forms sparked oppo- Catherine, recognizing the seriousness
mystery woman into a sition from a sector of the rebellion, sent the army to defeat
trap. She is arrested of the conserva- him. Pugachev was seized and publicly
and sent to Russia.
tive Russian beheaded in 1775.
1775
The false princess The enigmatic imposter claimed
dies while imprisoned
in St. Petersburg. she was the daughter of Peter’s
Her true identity is
never discovered.
predecessor, Elizabeth of Russia.
ELIZABETH I OF RUSSIA, HERMITAGE MUSEUM, ST. PETERSBURG
FINE ART IMAGES/ALBUM
6 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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LOCKED
AWAY
IN 1864, Russian artist Kon-
stantin Flavitsky created what
would become his most noto-
rious painting, “The Princess
Tarakanova, in the Peter and
Paul Fortress, at the Time of the
Flood.” According to a roman-
ticized legend, Catherine the
Great ordered the false princess
imprisoned in a cell that was
known to flood when the icy
waters of the Neva River rose.
Flavitsky’s painting allegedly
caused a furor among the Rus-
sian royal family, who preferred
that the story of this particular
pretender to the throne remain
a closely guarded one. Flavitsky
was then forced to claim that
his inspiration for the painting
had instead been drawn from a
novel rather than history.
OIL PAINTING BY KONSTANTIN FLAVITSKY, 1864,
STATE TRETYAKOV GALLERY, MOSCOW
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
Elizabeth’s Heir? the startling revelation of her“true”par- after Catherine’s death in 1796. Al-
Meanwhile another drama was brewing entage; she was the product of an affair though never formally acknowledged,
for Catherine in France. In 1772, an enig- between Elizabeth and her favorite, Augusta’s existence seemed an open
matic woman of great beauty, refined Count Aleksey G. Razumovsky. secret and strengthened the rumors
manner, and sparkling wit charmed her Sources say that Empress Elizabeth surrounding the pretender in France.
way into the salons of the French capital did have an illegitimate daughter with Princess Vladimir was attracting a
as the “Princess Vladimir.” She claimed Razumovsky. Her name was Princess lot of attention in elite social circles in
she was the illegitimate daughter of Em- Augusta Tarakanova, and she spent Paris. The faux princess was accompa-
press Elizabeth, Peter III’s cousin, and most of her life in solitude as a nun, nied by a German man named Baron
legitimate heir to the Russian throne. confined to Moscow’s St. John’s Con- Embs, who claimed to be a relative of
According to her story, she was born vent on Catherine’s orders. Known hers, and by the Baron de Schenk, who
in St. Petersburg in 1753, and then taken only as Sister Dofiya, her true identity acted as a kind of private secretary.
to Persia. She grew up in the home of a remained hidden during her lifetime. Princess Vladimir’s Parisian home was
Persian nobleman. There, a tutor made She was not permitted visitors until soon frequented by various wealthy
PROFILES
and noble suitors, including wealthy debts were catching up to him. With way into aristocratic circles. But here a
Frenchmen and Polish aristocrats, her finances imperiled, the pretender trap was laid for her.
some of whom opposed Catherine’s traveled across Europe, assuming a new Empress Catherine was alarmed
reign. A captivating adventuress, the alias (Fraulein Frank, Madame Trem- when news of this impostor reached
“princess” lived richly at their expense. ouille, and Countess Selinski, among her. Indeed, if this woman was the late
But the glittering Paris sojourn end- them) with each new residence. In May Empress Elizabeth’s daughter, she
ed as suddenly as it had begun. “Baron 1774, she moved to would have a stronger claim to Russian
Embs,” it seemed, was not a baron at all, Venice, quickly rule than Catherine did. Before she
but a merchant from Ghent whose wo rk i n g h e r married Peter III, Catherine was So-
phie von Anhalt-Zerbst, a German
princess, so she had no direct birth-
right to the Russian throne. If Cath-
GREAT EXPECTATIONS erine’s enemies decided to back the
false princess, the empress’s reign
CATHERINE II expanded Russia’s territory, annexing could be in jeopardy.
Crimea and part of Poland. Despite initial social reforms, Catherine set in motion a devious
she later introduced laws that gave even greater pow- plan to lure the pretender princess to
er to the nobility while trapping the serfs as a per- Russia. There, under Catherine’s ab-
manent underclass. These political and social
solute authority, any potential impe-
changes led to intense discontent, which
rial ambitions could be quashed. To
threatened Catherine’s reign.
achieve her plan, Catherine appealed
CATHERINE II, AMBRAS CASTLE, INNSBRUCK, AUSTRIA
ERICH LESSING/ALBUM
to Count Alexei Orlov, the brother of
her companion, Grigory Orlov.
8 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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PROFILES
ISLAND FORTRESS
The imposter princess was imprisoned
in the imposing Peter and Paul Fortress
on the Neva River in St. Petersburg,
Russia. She died in a cell here in 1775.
LOREMUS W. BUSS/GETTY IMAGES
For Better, for Worse With the excuse of ensuring that the challenge to the imperial throne and so
Alexei Orlov took his time laying the trap. marriage had all the correct legalities in ordered her imprisoned for life. Never
First, he planted fabricated rumors place, Orlov requested that the ceremo- having revealed her true identity, the
throughout Venice that he himself had ny be held on board the ship he captained, princess died in her cell in 1775, likely
fallen out of favor with Catherine. In- and thereby technically on Russian ter- succumbing to tuberculosis. She was
trigued, the impostor princess wrote to ritory. On the day of the wedding, wear- buried without ceremony in the fortress
him, offering her support and reminding ing her finery, the princess climbed into graveyard. Her dramatic story and care-
him that the empress was their common a skiff that ferried her out to the ship. But fully orchestrated posturing became the
enemy. She assured Orlov that if he sup- as she stepped onto the ship’s deck, she subject of books, films, plays, and Kon-
ported her once she was appointed em- was seized by a squad of soldiers com- stantin Flavitsky’s famous painting.
press, she would let him govern alongside manded by Orlov himself, who arrested In the many historical treatments of
her. He proposed that they meet in person her in the name of Catherine II. her life, she is usually referred to as
and chose the Italian port of Livorno, “Princess Tarakanova,” even though in
where the Russian fleet was anchored. Princess in Prison her own time, this moniker was not
At their meeting, the count assured the The ship sailed immediately to St. Pe- among her many aliases. Her birthplace
princess of his unconditional support. He tersburg, where Princess Tarakanova and real name are still unknown and will
dared to take the pretense a step further, was imprisoned in a gloomy cell of the perhaps never be discovered. But as one
and feigning a sudden passion, asked her Peter and Paul Fortress. She was bru- of the most famous of Russia’s many
to marry him. Whether she actually fell tally interrogated, but even under tor- pretenders to the throne, the story of
for Orlov’s seductive wiles or simply ture, she did not contradict herself, ad- this impostor princess still lends his-
judged him a powerful ally, she accepted mit to fraud, or deny her royal descent. torical fact to a romantic legend.
the proposal, and the wedding was set for Catherine realized that nothing would
a few weeks later. persuade this daring woman to drop her —María Pilar Queralt
ENIGMAS
The Mystery
of Amelia Earhart’s
Last Flight
The aviator was nearing the end of her round-the-world
flight when her plane vanished over the Pacific in July 1937.
More than eight decades later, the mystery of her
disappearance—and the quest to solve it—still survive.
O
n July 2, 1937, Amelia Ear- Fateful Final Flight
hart flew toward Howland Earhart’s achievements in aviation had
Island, one of the last stops already made her an international house-
on her attempt to circum- hold name when, in 1937, she set out to
navigate the globe. Nearing become the first woman to fly around the
the tiny Pacific atoll, she radioed the Itas- world, a grueling 29,000-mile eastbound
ca, a United States Coast Guard cutter journey that roughly followed the Equator.
anchored off Howland’s coast, to ask it A failed attempt in March damaged her
to guide her onto land with radio signals. plane, but after repairs, she and her nav-
“KHAQQ (the Lockheed Electra 10E’s igator, Fred Noonan, departed from Oak-
call sign) calling Itasca: We must be on land, California, on May 21.
you but cannot see you … gas is running After 22,000 miles, 40 days, and more
low … been unable to reach you by radio than 20 stops, they arrived in Lae, on the
… we are flying at 1,000 feet.” eastern coast of Papua New Guinea. On
Earhart’s last confirmed message in- the morning of July 2, Earhart and Noonan
dicated that she was flying on a north- began what was expected to be the hard-
west-to-southeast navigational line that est leg of their trip: to Howland Island,
bisected the island, but she did not indi- a 1.5-mile-long coral atoll in the central
cate in which direction she was heading. Pacific Ocean. More than 2,500 miles of
After that communication at 8:43 a.m., ocean stretched between Lae and the re-
radio contact was lost, and no one knows mote spit of land that was
what happened next. their next stop to refuel.
RECORD-BREAKER
AS WELL AS being the first woman to complete record-breaking
solo flights, Earhart was also the first woman to receive the
Distinguished Flying Cross, awarded to her in 1932 for “heroism or
extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight.”
A co-founder of the all-female aviators’ club the Ninety-Nines,
Earhart strove to open up aviation to as many women as possible.
FLYING CROSS GRANTED TO AMELIA EARHART BY THE U.S. CONGRESS
DMTRI KESSEL/LIFE/GETTY IMAGES
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ENIGMAS
PICTURING
AMELIA
After hours of flight, during their final The Electra never made it to Howland In Search of Amelia
approach to Howland, Earhart radioed the Island, and a massive search failed to find Several expeditions in the past 15 years
Itasca. The ship was receiving her trans- any sign of the missing aviator and her have tried to locate the plane’s wreckage.
missions—at one point the signal was so plane. Two weeks later, the United States By studying Earhart’s final radio transmis-
strong that the ship’s radio operator ran to declared Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan sions and calculating what is known about
the deck to search the skies for Earhart’s lost at sea. The U.S. government’s official the Electra’s fuel supply, researchers have
plane—but the signals the ship returned position is that the Electra, unable to es- narrowed their search to a 630-square-
did not reach Earhart and Noonan, who tablish radio contact with the Itasca, ran mile area of ocean. Some believe that Ear-
were flying unguided above the clouds. out of fuel and crashed into the ocean. hart and Noonan flew north, toward the
Marshall Islands, where they crashed and
were captured by Japan, who controlled
that area. Eyewitnesses claimed to have
SOLO FEATS seen Earhart in a prison camp on Saipan,
but physical evidence supporting their
EARHART made two of her history-making flights in the single- testimony is scarce.
engine Lockheed 5B Vega. Nicknaming it her “Little Red Bus” or
“Old Bessie, the Fire Horse,” Earhart was at the controls in May
1932 when she became the first woman to fly solo across the
Atlantic. That summer, she became the first woman to fly
solo nonstop across the U.S. from California to New Jersey,
where she was welcomed by a huge crowd.
FUSELAGE: AP IMAGES/GTRES. ZIPPER AND KNIFE: TIGHAR. JAR: TIGHAR /GETTY IMAGES
Others, like the International Group bones remained. Specially trained, the Also in 2018, TIGHAR published a paper
for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR), dogs alert to the scent of human decom- analyzing radio signals from the night Ear-
believe the plane flew south toward the position. Within moments of arriving at hart disappeared. In July 1939 several radio
Phoenix Islands and landed on a reef on the Seven Site, the dogs—which have a listeners from as far away as St. Petersburg,
Nikumaroro (then Gardner) Island, where higher success rate than radar—alerted, Florida, and Toronto, Canada, reported
they lived as castaways for days or weeks. but the team did not unearth any spec- hearing a woman’s distress calls; TIGHAR
TIGHAR has sent several expeditions imens. They gathered soil samples from believes the voice was Earhart’s, and their
to the island, where they discovered the the area to analyze for human DNA. paper explains how it could be possible for
remnants of a campsite and various arti- New studies on the 13 bones found in her transmissions to have traveled so far.
facts. Called the “Seven Site,” it matched 1940 may still help bolster the castaway Earhart quipped that her round-the-
the description of a location where 13 theory. In 2018, forensic analysis suggest- world flight was “just for fun,” but the
human bones were found in 1940, when ed the opposite of the Fiji doctors’ con- quest to understand Earhart’s fate has
Nikumaroro was under British control. clusion: The bones were from a female been a serious work in progress for more
The bones were sent to Fiji, where two skeleton, one of similar height and body than 80 years. The first time Earhart flew,
doctors examined them and found that type to Earhart. Forensic anthropologist a 10-minute ascent with World War I pilot
they belonged to a male. The collected Richard Jantz used photographs and ar- Frank Hawks, she made a life-changing
bones were subsequently lost, but the ticles of Earhart’s clothing to analyze the decision. “By the time I had got two or
report survived. bones’ measurements. The evidence, he three hundred feet off the ground, I knew
Most recently, in July 2017, TIGHAR asserts, “strongly supports the conclu- I had to fly,” she would later recall. Today,
and the National Geographic Society sent sion that the Nikumaroro bones belonged researchers remain as determined to solve
four forensic sniffing dogs and an archae- to Amelia Earhart” or that “they are from her disappearance as Earhart was to fly.
ological team to Nikumaroro to see if any someone very similar to her.” —Alec Forssmann
PHARAONIC FACELIFT
Photographed in 1966, faces of three of
four colossal statues at the entrance to the
Great Temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel
await reunion with their bodies.
JOHN KESHISHIAN/NGS
SAVING THE
TEMPLES OF
ABU SIMBEL
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ESTHER PONS
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UNDERWATER TEMPLES
Trajan’s Kiosk, part of the temple complex
of Philae, lies submerged in the 1970s. Even
before the construction of the Aswan High
Dam in 1960, Philae suffered repeated
flooding from a dam built in 1902. Soon after
this picture was taken, the complex was
transferred to dry land on Agilkia.
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
of Egypt’s president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, it dam, built in 1902, had already flooded some of
would prevent destructive flooding, generate the monuments, including the temple complex
power, and boost agriculture in the region. of Philae. The new project further threatened
The project, however, had major drawbacks. this area, as well as scores of other sites, includ-
The creation of Lake Nasser, a 298-mile-long ing the Abu Simbel complex near the Egypt-
artificial reservoir upriver from the dam, and Sudan border.
whose southern limits extend into Sudan, would STAMP ISSUED BY THE In 1960, the executive committee of UNESCO
LIBYAN GOVERNMENT
require the resettlement of 90,000 people. The (BELOW) TO RAISE FUNDS (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
FOR THE ENDANGERED
impact on the monuments that studded the Nu- NUBIAN MONUMENTS. Cultural Organization) launched its Internation-
bian region would also be catastrophic. A smaller BRIDGEMAN/ACI al Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nu-
bia, appealing for the help of its member states.
Some 30 countries formed national
committees—made up of research-
ers, archaeologists, historians, en-
1980 gineers, and architects—to carry
One year after the out the rescue mission. Following
successful re-grouping of an aerial survey that identified the
the Philae temple complex location of the archaeological areas
on an island, UNESCO
formally concludes its most likely to be flooded, some 20
Nubia campaign. foreign delegations launched cam-
paigns to safeguard the monuments.
ver
Nile Ri
First Aswan
cataract
Aswan High Dam PHILAE
r
The Egyptian government and UNESCO ex-
e
s
s
perts drew up a list of monuments threatened
a
N by the dam. A survey of just a few revealed their
A
AMADA huge historical range spanning more than 2,000
WADI ES-SEBUA years of human civilization. The sites included
the ancient fortress of Buhen in Sudan, built
by Senusret III in the 19th century B.C. It was
L
a
k
e
I excavated as part of the UNESCO project, and
ABU SIMBEL two temples were dismantled and transferred.
The fortress itself, however, could not be saved
B 0
0 20 km
20 mi and is now under water.
Other sites that were successfully transferred
include: the Temple of Amada, built by Thut-
BUHEN
mose III in the 15th century B.C.; Wadi es-Sebua,
Second
cataract U Saved structure
(relocated position) another Ramses II–era temple of the 13th cen-
tury B.C., famous for its avenue of sphinxes; and
N Saved structure
(original position) the Temple of Kalabsha, completed around the
Partially saved time Octavian declared himself the Roman Em-
structure
peror Augustus in 27 B.C.
Submerged structure
The temple complex of the island of Philae,
SUDAN whose decorations had been severely damaged
EOSGIS/NG MAPS
of Ramses II had become an iconic image of magazine documented the colossal effort of SAFE ON
Egypt. The engineering feats and the expense excavating the new site, moving the blocks, and DRY LAND
were daunting. The team had a hard deadline, as putting the pieces back together. After more The temples salvaged
Lake Nasser would reach full capacity in 1966. than two years of painstaking work, Abu Simbel on the island of Philae
In 1963, after numerous ideas were proposed was inaugurated in its new, higher location on were reconstructed
on nearby Agilkia
and rejected, it was decided that Ramses’s tem- September 22, 1968. Island (above).
ples would be cut into more than a thousand This effort remains unequalled in the history The complex was
blocks and relocated to a higher spot. The mis- of archaeology. The former director of the Egyp- completed in
sion required complex infrastructure. A tem- tian Monuments of Nubia Service later wrote: 1979, a year before
UNESCO formally
porary dam was built around the site to keep “Thus the most imposing monument ever hewn
declared the Nubian
it dry. A network of supply roads had to be out of rock, and the jewel of the Nubian trea- project successfully
laid, an electricity-generating station had to sures, had been saved. At the same time, the accomplished.
be installed, and accommodations had to be transfer of the temples fulfilled King Ramses II’s GEORGE STEINMETZ/GETTY IMAGES
provided for the thousands of laborers involved dream of immortalizing his temple.”
in the project.
Dismantling concluded in April 1966. Re-
ESTHER PONS IS A CURATOR IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES
construction followed, and National Geographic AT SPAIN’S NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM IN MADRID.
T
ry to imagine Notre Dame Cathedral
carved into stone, a French engineer told
journalists during the planning stages for
A H U G E U N D E R TA KI N G
the salvage operation of Abu Simbel: “Above,
MOVING
there are cliffs weighing 300,000 tons. The
temples carved inside are supported not by
their pillars . . . but by the internal stresses of the
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A bulldozer scales a sand ramp in front of Two stonecutters, one Italian Power saws are used to cut
the Great Temple of Ramses II. The ramp the other Egyptian, work blocks of stone from the upper
provided access to the structure, as well together to make a cut in the part of the Temple of Ramses II
as protection. ceiling of the Great Temple. at Abu Simbel.
Blueprints show
the numbering
system for the
cut stone blocks,
enabling them to
be reassembled
later.
1
Once the blocks are in place, laborers remove
MOVING IN
Photographed PUTTING protective material that shielded the edges of the
faces of the statues of Ramses II from possible
THE PIECES
in January 1966, damage while the blocks were being cut.
laborers position
the first stone of the
Great Temple of Abu
Simbel at its new
IN PLACE
location above Reconstructing the temple complex took
Lake Nasser.
GEORG GERSTER/NGS place between 1966 and 1968. Blocks were
transported to the new site, where laborers
fitted them into place. In a 1969 article pub-
lished in National Geographic magazine, Swiss
journalist and photographer Georg Gerster
wrote: “The climax of the reassembly came
on September 14, 1966 … The ceremony had
all the appearance of a triumphal procession.
As a flatbed trailer moved the giant sandstone
face at a snail’s pace toward the new site, . . .
All of new Abu Simbel’s 1,530 residents—
engineers, workers, and their families—watched
. . . When the pharaoh’s face arrived before the
Great Temple, a crane operator raised it care-
fully from its cushion of sand. . . . Slowly the
ALL PHOTOS: GEORG GERSTER/NGS
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GRAND
ILLUMINATION HERE
Twice a year,
sunlight shines into COMES THE
the sanctuary of
the Great Temple. SUN KING
The rays of light
illuminate the faces Three thousand years ago, Ramses’s engi-
of Ramses II and the neers oriented his Great Temple of Abu Sim-
gods Ra-Horakhty
and Amon-Ra. The bel so that in the morning twice a year (in Feb-
fourth god, Ptah, ruary and October) the rays of the sun shone
remains in darkness. directly into the temple, illuminating its sanc-
ARALDO DE LUCA tuary. There, sunbeams passed over the stat-
ues of the gods Amon-Ra and Ra-Horakhty, as
well as that of the deified Ramses II. Only one
statue, of the god Ptah, who is associated with
the underworld, remained in shadow. Amid
all the complex logistical arrangements that Colossi. These statues
ensured the safe dismantling and reassembly represent Ramses II and
of the temple, as well as the artificial mound are carved out of rock.
They are approximately 72
in which it is set, the engineers had to ensure feet tall.
that they reproduced the correct alignment.
Every year, on cue, the sun continues to pay
homage to Ramses II.
Minor figures. Those to the sides
of the colossi represent relatives of
the pharaoh; those at his feet are
prisoners of war.
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Small sanctuary.
This area contains
images of Ramses II
making offerings
to various gods.
SOL 90/ALBUM
Sanctuary. The seated statues of
Ramses, Amon-Ra, Ra-Horakhty,
and Ptah await the twice-yearly
visit of the sun’s rays.
PAIDEIA
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE
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RAQUEL LÓPEZ
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32 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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A CLASSICAL
EDUCATION
8th century B.C.
The Iliad and the
Odyssey are composed.
These epics will form
the basis of classical
Greek education.
CITY OF LEARNING
The Acropolis of Athens is
dominated by the Parthenon.
At its foot stands the second-
century Odeon theater of
Herodes Atticus, an aristocrat
and philosopher.
SANDRA RACCANELLO/FOTOTECA 9X12
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CLASSICAL PRESCHOOL
BECOMING
HUMAN
If Greek education
centered on refining the
baser elements of human
nature, babyhood was
a process of becoming
human in the first place:
“They are born in a more
imperfected condition than
any other animal,“ Aristotle
wrote of newborns, noting
that babies cannot even
nurse with their heads
unsupported. As well as
weakness, Greek infants
were associated with
an animal wildness that
needed to be tamed:
Aristotle likened a crawling
baby to a four-footed
animal. Infanticide was
not uncommon in Athens.
Babies (especially girls)
were left to die if they
were seen as an unwanted
financial burden.
BEREAVED
A fourth-century B.C. Greek
funerary stele depicting
a mother (seated) and
another woman, perhaps a
slave, holding a baby.
WERNER FORMAN/GTRES
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MOVING AND
THINKING
Physical education was useful for the
state, as it prepared a boy for the military.
The Greek ideal of a balance between
intellect and physical prowess underpins
many educational systems to this day.
Scenes of physical, as well as mental,
gymnastics were common themes on
Greek pottery from the time.
SPORT
In this fifth-century B.C. kylix (drinking
vessel), young men engage in sporting
activities and are observed by their
trainers. Three hold javelins, while a
fourth prepares to throw a discus.
The Louvre, Paris.
S. MARÉCHALLE/RMN-GRAND PALAIS
STUDY
This fragment of a fifth-century B.C.
krater (wine-mixing bowl) shows a
lesson in progress. A group of young
men stand reciting before their seated
teachers, who listen to their oration.
The Louvre, Paris.
T. QUERREC/RMN-GRAND PALAIS
PRACTICE
This sixth-century B.C. kylix details some
of the physical exercises and athletic
activities practiced by students. The central
scene shows two young men wrestling,
while others are throwing discuses
or running. The Louvre, Paris.
RMN-GRAND PALAIS.
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1.
2.
3.
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Basic education for boys ended between the Intense relationships between an adult male
ages of 14 and 16. By 480 B.C., Athenians had teacher and an adolescent pupil could often de-
the option of enrolling their sons in secondary velop. At times such relationships could turn
schooling. For older students rhetoric was a sexual. Although such interactions were socially
central area of study, especially for those eyeing accepted, the practice was officially frowned on
a career in public life. Those who could afford in Athenian democracy.
it also took private lessons from the Sophists, Most wealthy Athenians’ education termi-
who were far more expensive than conven- nated with an obligatory period of military ser-
tional teachers. vice, which began when a young man entered
the ephebos social class at age 18. In the fourth
century B.C., the intellectual elite might hope
to go on to study at one of the new centers of
SAPPHO. THE FAMOUS
philosophy: the Academy, established by Plato
GREEK POET IS PORTRAYED circa 387 B.C. , and the school established at the
IN THIS MARBLE SCULPTURE
(1857-1861) BY GIOVANNI Lyceum by Aristotle around 335 B.C.
DUPRÉ. GALLERIA
NAZIONALE D’ARTE
MODERNA, ROME Female Education
ALESSANDRO VASSARI/ALBUM
In stark contrast to the traditional, family-
centered childhood of Athens was Sparta’s rigid
schooling system. Known as agoge, it was cen-
trally organized by the state. From the age of sev-
en, boys were given a military education more
focused on survival. They were beaten, taught to
steal, and learned to withstand cold and hunger.
Whereas Athenian education imposed a strict
segregation of the sexes, Spartan boys and girls
trained and competed in athletics alongside one
another. The first-century Greco-Roman writer
Plutarch described how Spartan girls were re-
quired to “exercise themselves with wrestling,
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A PAIDAGOGOS HOLDS
A BAG OF JACKS, SMALL
BONES USED FOR PLAYING
WITH. TERRACOTTA
FIGURINE. LOUVRE
MUSEUM, PARIS
H. LEWANDOWSKI/RMN-GRAND PALAIS
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running, throwing the quoit, and casting the poet Sappho, active on the island of Lesbos in
dart, to the end that the fruit they conceived the seventh to sixth centuries B.C., composed
might, in strong and healthy bodies, take firmer about 10,000 lines, 600 of which have survived.
root and find better growth.” The young women who surrounded her have
Although it is broadly accepted that girls in sometimes been understood as her pupils, as if
Athens and other parts of the Greek world were she were a formal teacher. It is more likely, how-
denied access to the teachings offered to boys, ever, that the group was a literary coterie rather
it does not mean they received no education at than a formal school.
all. Historians believe girls were taught litera-
ture and math, as well as dancing and gymnas- Going Global
tics. Even so, a lack of documentation Many of the principles of paideia have been
on women’s lives in classical Greece handed down through time and incorporated
makes it hard to assess what into learning institutions, a process that was
kind of educational ex- largely enabled by the spread of Christianity. The
perience many had. fifth-century Christian thinker St. Augustine
Some artworks de- argued for the continued study of classical texts
pict female stu- and the importance of rhetoric in education.
dents: a fifth- Augustine believed eloquence and argument
century B . C . could help win souls for the church. His inclu-
kylix depicts sive approach shaped medieval and Renaissance
one carrying learning, which in turn has hugely influenced
a tablet and modern ideas about education. Despite the gulf
A WOMAN stylus. An- of time and values that separate the world of
WASHING HER other shows a classical Athens from schools in the 21st cen-
HAIR IN A DETAIL
FROM A FOURTH- girl reading from tury, these debates still influence the way people
CENTURY B.C.
KRATER
a papyrus. think about education in the United States, Eu-
DEA/ALBUM Some women rope, and many other parts of the world today.
found ways to
exc e l . T h e AUTHOR AND HISTORIAN RAQUEL LÓPEZ HAS WRITTEN
EXTENSIVELY ON CLASSICAL GREECE AND TEACHES ANCIENT
great lyric HISTORY AT THE UNED UNIVERSITY, MADRID, SPAIN.
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WOMEN PHILOSOPHERS
DEPRIVED
OF A VOICE
Despite the informal
nature of education for
girls, there are references in
classical sources to women
philosophers. One of the
most famous is mentioned in
Plato’s Symposium: Diotima,
who was lauded by Socrates.
She teaches them the
philosophical underpinnings
of love, in which the wise
seek to exchange physical
love for more spiritual forms
of desire, culminating in the
divine. This concept of love
greatly influenced medieval
and Renaissance thought.
Diotima’s words,
however, are known only
through the reports of male
philosophers. Another
female philosopher was
Axiothea, who, according to
the third-century A.D. author
Diogenes Laërtius, was so
inspired by Plato’s Republic
that she went to study under
him at the Academy, where
she had to dress as a man.
However, as with other
female philosophers in the
classical period, no firsthand
view of her philosophical
ideas has survived.
THE READER
Although only a tiny elite
became philosophers, some
Greek women were literate. The
fifth-century vase (left) shows a
woman reading a papyrus that
she has taken from a chest.
H. LEWANDOWSKI/RMN-GRAND PALAIS
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FEMALE
PURSUITS
Despite a lack of access to formal
education, some women pursued many
of the same intellectual and physical
activities as men. In Athens (unlike in
neighboring Sparta), educational and
sporting activities were carried out in a
strictly segregated environment.
AT PLAY
This fifth-century B.C.
hydria (water vessel)
features nude women
washing in a basin,
possibly after engaging
in some type of physical
exercise. They hold
strigils, instruments used
by athletes to clean
their skin. Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston
ACI
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AT SCHOOL
A woman on this fifth-
century B.C. kylix leads
a seemingly reluctant
female student by
the hand. The latter is
carrying a pair of writing
tablets and a stylus. It
is believed that well-
to-do girls studied in a
domestic environment.
Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York
MMA/RMN-GRAND PALAIS
3.
AT WO R K
A woman is shown
working wool on this
fifth-century B.C. oil
flask. Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston
BRIDGEMAN
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TRIUMPHS OF
CAESAR
Rome celebrated Julius Caesar with an
unprecedented four triumphs, the highest honor a
victorious general could receive. These spectacles
were magnificent, but not all Romans were cheering.
ANDREA FREDIANI
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RIDING HIGH
Receiving his laurel crown, Julius Caesar passes
through Rome in his triumphal chariot in this 15th-
century painting by Andrea Mantegna, displayed in
Hampton Court Palace, London. Left: A gold aureus
from the first century B.C. depicts weapons Caesar
plundered from the Gauls. Capitoline Museums, Rome
PAINTING: © HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH II, 2018/BRIDGEMAN/ACI
AUREUS: DEA/ALBUM
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T
ROME AT he morning of September 21, 46 B.C., Caesar’s triumphs were exceptional not only
THEIR FEET was a day of celebration for the citi- for their immense expense and grand scale, but
On the way to zens of Rome. A general was about also for the fact that he was the only person in
Capitoline Hill, to claim the highest honor a Roman Rome’s history to receive four, one for each of
triumphs proceeded could receive: a triumph, a spectacular his victorious campaigns. By celebrating Caesar,
along the Via Sacra
(above), the main celebration in which Roman generals paraded Rome was also celebrating itself, because this
street in ancient through the streets flaunting prisoners of war general had enlarged and enriched the republic
Rome. and spoils of victory. This day promised to be like no other man before him. The one who came
SONGQUAN DENG/GETTY IMAGES like none other before it: Today was the first of closest was Caesar’s ally turned rival, Pompey
four triumphs, all held to honor the the Great. He had received three triumphs.
same man, Julius Caesar. Over the Although past triumphs were not the
next two weeks, Rome could focus of Caesar’s plans, they had set
look forward to three more a high bar, which Caesar was set to
giant parades. overcome with great flair.
Sacred Rituals the festivities would last for an entire day. The AFRICAN
In the Roman Republic, generals requested parade followed a sacred route through the city, ENEMY
triumphs, but it was the Senate that granted starting at the gate, Porta Triumphalis, proceed- A first-century B.C.
them—only if a victory met a series of condi- ing to the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) and bust (below) depicts
tions. The win had to be a major battle (with then along the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) to the Numidian king Juba I,
defeated by Caesar
a minimum of 5,000 enemy casualties ) that temple of Jupiter on Capitoline Hill. in 46 B.C. Louvre
ended a war. While the Senate deliberated, the Politicians would proceed first, often fol- Museum, Paris
general would wait outside the city gates. If he lowed by musicians and entertainers. Prison- DEA/ALBUM
failed to qualify for a full-blown triumph, he ers of war were paraded before Rome, as well
could be granted an ovatio (ovation), a slightly as the plunder gained through the victory. For
lesser celebration. the grand finale, the general and his soldiers
When triumphs were granted, a grand proces- (the only time when the army could enter the
sion was held throughout the streets of Rome. sacred boundaries of the city) would march
Details varied over the centuries, but typically as crowds cheered them on.
King Pharnaces II of Pontus, The battle of Thapsus takes Caesar celebrates four triumphs
ruler of the Bosporan kingdom, place between Caesar’s troops in Rome, marking victories in Gaul,
invades Roman territory. Caesar and the remnants of Pompey’s Egypt, Pontus, and Africa. This last
takes a legion and swiftly army, supported by King triumph raises hackles in Rome,
defeats him in the Battle of Zela. Juba I of Numidia. Caesar is as the victory was part of Caesar’s
Pharnaces escapes, but is killed victorious, and Juba dies in a general struggle against his rival and
by one of his officers. suicide pact. fellow Roman, Pompey the Great.
SURRENDER TO CAESAR
This 1886 oil painting by Henri-Paul Motte
recreates the moment when Vercingetorix
enters Caesar’s camp to present his surrender.
The Gaulish chief was held captive in Rome for
several years before Caesar’s Gallic triumph.
Crozatier Museum, Le Puy-en-Velay, France
PHOTO JOSSE/SCALA, FLORENCE
N
OT ALL VICTORIES resulted in triumphs. If a general won
a battle but fell short of the minimum requirements, he hands, he would hold an ivory scepter and a lau-
could be honored with an ovation, a celebration on a rel branch. On his head was both a laurel wreath
smaller scale. Ovations were still grand parades, but and a golden crown held by a slave, who was also
they were missing some of the more elaborate effects of a triumph. given the task of whispering into the general’s
Rather than ride in a chariot, the victor would march. Instead of the ear reminders of his mortality.
toga picta that was solid purple and decorated with gold stars, he Ending at 19 B.C., the Fasti Triumphales is
would wear the toga praetexta, which was white with a broad purple an incomplete record of those who had been
border. On his head he would wear a wreath of myrtle rather than awarded triumphs. Stretching back to Rome’s
laurel, and instead of sacrificing oxen he’d have to make do with founders, it shows that Romans believed this
sheep. Marcus Licinius Crassus, who completed the triumvirate accolade to be as old as the city itself. The first
with Caesar and Pompey, received an ovation in 71 B.C. after defeat- triumph in the list is attributed to Romulus,
ing Spartacus’s rebel army. (Spartacus’s forces, despite being made one of the city’s legendary founders. Like many
up of slaves, had already managed to inflict numerous defeats on of Rome’s traditions, this connection with its
the Roman legions.) Crassus, though, was anything but content mythical past helped consolidate and sanc-
at being denied a triumph. The reckless pursuit of his laurels led
tify its institutions. The origins of the proces-
him to an unprovoked attack against the Parthian Empire in 53 B.C.
sion were probably rooted in a religious festi-
that would cost him his life.
val meant to bring about plentiful harvests.
As the city grew in size, the triumphs grew
in splendor.
48 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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TO THE
VICTORS
T
HE UTMOST military glory was the
spolia opima, the weapons and
personal effects stripped from
the body of an enemy chieftain
killed in one-on-one combat. Roman his-
tory records only three instances of this
happening. Tradition holds that Romulus,
Rome’s co-founder, challenged and killed
Acron, the king of the Ceninenses, in single
combat. He is said to have hung Acron’s
weapons in an oak tree, which he carried
on his back all the way to the top of Capi-
toline Hill. Then in the fifth century B.C.,
general Aulus Cornelius Cossus defeated
Lars Tolumnius, king of Veii, at the Battle
of the Amio and claimed the spolia opima.
Evidence for the first two incidents is hazy,
BOOTY SEIZED BY THE ROMANS IS DEPICTED but historians do believe that in 222 B.C.,
ON THE TRIUMPHAL ARCH ERECTED BY Marcus Claudius Marcellus killed the
AUGUSTUS IN THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. IN THE
FRENCH CITY OF ORANGE. Gallic king Viridomarus at the battle of
PRISMA/ALBUM Clastidium and claimed the spoils of war.
Caesar was victorious, defeating Pompey’s ONE FOR Caesar traveled to Egypt, where Cleopatra and her
forces at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C. Pompey POSTERITY brother Ptolemy and sister Arsinoë were fighting
the Great fled to Egypt, where the pharaoh Ptol- The words Veni, vidi, for power. Caesar backed Cleopatra, and she de-
emy (Cleopatra’s brother) had him murdered, an vici—“I came, I saw, feated her siblings in 47 B.C. to become sole Egyp-
I conquered”—are
act which disturbed Caesar, who, despite be- stamped on this tian ruler. Caesar’s third victory came later that
ing an adversary of the general, still saw him as sesterce from 47 B.C. year. Pharnaces II, king of Pontus, was crushed by
a Roman. The legacy of his former ally turned The words were Rome at the Battle of Zela in present-day Turkey.
enemy would trouble Caesar as he turned to his allegedly said by Victories in Gaul, Egypt, and Pontus quali-
future in Rome. Caesar after his fied Caesar for three triumphs, but he did not
lightning victory
over Pharnaces II hesitate to ask the Senate for a fourth. Caesar
Tallying Up Triumphs in Zela (Turkey) in scored a victory that led to the downfall of the
Once back in Rome, Caesar’s thoughts turned to 47 B.C. Sammlung remnants of Pompey’s forces, the defeat of King
triumphs. Before civil war broke out, Caesar had Archiv für Kunst und Juba I of Numidia in North Africa. During the
Geschichte, Berlin
already chalked up some astounding military vic- AKG/ALBUM
Roman civil war, Juba supported the remnants
tories. Between 58 and 50 B.C., his forces waged of Pompey’s forces with reinforcements during
a series of campaigns in Gaul, conquering new the Battle of Thapsus (in present-day Tunisia)
territory for Rome and defeating several Gallic in April 46 B.C.
tribes. The climax of the Gallic Wars came in Juba did die in the conflict, but he wasn’t
52 B.C. when the Romans won the Battle of slain by Caesar’s forces. Sources say that he
Alesia, defeating a confederation of tribes and Marcus Petreius, a general allied with
led by Gallic chief Vercingetorix. This vic- Pompey, fled and made a mutual suicide pact
tory was certainly worthy of a triumph. to avoid capture.
Caesar’s second great victory occurred Not only was Thapsus not a victory that
in Egypt, shortly after Pompey’s death. would technically justify a triumph, but
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Caesar’s inclusion of it inflamed tensions in Home we bring our bald whoremonger; SALUTING
Rome, which was recovering from civil war and Romans, lock your wives away! HERCULES
the loss of Pompey, whom many still considered All the bags of gold you lent him The triumphal
a great hero. Nonetheless, Caesar returned to Went his Gallic tarts to pay. procession passed
Rome ready to celebrate before the people. through the Forum
Boarium (above),
In the Pontic triumph, Suetonius reported how site of the Temple of
Quadruple Triumphs in addition to the placards showing key battle Hercules Triumphant
Over the course of a few weeks in 46 B.C., Caesar scenes, a wagon was decorated with three simple (left) and the Temple
staged his four triumphs, beginning with the words: Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). of Portunus (right),
before reaching the
Gallic. Historians say it started with a curious Rather than referring to a battle or event, Sue-
Capitoline Hill.
incident. The first-century A.D. Roman historian tonius believe the phrase referred to the speed
PAOLO ROMITI/ALAMY/ACI
Suetonius described how Caesar’s chariot broke with which Caesar’s forces won.
as he paraded through city. The general nearly Romans were happy to celebrate victories
fell, but continued along the route“between two against foreign powers, but there were mixed
lines of elephants, forty in all, which acted as his
torch bearers.”
In the Gallic triumph, Caesar’s men followed
behind him. Some carried large placards depict-
ing the most important battles and events. It was
During Caesar’s triumphs, his
customary for them to carouse, singing songs soldiers were permitted to chant
meant to stave off the jealousy of the gods by insults at him, such as: “Home we
making fun of the general’s vices. Suetonius re- bring our bald whoremonger.”
corded a particularly risque verse that poked fun
at Caesar’s love affairs:
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COMES TO
Although practices of Roman triumphs
changed over time, the roughly 2.5-mile
parade route remained largely the same.
ROME
In Caesar’s time the procession began
at the Porta Triumphalis in the Servian
Wall, and wound through several
streets before heading past the
In 46 B.C, Julius Caesar celebrated his Circus Maximus and on toward
Egyptian triumph after he and Queen Palatine Hill and the Forum. To
Cleopatra defeated her siblings for the finish, the procession would
throne. At the triumph’s climax (below), ascend Capitoline Hill and end at
the Temple of Jupiter. It was here
the procession arrived at the Temple of that the execution of prisoners and
Jupiter on Capitoline Hill, where Caesar offerings to the gods took place, in
showed off the spoils of war. front of Rome’s cheering crowds.
1 WONDROUS LIGHTHOUSE
Along the triumphal parades, re-creations were made of
the places conquered. Here, a model of the Lighthouse BASALT STATUETTE OF
CLEOPATRA VII HOLDING A
of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient CORNUCOPIA, THE HORN OF PLENTY.
World, has been made to symbolize the victory in Egypt. FIRST CENTURY B.C., HERMITAGE
MUSEUM, SAINT PETERSBURG.
3 A SISTER SPARED
Arsinöe, Cleopatra’s sister, is paraded in chains as a prisoner.
Her situation arouses the compassion of the volatile crowd;
her life will be spared, and she will be sent into exile.
3
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A
FTER DEFEATING the sons of Pompey and their supporters
unseemly in his eyes and base and inauspicious
at the Battle of Munda in 45 B.C., Caesar was granted in those of the Roman people to triumph over
a fifth triumph in October, but this one was more po-
fellow-citizens).”He was astute enough to avoid
litically complicated than the others. His previous four
any mention of Pompey. The former leader re-
triumphs celebrated wins over outsiders in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus,
mained much loved and Caesar had to watch his
and Africa. According to first-century A.D. historian Plutarch, the
step. Even so, Caesar did allow this campaign to
fifth triumph “vexed the Romans as nothing else had done. For it
commemorated no victory over foreign commanders or barbar- be represented in posters.
ian kings, but the utter annihilation of the sons and the family of Parading captured foreign enemies before the
the mightiest of the Romans.” Celebrating the downfall of one of populace was enthusiastically welcomed. Tra-
Rome’s most celebrated generals and his family felt disrespectful ditionally, they would be presented in chains or
to many. Caesar’s inability to see how poorly this triumph reflected cages before the crowds and then executed. It
on him helped hasten his own downfall. Although he was made had been six years since Vercingetorix’s defeat,
dictator for life in early 44 B.C. a few months after the fifth triumph, and the Gallic commander had been in prison
Caesar did not have long to enjoy it. Senators who opposed him ever since. As part of his triumph, Caesar pa-
and his ambition organized an assassination plot, and Caesar was raded the vanquished leader through the streets
murdered five months later that year on March 15. of Rome and then had him executed on Capi-
toline Hill.
Not all of Caesar’s defeated enemies met such
a fate. During the Egyptian triumph, Cleopatra’s
54 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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sister Arsinoë was bound in chains. Her de- distributed food, and staged gladiatorial com- GRAND
meanor aroused the crowd’s sympathy. Sensi- bats and athletic events. TRADITIONS
tive to the feelings of the people, Caesar had her The triumphs were long remembered for their Carle Vernet’s 18th-
exiled to Ephesus rather than killed. pomp and splendor, but some historians believe century painting
(above) of the triumph
they stirred up opposition to the conquering
of second-century B.C.
Bread and Circuses hero. To some, the grandstanding was at odds general Lucius Aemilius
In addition to the processions, Caesar spared no with Rome’s republican values of simplicity, dis- Paullus shows him with
expense for grand entertainments for the Roman cipline, dignity, and virtue. Caesar had spent a laurel crown and an
people. Appian described the action: extravagant sums on self-promotion, causing ivory scepter, elements
that also appeared
several Roman senators—such as Cassius, and in Casear’s triumph
[Caesar] put on various shows. There was Brutus—to grow wary of him, wondering what 200 years later.
horse-racing, and musical contests, and his true motivations might be. Metropolitan Museum
combats—one with a thousand foot soldiers Grumbling about Caesar’s ambitions was only of Art, New York
SCALA, FLORENCE
opposing another thousand, another with fueled by this ostentation. Opposition to his
200 cavalry on each side, and another that power increased among this faction of sena-
was a mixed infantry and cavalry combat, as tors, who hatched a successful assassination plot
well as an elephant fight with twenty beasts a in the 18 months following the four triumphs
side and a naval battle with 4,000 oarsmen of Caesar.
plus a thousand marines on each side to fight.
ITALIAN HISTORIAN AND HISTORICAL NOVELIST ANDREA FREDIANI HAS WRITTEN
EXTENSIVELY ON ROME’S LATE REPUBLIC AND EARLY EMPIRE.
Caesar generously rewarded his troops with Learn more
20,000 sesterces—far beyond what they would
BOOKS
have earned in a lifetime. He also gave a mag- The Twelve Caesars
nanimous sum of 400 sesterces to every citizen, Suetonius (ed. James Rives), Penguin Classics, 2007.
Trumpeters play and figures carry images of the Prizes, including statues, weaponry, shields, and the model
conquered cities to celebrate Caesar. of a conquered city, are paraded through Rome.
Roman youths lead a sacrificial ox and torch-bearing Jewels, gold, silver, and several sets of decorative armor are
elephants through the parade. carried aloft in the triumph.
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Soldiers’ armor, weapons, and other trophies are carried A man carries a large vessel full of treasure. A bull is paraded
through the crowds. behind, already decorated for sacrifice.
Comprising men, women, and children, a group of prisoners pass Musicians provide merriment for the occasion, while others
by as other captives watch them from behind bars. carry standards that represent those defeated by Caesar.
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BOTTICELLI
R E N A I S S A N C E I CO N
Coming of age in 15th-century Italy, the son of a tanner
became better known as Sandro Botticelli, the painter whose
works of art revered Europe’s classical past and celebrated
his Florentine patrons, the powerful Medici family.
ALESSANDRA PAGANO
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circa 1461
Botticelli begins to
study painting with
the Florentine artist
in 1427, it is believed to be the first work to
fully apply the laws of linear perspective.
Many scholars believe that the Vespuccis,
wealthy acquaintances of Botticelli’s fam-
ily, secured him an apprenticeship with Fra
Filippo Lippi, one of the greatest painters in
the region. Lippi had a workshop in the nearby
town of Prato, and the teenage Botticelli stud-
ied with him and painted his first works under
eloquently expressed its values—humanism, Fra Filippo Lippi. Lippi’s tutelage.
wisdom, and truth—through the arts. The
work of Sandro Botticelli embodied the val- 1480S Florentine Financiers
ues of the early Renaissance, marrying organic Backed by the Renaissance artists such as Lippi and Botti-
Medici, Botticelli
beauty with geometric precision. celli relied on powerful patrons to fund their
produces some of his
best-known works. work. In 15th-century Florence, the powerful
Golden Boy Medici family financed many of the era’s great-
Christened Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni 1494 est artists. The Florentine branch of the fam-
Filipepi, Sandro Botticelli began life around After the Medici lose ily made its fortunes in textiles and banking.
1445 as the youngest son of a tanner. He had an power in Florence, Cosimo de’Medici came to power in 1434 and
older brother, who was allegedly called“barrel” Botticelli abandons immediately set about an extensive building
painting.
because of his stocky build, and it is thought program, including finishing Filippo Brunelle-
that this is how the young Sandro got the nick- 1510 schi’s gravity-defying cupola on Florence’s
name Botticelli. The name stuck with him for Botticelli dies on duomo of Santa Maria del Fiore. All this new
the rest of his life and became synonymous May 17 and is architecture created a demand for works of art
with some of Florence’s greatest works of art. buried in the church to fill them, which artists were only too happy
The details of the artist’s early life are few. of Ognissanti. to supply.
Of Botticelli’s childhood, the 16th-century In 1464, during Botticelli’s apprenticeship,
historian Giorgio Vasari wrote: “Although Cosimo died and was succeeded by his son,
[Botticelli] found it easy to learn what- Piero di Cosimo de’ Medici. Five years later,
ever he wished, nevertheless he was Piero’s sons, Giuliano and Lorenzo (later “Lo-
restless … [and, so,] weary with the va- renzo the Magnificent”) became co-rulers and
garies of his son’s brain, in despair his continued feeding the appetite for great art
father apprenticed him as a goldsmith.” begun by their grandfather.
This experience emerges in Botticel- Around 1468, Botticelli left Lippi to study
li’s paintings in the form of meticulous, with other masters, including Andrea del Ver-
intricate flourishes. rocchio, Leonardo da Vinci’s teacher, whose
During Botticelli’s youth, Florence was influence introduced a sculptural, solid quality
the center of innovation in Italian art. The to Botticelli’s figures. During the 1470s, Bot-
Florentine sculptor Donatello used his ticelli set up his own workshop. Although his
extensive knowledge of classical works patrons often selected his subjects—both
to push his art to new heights. The sacred and secular—Botticelli embodied
Dominican Basilica of Santa Maria the Renaissance ideal of the individual
Novella housed the“Holy Trinity” artist, free to let his genius define his
fresco by Masaccio. Completed distinctive style. He proved a master-
ful painter of altarpieces and of cir-
BOTTICELLI INCORPORATED THIS SELF cular, devotional paintings called
PORTRAIT INTO HIS “ADORATION OF THE
MAGI,” 1475-76, UFFIZI GALLERY, FLORENCE tondi, the best known of which is
SCALA, FLORENCE the“Madonna of the Magnificat.”
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HIDDEN During this time, Botticelli began a close Changing Times, Changing Art
FIGURES working relationship with the Medici, who Botticelli’s religious works also earned him fame.
Botticelli’s 1475-76 commissioned several paintings from him. He made a rare trip to Rome in 1481 to work on
“Adoration of the These include “Portrait of a Young Man with frescoes in the Sistine Chapel. Vasari’s account
Magi” includes
several portaits. a Medal of Cosimo the Elder,” from 1474-1475, of the Rome visit is an interesting insight into
One of the magi, and the 1475 “Adoration of the Magi,” which how Botticelli lived generally: “Having rapidly
Cosimo de’ Medici, contains portraits of members of the Medici squandered his earnings, he lived in haphazard
holds the feet family paying tribute to the Holy Family. fashion, as was his custom.”
of baby Jesus.
Botticelli himself
Botticelli’s career coincided with the In 1492, the political climate in Florence shift-
gazes out at the far flourishing of Neoplatonism, a Renaissance ed after the death of Lorenzo the Magnificent.
right, while Lorenzo philosophy based on the teachings of Plato. A Dominican friar, Girolamo Savonarola, gained
de’ Medici observes Neoplatonism acknowledged the supremacy influence in the wake of Lorenzo’s death and at-
from the far left. of spirit over matter and viewed intellect and tracted many spiritual followers who opposed
Uffizi Gallery,
Florence. love as leading the soul toward God. Cosimo the Medici. According to Vasari, Botticelli fell
ALBUM encouraged this philosophy, which was contin- under Savonarola’s sway, which led him to give
ued by his heirs. They also looked to the clas- up painting, his only means of earning a living.
sical world to illustrate truths about their own. Vasari recorded: “Nonetheless, he remained an
Botticelli’s most famous works also draw on obstinate member of the sect.”
the classical world for inspiration. Commis- This master of the Italian Renaissance died
sioned by the Medici, his great mythological in 1510, at age 64. Many of his most celebrated
works of the 1480s—including “Primavera,” works were, by then, hung in the landmarks
“Birth of Venus,”and“Pallas and the Centaur”— of his district, buildings he had known since
reflect Neoplatonist values in their beautiful childhood, including the Ognissanti Church,
renderings of classical material. At first glance, where he was laid to rest in a modest tomb.
these works are entrancing on the surface, but
Botticelli’s fluid brushwork and intricate details
create new levels of meaning, both allegorical
HISTORIAN ALESSANDRA PAGANO WRITES ON ARTISTS OF THE RENAISSANCE ERA.
and symbolic, to engage the viewer. SHE IS ALSO A SPECIALIST ON ART FROM HER NATIVE ITALIAN REGION OF CALABRIA.
62 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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JEWEL OF
FLORENCE
The distinctive façade
of Florence’s Basilica
of Santa Maria Novella
was completed around
1470. In addition
to masterpieces by
Ghirlandaio and Giotto,
it contains Botticelli’s
1475-76 “Adoration of
the Magi.”
PAOLO GALLO/AGE FOTOSTOCK
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1 2
“PORTRAIT OF A
LADY” (CIRCA 1480).
STÄDEL MUSEUM,
FRANKFURT, GERMANY
AKG/ALBUM
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“PORTRAIT OF A YOUNG
WOMAN IN PROFILE”
(1475). GEMALDEGALERIE,
STAATLICHE MUSEEN, BERLIN
BPK/SCALA FLORENCE
FA MILI AR FACE
During her short life, Simonetta Cattaneo was
considered one of the most beautiful women in
Renaissance Florence. Born in 1453 in Genoa, at
age 15 she wed Marco Vespucci and moved to
Florence. Her short life ended in her early 20s
in 1475 or 1476, but the fame of her beauty long
outlived her. Lorenzo the Magnificent, co-ruler
of Florence at the time, dedicated a sonnet to
her on the day of her death. To the Medici, Sim-
onetta’s face perfectly accorded with their no-
tions of ideal beauty. Soon after she died, the
poet Poliziano wrote of how Lorenzo’s brother,
Giuliano de’ Medici, had dedicated his victory
in a jousting tournament to Simonetta a year
before she died (the poet was careful to stress
the relationship was entirely platonic). Although
there is no documentary evidence that Botticelli
painted female figures with her in mind, a long-
standing tradition has identified Simonetta’s
physiognomy in several of his best-known works,
including “Primavera” and “Birth of Venus.”
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Venus, goddess of
love, surveys the
action. Beside her
stands a myrtle, the
tree sacred to her.
DEVOTIONALS
The Madonna and child was a popular subject
for Botticelli from the beginning of his career.
Some of his earliest recognized works depict
this sacred subject. Perhaps the most famous
is the 1483 tondo known as the “Madonna of
the Magnificat,” which subtly reflects the in-
novations in Botticelli’s artistic vision. Some
aspects of the painting nod to tradition: The
blue of Mary’s garb symbolizes loyalty, while
the red of her dress, and the fruit held by the
Christ child, represent Jesus’ coming Passion.
The Madonna is depicted with naturalness and
grace, reflecting the regard for humanism of
the times. In many works, Mary is shown read-
ing, but here Botticelli has depicted her writ-
ing. She pens a passage from the Gospel of
Luke—the Magnificat, or Mary’s Song. Its first
line runs: Magnificat anima mea Dominum, “My
soul proclaims the greatness of the Lord,” and
Botticelli has chosen to emphasize humility
before God by having Jesus’ hand rest on the
word humilitas in the book.
ABOVE AND RIGHT: SCALA, FLORENCE
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“MADONNA OF THE
MAGNIFICAT” (1483). UFFIZI
GALLERY, FLORENCE
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A TR AGIC TALE
like many Botticelli works, “The Tragedy of Lu- the republic. Botticelli depicted the story in three
cretia” was commissioned as a wedding gift. Cre- scenes. The far left panel shows the king’s son
ated in the 1490s, the painting depicts one brutal holding Lucretia at knifepoint. On the far right, Lu-
foundation story of the Roman republic as told cretia’s lifeless body is discovered by her shocked
by first-century a.d. Roman historian Livy: The family. In the middle and largest panel Lucretia’s
Roman king’s son rapes the chaste Lucretia, who dead body is displayed as Lucius Junius Brutus,
kills herself after the attack. Her death rallies the future founder of the Republic, stirs unrest among
people of Rome to overthrow the king and found the people, turning them against the tyrannical
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king. Some art historians read Botticelli’s paint- theory have pointed out that the Vespuccis,
ing as commentary on the Medicis’s recent loss allies of the Medicis, commissioned this work
of power in Florence. The historical parallels as a wedding gift, an unlikely venue for politi-
seem clear. Just as the ancient king was expelled cal commentary. A definitive interpretation
from Rome and a republic established in 509 B.C., may never be reached, but Botticelli’s story-
Florentine ruler Piero di Lorenzo de’ Medici was telling powers are undisputed as the raw
forced into exile in 1494, and a republic estab- emotion of Lucretia’s brutal attack and tragic
lished under the friar Savonarola. Critics of this death emanates through the painting.
E
NZ
IRE
SAVONAROLA IN A CELEBRATORY MEDAL. ,F
LA
SCA
MUSEUM OF SAN MARCOS, FLORENCE
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AFRICAN ODYSSEY
THE EPIC JOURNEY OF VIRGINIA’S FIRST AFRICANS
Stolen from home and forced on a dangerous voyage across the
Atlantic, “20 and odd” African people set foot in British North America
in 1619, the first steps toward what became slavery in the United States.
KELLEY FANTO DEETZ
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TRADITIONS ENDURE
Painted in the late 1700s, “The Old Plantation”
reveals that enslaved communities maintained
practices from their ancestral African cultures,
such as the musical instruments and stick dancing
depicted in this artwork. Abby Aldrich Rockefeller
Folk Art Museum, Williamsburg, Virginia.
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
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VIRGINIA’S
BEGINNINGS
N 1619 THE ENGLISH were beginning to
I
KING’S RIVER n late August 1619,“20 and odd” captive Af- experiences represent those of more than 12.5
England had made ricans first touched the soil at Point Com- million other captives, who were taken from Af-
several unsuccessful fort, part of England’s new colony in Virginia. rica to be sold in the Americas during the nearly
attempts to start These men and women had been stolen from four centuries of the transatlantic slave trade.
a colony in North
America before their homes in Africa, forced to board a ship, Their story marks an important historical tran-
founding Jamestown and sailed for months into the unknown. The sition, as the North American colonies began to
in 1607 along the first Africans in an English colony, their arrival turn away from indentured servitude and instead
banks of the river is considered by many historians to be the be- rely on chattel slavery.
they named after ginning of a 400-year story filled with tragedy,
King James I (above).
NG IMAGE COLLECTION
endurance, survival, and a legacy of resilience, Slavery in Africa
inequality, and oppression. On the west coast of central Africa in the 1600s,
These first Africans in Virginia were not the the Portuguese were in the midst of a war with
first Africans in North America, but they were Ndongo, a powerful west African kingdom lo-
a significant part of the ever changing Atlantic cated between the Lukala and Kwanza rivers,
world during the colonial era. Their travels and in present-day Angola. The people of Ndongo
78 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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lived in developed cities and towns surround- converted to Catholicism. After his death, his POISONOUS
ing their capital city, Kabasa. The capital was son and heir, King Nzinga Mbemba, took the PARTNERSHIP
where royalty lived, along with approximately name King Afonso I and declared the kingdom An engraving
50,000 citizens. In 1618, Portuguese forces a Catholic state, firmly bonding the two nations. from 1598 shows
aligned with Ndongo’s adversaries, neighbor- In 1512, Afonso I negotiated an agreement Portuguese sailors
saluting the King
ing Imbangala mercenaries, to invade the king- with the Portuguese giving them rights to land of Kongo. The two
dom. They captured thousands of prisoners to and direct access to Kongo’s prisoners of war, nations forged a
sell into slavery. who would be sold into the transatlantic slave centuries-long
These political relationships were spawned trade. This arrangement provided a model relationship centered
on the transatlantic
135 years earlier. In 1483, the Portuguese first that other European nations and western and slave trade.
forged a relationship with the Kingdom of Kon- central African kingdoms would follow for GETTY IMAGES
go. Portuguese explorers aimed to spread Ca- centuries afterward.
tholicism in Africa, colonize both people and The first people sold were mostly prisoners
land, and grow rich. Upon developing a trade deal of war. African kingdoms were often in conflict,
with the Portuguese, the Kongo King Nkuwu at times absorbing smaller nations or kinship
1584-1612 1619
The English begin establishing The San Juan Bautista leaves
colonies in the Americas. After for New Spain with a cargo of IN THE LATE 1600S,
PORTUGAL BEGAN
an attempt in Roanoke, North about 350 Africans. English MINTING COINS, SUCH
Carolina, fails, successful colonies pirates attack the ship and seize AS THE MACUTA
(RIGHT), FOR USE
are founded at Jamestown, Virginia, approximately 50 people, who are IN AFRICA.
and St. George’s, Bermuda. taken to the British colonies. SCALA, FLORENCE
PRISON WALLS
First built in 1583, the
Massangano fortress in Angola,
Africa, was once used as a
base for Portuguese slave-
capturing operations. Captured
Africans were held here, forcibly
baptized, and then sent to
Luanda, where they were forced
aboard ships to the Americas.
MICHAEL RUNKEL/AGE FOTOSTOCK
Q
UEEN ANA NZINGA was born in 1583, and in 1624, at the
age of 42, she became the Queen of Ndongo, just five goods to expand and protect their territories.
years after the Angolans arrived in Virginia. Her reign Grand empires, such as the Kongo, Dahomey,
came amidst the ongoing war between the Portuguese, Yoruba, Benin, and Asante, were vying for wealth
and her people of Ndongo. She attempted to shift the political and power in their regions, and Europeans were
partnership between the states, offering herself as a convert to in need of laborers to build their colonies. It was
Catholicism in return for the termination of slave raids that were the ideal circumstance to bring about the largest
devastating her people. Portugal’s colonial Governor agreed, and forced migration in human history.
acted as her godfather for the conversion. Queen Nzinga main- In just two years, 1618 and 1619, the Portuguese-
tained a strong political relationship with the Portuguese for two Imbangala alliance resulted in the capture and
years, but in 1626 they betrayed her and began taking Ndongo enslavement of thousands of Ndongo people,
captives again. As a result, she established a nearby state, Mat- filling at least 36 ships with human cargo. These
amba, which acted as a refuge for victims of the trade, meanwhile captives would be sent to the Spanish and Por-
ordering her militia to attack the Portuguese who had taken over tuguese colonies in Central and South America
her former state of Ndongo. Queen Nzinga ruled until her death to work as laborers. It was through this arrange-
at the age of 81.
ment that slavery would spread to British North
America in 1619, when chaos intervened and the
QUEEN NZINGA, ARMED WITH A BOW AND ARROW, LEADS A MILITARY BAND IN
THIS ILLUSTRATION CREATED BY ITALIAN MISSIONARIES IN THE MID-1600S. destiny of those “20 and odd” Africans was re-
ALBUM directed to a place called the Colony of Virginia
on the Atlantic coast.
80 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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ACROSS THE
ATLANTIC
Y THE TIME THE ANGOLANS arrived
BLENDED tista found themselves in an unexpected turn Gulf of Mexico. They had witnessed death
CULTURES of events. In late July or early August 1619, just and endured despair and violence, and had sur-
Don Francisco weeks before the Ndongo captives would have vived it all—including an attack by pirates.
de Arobe (above been sold through the port of Veracruz, the ship
right) descended
from the escaped
was attacked by pirates searching for Spanish Arrival in Virginia
slaves who built a gold. The English pirates split the captive Africans
robust community The White Lion, commanded by Cornishman into two groups between their ships. Both ves-
in Ecuador’s coastal John Jope, and the Treasurer, owned by Sir Robert sels sailed toward the British Colony of Virginia,
Esmeraldas region. Rich, the Earl of Warwick, and led by Captain which was established in 1607. The White Lion
He and his son’s
apparel blend Daniel Elfrith, were assigned the duty of inter- arrived first, landing at Point Comfort, in pres-
European and South cepting and seizing Spanish goods in the Atlan- ent-day Hampton, Virginia. English colonist
American styles. tic. The English wanted these privateers to slow John Rolfe recorded the event:
ALBUM down Spanish settlement and empowered them
to attack Spanish ships. This particular encoun- . . . a Dutch man of Warr of the burden of a
ter, in the bay of Campeche, left all three ships 160 tunnes arrived at Point-Comfort, the
damaged, and the English pirates stole approxi- Commandors name Capt. Jope. He brought
mately 50 Africans as part of their overall booty. not any thing but 20. And odd Negroes,
After the battle, the San Juan Bautista con- w[hich] the Governo[r] and Cape Merchant
tinued to Veracruz, where 147 surviving en- bought for victuals.
slaved Africans would be sold. The Treasurer
and White Lion left the battle and sailed to- His clinical summation is the only documen-
ward the eastern Caribbean. The 50 Ango- tation of the event and falls short of capturing
lans on board the two ships had lived through any details of that day in late August 1619 as
the Middle Passage from Luanda to the “20 and odd” Africans placed their feet on the
82 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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soil of a new continent. As they stood together both nearby settlements on the James River. In MAPPING
as the first Africans in British North America, no 1624, this small African population had shrunk THE COLONY
one recorded their reactions or opinions about to only 21, most likely from death due to illness, Point Comfort
leaving their homes in Angola. Their perspective the 1622 Powhatan uprising, or because some (above) is one of
was lost in time. were sold back into the Atlantic trade. the many features
indicated on the
The second ship, the Treasurer, arrived a few There is no record stating the official legal extremely detailed
days later for a quick trade at nearby Kicotan status of these first Africans in Virginia. There map of the Virginia
(now Hampton), Virginia, but quickly departed was already an established racial caste in the Por- region that Captain
for Bermuda. They traded their remaining goods tuguese and Spanish colonies, and it is fair to John Smith created
for England in the
and sold the rest of the Africans upon their ar- presume the English followed this custom. They early 1600s.
rival. The English colonies were expanding and most likely saw these Africans as something ALBUM
the captives supplied them with an instant and other than indentured servants, a status com-
distinguishable workforce. The Spanish and mon for their poor white counterparts.
Portuguese capture and enslavement of Africans Early Virginia census records show that many
as laborers in the Atlantic world was common Africans were never listed by name, just their
practice by the time Jamestown was established, “race,” and cited their appearance as starkly
and the British followed suit. By the end of the
17th century, the colonies’reliance on indentured
servants had shifted toward that of enslaved Af- “He brought not any thing but 20. And odd
rican people.
By March 1620, 32 Africans were documented Negroes, w[hich] the Governo[r] and Cape
living in Virginia; 15 men and 17 women. The Merchant bought for victuals.”
first American-born African likely was either
at Flowerdew Hundred Plantation or at Kicotan, —John Rolfe, August 1619
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 83
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ALBUM.
TRACES OF
THE PAST
RCHAEOLOGICAL SITES through-
PRESENCE different from that of the colonists. This dis- of those who followed shortly after in the early
OF A COIN
tinction marks the beginnings of a racial caste, 1620s, left clues to their lives in Virginia’s courts
Minted in 1602,
a silver sixpence formalized into Virginia law by the early 1650s, and records. In 1624, court records show the tes-
(below) was when African men and women become tith- timony of “John Phillips” and the census lists
recovered by ables, or a taxable property. By the 1660s, the “Anthony” and “Isabella” as living in Elizabeth
archaeologists at enslaved status of African women was written City, and “Angelo (Angela)” at Jamestown. It is
the Jamestown fort.
Coins like this one
into Virginia law, as their children automatically this brevity that keeps the details of their lives
help to date and inherited their status and were enslaved at birth, absent from most written records and hinders
identify the site. regardless of the father’s identity. This set up current understanding of their experiences.
NG IMAGE COLLECTION slavery as a permanent, hereditary condition. A Some of the English colonists might have
series of laws, called slave codes, followed, each failed to see the ethnic and religious diversity
one cementing racism firmly in the DNA of among their captives. But many slavers sought
the United States. out particular ethnic groups for their skills.
In addition to farming, these kingdoms were
Culture Clues known for their ironwork, masonry, glassmak-
Historians know few details about the ing, weaving, and mining—all skills needed in
first“20 and odd”Africans in Virginia. It the development of the colonies. The Kongo
is assumed that they spoke forms of the were well-known metalworkers and brought
Bantu language, either Kikongo, from with them unmatched skill sets.
the Kongo Kingdom, or Kimbundu, from Angola was home to the Kongo Kingdom,
the Ngongo empire. Their documented which converted to Catholicism in the 15th cen-
names are of Spanish origin and most likely tury, but inhabitants still retained many of their
were assigned to them during their time on own religious practices. Traditional rituals and
the San Juan Bautista. A few of them, and some beliefs, such as ancestor worship, were intermixed
86 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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S
CHOLARS are searching for and referred to as both Angelo
a woman named Angela, and Angela. She was born in
one of the captured Ango- Angola around 1600, and her
lans to arrive on the Trea- name was likely changed by her
surer in 1619. She was listed as enslavers. In 2017, archaeologists
“Angelo” in the 1624 census, liv- at Jamestown began excavating
ing in Lieutenant William Pierce’s her site and found a cowrie shell,
home in Jamestown, along with which likely belonged to Angela.
three white indentured servants. They believe it represents some-
Although her name sounds mas- thing important from her African
culine, she is listed as a woman homeland. In West and central
Africa, cowrie shells were used
as currency, adornment, and in
religious practices.
PRECIOUS with Catholic rites. Archaeologists working at It is through the markings carved into pipes
THINGS colonial sites have found traces of it in the mate- and other material objects, mostly found
Cowrie shells (above) rial culture; the Kongo cosmogram, a cross-like through archaeological investigations, that
were valuable in
many West African mark, often with a circle encompassing it, can historians are given a glimpse into the Afri-
cultures and be found carved into objects such as pipes and cans’ personal lives. Their religion, ethnicity,
used as currency. bowls and into walls and metal throughout the and culture survived the Middle Passage and
When found at African diaspora. This symbol, often mistaken took hold in the colonies. The first Africans in
archaeological sites
for a cross, had a double meaning; it could pass as Virginia were followed by more than 400,000
in the “New World,”
they indicate an Christian while also performing essential ritual people captured and brought directly from West
African presence. purposes. This symbol was used to pray to and and central Africa to the North American slave
ALBUM conjure the African ancestors for protection. ports, from New England to New Orleans. Writ-
ten records are mostly limited to names, sex, and
monetary value, and occasionally occupation;
more-detailed descriptions typically are found
FIRST FAMILY only in advertisements about runaway slaves.
By 1624, two of the 1619 arrivals, “Anthony” This leaves historians with a limited amount
and “Isabella,” were parents of “William,” the of information, and as such, a heavy reliance on
first documented African-American born in archaeological data and oral tradition.
Virginia. Their son took the last name Tucker,
as was commonplace, from his enslaver.
Many of their descendants remained in the Dark Legacy
Tidewater region of Virginia. Some are buried While slavery existed for millennia in other
in the family cemetery (right) cared for by the cultures around the world before 1619, it trans-
William Tucker 1624 Society. formed significantly in the Americas. Tradition-
al African slavery was vastly different from what
AMY BRIGGS
88 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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developed in the colonies. In African kingdoms, their ancestors back to the late 19th centu- LONG
slavery was not permanent nor was it inher- ry, following emancipation, when African HISTORY
ited. Children of slaves were not automatically Americans were free to record their own full Shirley Plantation
enslaved, and they could be socially and politi- legal names. Scientific advances in genetics (above), one of
cally mobile. have also given people new tools to find their the oldest Virginia
plantations, was
In the “New World,” slavery transformed. It ancestors via DNA, but creating a full family established in 1613
was permanent and hereditary. The enslaved tree remains unlikely. Few family histories on the banks of
had few or no civil rights. They could be bought will ever be complete, yet another legacy of the James, upriver
and sold at their owners’ discretion. The social the inhumane treatment of enslaved Africans from Point Comfort.
The first enslaved
construct of race became tightly tethered to legal and their descendants. Africans were
status, causing problems that ripple down to the Looking back to 1619, one realizes it is documented there in
present day. time to recognize how racist ideology fed 1622, the last in 1865.
As the 400th anniversary of the 1619 arrival the colonization of the Americas and the PAT & CHUCK BLACKLEY/ALAMY
approached, more people actively tried to trace systematic enslavement and oppression of
their roots back to their African ancestors’ ar- both Native Americans and captive Afri-
rival in the colonies. Some are fortunate, like cans. Looking forward, one must also see
members of the William Tucker 1624 Society. how necessary it is for humanity to try to
Many members can trace their lineage back to tell the full story of the millions of Africans
William Tucker, believed to be the first African- who were stolen away.
American child born in Virginia. Their surname
was recorded centuries ago, and they have re-
mained connected to this distinct family line. DR. KELLEY FANTO DEETZ IS A HISTORIAN OF
Unfortunately, the Tuckers are the excep- THE AFRICAN DIASPORA AND DIRECTOR OF
PROGRAMMING, EDUCATION, AND VISITOR ENGAGEMENT
tion, as most African Americans can only trace AT STRATFORD HALL IN STRATFORD, VIRGINIA.
DISCOVERIES
Thamugadi:
Saved by the Sands
Once an outpost of Roman might in North Africa, Thamugadi fell
into ruin and was buried by the Sahara. It remained untouched
for centuries until a Scottish diplomat wandered the desert,
looking for remnants of the region’s distant past.
I
t isn’t often that en- Se a
up his post, he spent a few
Med.
tire cities vanish, but Algiers months in Italy poring over
the Roman outpost of Thamugadi TUNISIA
the history of the African re-
Thamugadi did. Found- MOROCCO gion and its role in antiquity.
ed by the emperor Tra- Bruce’s short temper and
jan around A . D . 100, the ALGERIA strong opinions soon led to
city, also known as Timgad clashes with his superiors in
or Tamugas, was located in London. In 1765, he lost his
MALI
the North African province appointment. Rather than
of Numidia. return to Britain, he and a
Home to veterans of the Florentine artist named
Third Augustan Legion, from a team of explorers led Luigi Balugani embarked
Thamugadi flourished for by a maverick Scotsman in on an adventure across Af-
hundreds of years, becom- the 1700s. rica. On their journey, they THE ARCH OF TRAJAN,
ing prosperous and thus an kept notes and made illus- built in honor of the
attractive target for raiders. Statesman and Scholar trations depicting the many Roman emperor,
dominates the ruins of
After a Vandal invasion in Best known now for his extraordinary people and Thamugadi, located in
430, repeated attacks weak- contested discovery of the places they encountered. modern Algeria.
ened the city, which never source of the Blue Nile in IVAN VDOVIN/AGE FOTOSTOCK
fully recovered and was Ethiopia, Scottish noble- Time in the Desert
abandoned during the 700s. man James Bruce was serv- In the early stages of this
The desert sands swept ing as the British consul in odyssey, they had traveled
in and buried Thamugadi. the coastal city of Algiers south to the Algerian desert On December 12, 1765,
One thousand (today the capital of Algeria) looking for traces of ancient they reached what they
years would in 1763. civilizations. Bruce and identified as Thamuga-
pass before Imposingly tall and broad, Balugani had already seen di. Many believe that they
the city Bruce was a voracious scholar several Roman ruins as they were the first Europeans in
received with a curious mind. Before explored more remote parts centuries to visit the site,
a visit his arrival in Algiers to take of the region. near the northern slopes of
JAMES BRUCE IN A PORTRAIT BY POMPEO GIROLAMO BATONI, 1762. SCOTTISH NATIONAL GALLERY, EDINBURGH
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
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IN BRUCE’S FOOTSTEPS
IN 1875, MORE THAN A CENTURY AFTER Bruce’s
visit to Thamugadi, British diplomat Robert
Lambert Playfair (right) described a visit
the Aurès mountains. “It sand and uncovered sculp- there in his book Travels in the Footsteps of
has been a small town, but tures of the Roman emper- Bruce in Algeria and Tunis. He set
out under a hospitable Berber
full of elegant buildings,” or who succeeded Hadrian
guide, appropriately named
Bruce wrote in his diaries. in A.D. 138, Antoninus Pius,
“Bou Dhiaf, father of guests
He was confident that these and his wife, Faustina the . . . who, not without rea-
ruins were what remained Elder, works he described as son, boasts of Roman
of the city founded by Tra- having “exquisite beauty.” descent.” The road to the
jan more than a millenium Bruce reburied the ancient site lay through
earlier. sculptures in the sand and “country covered with
On the first day, Bruce re- continued traveling. He Roman remains. We
corded and Balugani drew documented more sites found our camp pitched
“the triumphal arch” of Tra- throughout North Africa in the very centre of the
jan. They returned the next and Ethiopia, even claim- ruined city, which allowed
day to continue exploration ing to find the source of the us to devote every hour of our
and identified an amphithe- Blue Nile. Balugani died in stay to its examination.”
ater. Bruce cleared away the 1770, and Bruce returned to
THE UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS, SCOTLAND/BRIDGEMAN/ACI
DISCOVERIES
London in 1774. When he as Travels to Discover the Playfair, Britain’s consul in noting it was built at the
reported his findings, they Source of the Nile. The book Algiers. In his 1877 book, intersection of six Roman
were greeted with skepti- was published in 1790. Travels in the Footsteps of roads. In Playfair’s opinion,
cism and disbelief. When Bruce died four years Bruce in Algeria and Tunis, the architecture outshone
Incredulous at later, much of Britain still Playfair paid homage to his that of the neighboring Ro-
this reaction, Bruce refused to recognize his consular predecessor, visit- man city Lambaesis, Nubia’s
retired to Scotland. achievements. ing some of the sites Bruce military capital. Playfair
In 1780, he began had recorded. concluded that Thamugadi
writing a memoir Roman Splendor Playfair’s description was a “center of commercial
of his time in Af- Thamugadi lay largely for- of Thamugadi offers more and agricultural activity.”
rica, a five-vol- gotten in the desert sands details than Bruce’s. His He also admired the mag-
ume work until 1875, when it was vis- observations revealed the nificence of the city’s Arch
known ited by Robert Lambert city’s regional importance, of Trajan. On the ground
underneath its 20-foot-high
portal can still be seen deep
Thamugadi lay largely forgotten in the ruts from the traffic that
desert sands until 1875, when it was passed into the city along
the busy imperial highways.
visited by Robert Lambert Playfair. The French took con-
trol of the site in 1881, a few
BRONZE BUST OF MINERVA FROM THAMUGADI, THIRD CENTURY A.D. LOUVRE MUSEUM, PARIS
H. LEWANDOWSKI/RMN-GRAND PALAIS years after Playfair’s visit,
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On July 20, 1969, the whole world held its breath, and millions watched as Apollo 11’s
EVENT: The much-anticipated LM or Lunar Module (nicknamed Eagle) landed human beings on the moon for the
50th Anniversary of the historic, very first time EVER in history. As Commander Neil Armstrong confirmed that “the
first-ever, landing of a man on Eagle has landed,” a once-impossible dream became reality. It was the fulfillment of
the Moon that took place on U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s daring quest to send a man to the moon and return
him safely. Now, the upcoming 50th anniversary of this “giant leap for all mankind”
July 20, 1969. inspires The Apollo 11 50TH Anniversary Silver Dollar, a superb, limited edition, legal
tender coin from The Bradford Exchange Mint.
GENUINE LEGAL TENDER: Exclusive 50th Anniversary Coin.
Intended as a collectors’ item, Richly plated in 99.9% Pure Silver, this superb 50th anniversary
this official legal tender coin coin’s reverse portrays an astronaut on the moon with the
is offered in coveted Proof American flag. Official legal tender, the obverse shows the year,
Condition. Fully plated with the lunar surface, and the coat of arms of the Republic of Fiji.
99.9% Pure Silver, it portrays an Limited Availability — Act now.
astronaut on the lunar surface.
Strong demand is expected for this must-have, historic 50th
anniversary commemorative. Order now, at the $44.95* issue
SECURED AND PROTECTED: price, payable in two installments of $22.48 each, plus a
Your coin arrives sealed within a total of $4.95 shipping and service,* plus sales tax. You need
crystal-clear capsule to enjoy for send no money now, and you will be billed with shipment.
years to come. A Certificate Your purchase is fully backed by our unconditional, 365-day
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of Authenticity will follow. us. So don’t risk missing out, mail the coupon today.
*For information on sales tax you may owe to your state, go to bradfordexchange.com/use-tax
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The Bradford Exchange Mint is not affiliated with the U.S. Government or U.S. Mint. ©2019 BGE 17-01101-021-BD
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DISCOVERIES
and maintained a presence In the mid-third century the legion every two years, city began to sink into ruin.
there until 1960. During A.D., the city’s population and they settled in Tha- After the fall of the western
this period, the site was peaked at 15,000. They en- mugadi as a kind of pen- Roman Empire, Thamugadi
systematically excavat- joyed fine public buildings, sion for their service. Their enjoyed a brief resurgence
ed. Having been buried for including a magnificent li- presence also served as a as a Christian center, and
centuries under sand with brary and a total of 14 baths. deterrent to invaders. a fort was built outside the
nothing built on top of it, The comfort of Thamugadi’s The city was a manifesta- city in 539. But the city was
Thamugadi is one of only a facilities, and the presence of tion of Roman might on the abandoned either before or
few Roman cities excavated mosaics, has often prompted empire’s southern border. Its during the Arab invasions
in its entirety. comparisons with Pompeii. diverse population saw those of the 700s.
The city’s location was who worshipped the old gods From that point, the Sa-
Going with the Grain key to protecting the Roman living alongside Christians. hara gradually covered
The research undertaken by Empire’s southern borders. For a while, it was a strong- Thamugadi, and it stayed
Playfair and by French schol- North Africa was a center hold of the heretical Chris- hidden for a thousand years
ars has enabled historians to of grain production, and tian sect the Donatists. until James Bruce and oth-
piece together the history of Rome’s Third Augustan Le- The general crisis mount- ers would rediscover its
the city. Originally named gion was stationed in Tha- ing on the borders of the Ro- buried glory. Thamugadi
Colonia Marciana Trajana mugadi to protect the grain man Empire eventually took was designated as a UNE-
Thamurga, in honor of Em- and its transport to Rome. its toll on Thamugadi. After SCO World Heritage site
peror Trajan’s sister, Tha- Several hundred men being looted by the Vandals in 1982.
mugadi was laid out in a grid. would be discharged from during the fifth century, the —Rubén Montoya
94 JULY/AUGUST 2019
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hroughout the ages, men and women have gazed at the Moon in Now you can join in celebrating this historic event with a stunning
wonder. The Moon had long been a source of mystery, the subject limited edition collection of postage stamps developed in collaboration
of poetry and dreams—a distant object humankind could only with the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, a collection
imagine. With the dawn of a new era, though, that began to change. On that walks you through the wonders of the journey that the world held
May 25, 1961, President John F. Kennedy set forth a challenging new its collective breath to watch 50 years ago.
goal for the United States: perform a crewed lunar landing and return In July 1969 the United States Postal Service issued a commemo-
safely to Earth before the end of the decade. On July 16, 1969 the crew rative stamp to honor the event, picturing Mission Commander Neil
of Apollo 11 set out to achieve this goal – being the first to land on the Armstrong planting the US flag on the lunar surface. We are privi-
Moon. Four days later, on July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong took “one small leged to have a limited number of that 1969 US stamp, and to offer it to
step for man and one giant leap for mankind”, becoming the first person you as part of this collection on a first come, first served basis.
to set foot on another planetary body.
Now, 50 years later, we celebrate this momentous event, which has Order Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum
50th Anniversary Apollo 11 Postage Stamp Collection by Philatelic Mint:
today led us to think of the Moon as a destination beckoning us toward
www.pmintstamps.com, call 866.775.9642 or fill out & mail form below.
its continued exploration, now and in the years to come. ___Enclosed is my payment of $37.00
From the launch of Apollo 11, through its journey to the Moon and ___Please charge my credit card indicated below for $37.00
back, the world watched. With excitement and tension building from lift- (Price includes free shipping)
off to splashdown, humankind stood in awe, witnessing three brave men, Name
Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, as their craft Address
maneuvered through re-entry and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean.
©Philatelic Mint, Inc. 2019
Next Issue
BOUDICA ROUSES HER TROOPS
IN A ROMANTICIZED SCENE
CREATED BY WILLIAM SHARP
BOUDICA
IN 1812. NATIONAL PORTRAIT STRIKES
GALLERY, LONDON
AGAINST ROME
EMPEROR NERO considered
abandoning Rome’s new
colony of Britannia thanks to
Boudica, a Celtic queen and
leader of a massive British
revolt against Roman rule in
A.D. 60-61. After recruiting a
large fighting force, Boudica
sacked cities, including
Londinium (London). They
NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON. SCALA,FLORENCE. COLOR: SANTI PÉREZ
FE
LIM
70%
1. Westward the Course of Empire
R
2. The West in the Colonial Era
R 7
off
3. Venturing beyond the Appalachians
OR
BE
4. Discoveries of Lewis and Clark
ER
D
M
BY S E P T E 5. The Fur Trade and the Mountain Men
6. Trail of Tears
7. Struggles of the Plains Indians
8. Rebellious Texas and the Alamo
9. Traveling the Oregon Trail
10. Manifest Destiny and the Mexican War
11. The California Gold Rush
12. Bleeding Kansas and Civil War in the West
13. Building the Transcontinental Railroads
14. Cowboys and Cattle Drives
15. Homesteaders on the Plains
16. Little Bighorn and Wounded Knee
17. Life in Western Towns and Cities
18. John Wesley Powell and the Desert Southwest
19. Women in the Wild West
20. From Territories to Western States
21. Western Violence, Law, and Order
22. Protecting Yellowstone and Yosemite
Experience the Grit and Glory 23. Mythology of the American West
24. Winning the West?