FLIGHT OPERATIONS

ENGINEERING COURSE

WEIGHT & BALANCE

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INDEX

1. STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ................................................................. 1

1.1 CALCULATION OF MOMENT ..............................................................................................1

1.2 SHEAR LOADS AND BENDING LOADS..............................................................................1

1.3 AIRPLANE DATUM ..............................................................................................................3

1.4 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)...............................................................................3

1.5 CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)................................................................................................4

1.6 WEIGHT DEFINITIONS .......................................................................................................5

1.7 WEIGHT LIMITATIONS........................................................................................................7

2. CENTER OF GRAVITY LIMITS ................................................................................ 9

2.1 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM .........................................................................................9

2.2 FORWARD AND AFT LIMITS ............................................................................................10

2.3 AFT LIMIT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY.......................................................................11

2.4 CENTER OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE ..................................................................................13

2.5 LIMITING FACTORS ..........................................................................................................14

2.6 CENTER OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS..........................................................................15

3. EXAMPLE OF CG POSITION CALCULATION ...................................................... 18

4. TYPICAL FLIGHT: WEIGHT and CG CHANGE ..................................................... 20

5. INDEX SYSTEM ...................................................................................................... 21

5.1 INDIVIDUAL INDEX INFLUENCE.......................................................................................22

6. BALANCE CHART .................................................................................................. 22

7. BEST CG POSITION FOR PERFORMANCE ......................................................... 24

8. FUEL BALLAST (IATA AHM 537) .......................................................................... 25

9. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 26

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1. STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1.1 CALCULATION OF MOMENT

The Moment about any given point due to an applied force can be determined by
multiplying the force by the distance between its point of application and the given point.

Clockwise moment about the intersection point between the board and the wall due to
force F:

Moment = F x d

1.2 SHEAR LOADS AND BENDING LOADS

To keep any segment of a beam in equilibrium when an external force is applied to it,
there must be forces internal to the beam itself that are equal and opposite to the applied
load.

These internal forces can be categorized as shearing forces and bending forces.

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Shearing forces act tangentially to the applied load. Each section of the beam must
support the adjacent section in response to the load.

Shering
Forces

Distance from Wall

Bending forces act perpendicularly to the applied load, and result from the moment
caused by the load. These forces cause tension and compression within the beam, to
offset the moment caused by the applied load.

Bending
Moment

Distance from Wall

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1.3 AIRPLANE DATUM

Airplane Datum is a plane perpendicular to the fuselage centerline from where all arm
measurements are taken.

1.4 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) is the chord of an imaginary rectangular airfoil with the
same area of the actual wing and which produces the same resulting force vectors of the
actual wing.

The LEMAC defines the distance of the Leading Edge of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord
from the Airplane Datum.

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1.5 CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)

This is the position where the mass of the aircraft is considered concentrated for balance
purposes.
di
d2

d1
W1 W2 Wi
XCG
WEIGHT = W1+W2+...+Wi

The CG position can be calculated according to the formula:

W1d1 + W2 d 2 + ..... + Wi d i
X CG =
W
Usually, the CG position is referred to in terms of %MAC, as it is represented in the figure
bellow:
DATUM

LEMAC MAC
BA

% MAC

The CG position, referred in terms of %MAC, can be obtained, according to the formula:

( BA − LEMAC )
CG (% MAC ) = x100
MAC
Where BA is the balance arm of the airplane’s CG.

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1.6 WEIGHT DEFINITIONS

1.6.1 EQUIPPED EMPTY WEIGHT (EEW) OR MANUFACTURER EMPTY WEIGHT

(MEW)
It is the weight of structure, power plant, instruments, interior furnishings, systems,
optional, portable, and emergency equipment and other items of equipment that are an
integral part of the airplane configuration.
It is essentially a dry weight, including only those fluids contained in closed systems such
as oxygen, fire extinguisher agent, landing gear shock absorber fluid, etc.

1.6.2 BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (BEW)

It is the MEW plus the weight of the following items:
• APU oil;
• Engine oil;
• Hydraulic fluid;
• Unusable fuel.

1.6.3 BASIC OPERATIONAL WEIGHT (BOW), OPERATIONAL EMPTY WEIGHT

(OEW) OR DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW)
It is the BEW plus the weight of the operational items.
Operational items are those necessary for a particular operation and not included in the
BEW. These items may include, but are not limited to:
• Flight and cabin crew plus their baggage;
• Navigation kit (manuals, charts, etc.);
• Catering (beverages and foods) and removable service equipment for galley;
• Cabin service equipment: blankets, pillows, papers etc;
• Potable water;
• Waste Tank Fluid;
• Aircraft cargo handling system and/or cargo tiedown equipment;
• Life rafts and life vests.

1.6.4 ACTUAL ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (AZFW)

This is the BOW plus actual payload.

1.6.5 PAYLOAD OR TOTAL TRAFFIC LOAD

This is the weight of passengers, baggage and cargo.

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A visualization of EEW, BEW and BOW is brought by the graph bellow:

Weight

BOW
Operational
Items
BEW
Standard Items

EEW/
(MEW)

EMBRAER brings the EEW and the BEW in a document called Airplane Weighting
Form, like the one shown bellow. The BOW is defined by the operator, according to its
standards and types of operation.

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1.7 WEIGHT LIMITATIONS

1.7.1 STRUCTURAL LIMITS

Based on airplane structural capability. The Structural Limitation helps to define the
shape of the CG x Weight chart.

1.7.2 CERTIFIED WEIGHT LIMITS

Maximum weights defined by the airline. It can be lower than the Structural Limits.

1.7.3 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PAYLOAD

It is the maximum approved weight that can be loaded into the airplane. Maximum
payload is the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) less Basic Operational Weight (BOW).

1.7.4 MAXIMUM DESIGN ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (MZFW)

This is the maximum authorized weight before usable fuel be loaded. The MZFW is
related to airplane structural limitations.
In the figure bellow, the aircraft is flying and represented along with the forces generated
by the wing structure, engine and fuel weights and air.

Engine Engine

Fuel Fuel

Wing Wing
Structure Structure

Airloads Airloads

The airloads generate a momentum on the wings root. Wing structure, engine and fuel
weights generate a momentum on the opposite direction. As the result, the structure has
to be able to support a momentum that tends to bend the wings up.

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On the next scenario, the aircraft is still flying, but tanks are almost empty. Since there is
no fuel, the momentum on the wings root is maximum.

Engine Engine

Wing Wing
Structure Structure

Airloads Airloads

It is known that the higher the aircraft weight, the higher is the lift, and consequently the
airloads. Since the aircraft is designed to support a maximum value of momentum on the
wings root, this will define a maximum aircraft weight, not considering fuel. This maximum
weight is called Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW).

1.7.5 MAXIMUM DESIGN TAXI WEIGHT (MTW) OR MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT (MRW)
Maximum weight allowed for movement of the airplane on the ground (taxiing or towing).

1.7.6 MAXIMUM DESIGN TAKEOFF WEIGHT (MTOW)

This is the maximum authorized weight for takeoff.

1.7.7 MAXIMUM DESIGN LANDING WEIGHT (MLW)

This is the maximum authorized weight for landing.

1.7.8 MINIMUM OPERATING WEIGHT (MOW)

This is the minimum authorized weight to operate the airplane. The lower the weight, the
higher are the vertical accelerations (due to gust, for example) that the aircraft is
submitted to during a flight. The MOW is defined by the maximum vertical acceleration
that fixed equipments, such as portable oxygen cylinders or fire extinguishers, are
designed for.

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2. CENTER OF GRAVITY LIMITS

2.1 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

Straight and level flight is only possible if the vertical forces are balanced, that is, if their
sum is equal to zero. Furthermore, the moments generated by each force about any axis
of rotation must be balanced too.

∑F = 0 LIFT
∑M = 0

CG CP

DOWN
FORCE

WEIGHT

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2.2 FORWARD AND AFT LIMITS

The CG limits presented bellow define the forward and aft limits of the certified CG Envelope.

2.2.1 FORWARD LIMIT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

The vertical force (upwards and downwards) generated by the stabilizer is limited by its
the design. At low airspeeds, common during takeoff and landing, the stabilizer force is
lower. However, it is at this configuration that the aircraft requires high angles of attack,
which can only be established by a sufficient control moment.
Case 1 and 2 presented bellow bring the idea behind the definition of this CG limit.
Numbers brought are just to help explain the concept.

Case 1: When CG is 2.0 meters ahead of center of pressure (CP), horizontal stabilizer is
still able to generate a moment high enough to compensate pitch down moment created
by the pair of forces Lift/Weight.
M (Lift) = 86 m.ton M (Stabilizer) = 90 m.ton
Lift = 43 ton

CG CP

2m 16m

Weight = 38 ton Stabilizer

Force = 5 ton
M LIFT p M STABILIZER
Horizontal Stabilizer Control Moment guarantees pitch axis controllability
Case 2: When CG is 2.5 meters ahead of center of pressure (CP), horizontal stabilizer is
not able to generate a moment high enough to compensate pitch down moment created
by the pair of forces Lift/Weight.
M (Lift) = 107.5 m.ton M (Stabilizer) = 92.5 m.ton
Lift = 43 ton

CG CP

2.5 m 16m

Weight = 38 ton Stabilizer

Force = 5 ton
M LIFT ≥ M STABILIZER
Horizontal Stabilizer Control Moment can NOT provide pitch axis controllability

Thus, the maximum allowable forward CG position is dictated by aircraft controllability.

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2.3 AFT LIMIT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

Analogous to the forward CG limit, there is an aft CG limit that in most cases depends on
the maximum possible upward directed lift force that the horizontal stabilizer can generate.
Apart from this static aspect, there is also a dynamic criterion:
The aircraft should fly stabilized, i.e. after an external disturbance the aircraft should return
to the former flight condition without any pilot intervention. If for example the aircraft is hit
by a gust, the angle of attack is increased for a short time. The lift forces on the wings and
the stabilizer change linearly with the angle of attack, but to different extents.
To grant longitudinal stability, a clearly defined restoring moment ∆M is required. For this
example it is assumed to be ∆M > 25 m x ton.

Case 1: CG is 2.0 meters ahead of Center of pressure (CP)

Restoring Moment = (2 m x 4 ton) + (18 m x 1 ton) = 26 m x ton

M (gust) = 25 m.ton M (Restoring) = 26 m.ton

∆Lift = 4 ton

CG Lift = 40 ton ∆Lift = 1 ton

CP
2.0 m 16m

Weight = 38 ton Stabilizer

Force = 5 ton
M GUST p M RESTORING
Restoring Control Moment provides pitch axis dynamic stability

From first picture it can be seen that the restoring moment of 26 m x ton is sufficient to
return the aircraft to equilibrium

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Case 2: CG is 1.0 meter ahead of Center of Pressure (CP)

Restoring Moment = (1 m x 4 ton) + (17 m x 1 ton) = 21 m x ton

M (gust) = 25 m.ton M (Restoring) = 21 m.ton

∆Lift = 4 ton

Lift = 40 ton ∆Lift = 1 ton

CG

CP
1m 16m

Weight = 38 ton Stabilizer

Force = 5 ton
M GUST ≥ M RESTORING
Restoring Control Moment can NOT provide dynamic stability

From second picture it can be seen that the restoring moment of 21 m x ton is not
sufficient to return the aircraft to equilibrium, since its value is lower than the required 25
m x ton.
Even worse, once the restoring moment is lower than the one generated by the gust, the
angle of attack would keep increasing, aggravating the situation even more.
For a manual flight, commercial air transport aircraft must have positive stability to
maintain a stability margin. The amount of margin required is a function of a number of
variables and will generally differ from one airplane to another.
The maximum permissible aft limit is thereby defined by the controllability or the static
inherent stability of the aircraft.
Naturally, changes in position and intensity of aerodynamic forces during variations in
angle of attack will be taken into consideration for the calculation of the CG limit.

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2.4 CENTER OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE

The airplane center of gravity (CG) limits are defined by a CG envelope contained in the
Airplane Flight Manual and in the Weight and Balance Manual. For all flight phases
(takeoff, cruise and landing), the airplane CG must be within the allowable range defined
in the CG envelope.

4
5
4
6 3
4
7
2

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2.5 LIMITING FACTORS

On an airline point of view, the ideal situation is to have a CG envelope as wide as

possible. But, on the aircraft manufacturer point of view, any expansion in the CG
envelope may be associated to structural reinforcements and degradation on performance
and stability.

The main factors associated to each part of the CG envelope are:

1) Minimum allowed weight during flight;

2) Flight stability and nose gear steering effectiveness (Takeoff Pitch Up);
3) Flight controllability. Sensitive to flight controls inputs, nervous, excessive
maneuverability;
4) Structural Limits (MTOW, MLW, MZFW);
5) Geometrical aircraft limitation: Aircraft cannot increase angle of attack to rotate the
aircraft due to tail strike. Body strength;
6) Inflight limitation that allows passengers movement on flight. Same limitations as 5 and
7 plus 3% of MAC margin;
7) Elevator control moment limitation to rotate the aircraft.

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2.6 CENTER OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS

The aircraft weight and balance calculations are normally performed assuming that
passengers are evenly distributed along the aircraft cabins and that the crew, passengers
and movable items are fixed in a pre-determined position.
For all practical purposes, however, it is known that passengers may not be evenly
seated, flight attendants move along the cabin, the landing gear retracts, etc. All these
movements, not previously expected in the weight and balance calculations, may result in
deviations from the assumed load distribution.
For these reasons, some aeronautical authorities (including EASA, as required by
Appendix 1 to JAR-OPS 1.605, or FAA, according to AC 120-27E) require that airlines use
an Operational CG envelope, which is the AFM certified CG envelope reduced by a CG
margin to account for the possible deviations from the assumed load distribution. This
process is known as Center of Gravity Curtailment.

OPERATIONAL
ENVELOPE

AFM
ENVELOPE

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There are 3 basic types of CG curtailments:

2.6.1 TAKEOFF AND LANDING ALLOWANCES:

These are the deviations that affect the CG position for takeoff and landing. Uneven
distribution of passengers, flap and landing gear movement and cargo/baggage shift are
considered takeoff and landing allowances.
No passenger movements are considered once they are all seated during these phases.
According to the AC 120-27E, the passenger seating allowances are:

AFT SEATING ALLOWANCES: Considering seating order from LAST ROW to FIRST
ROW and WINDOWS FIRST to AISLE AFTER distribution. The most influent moment of
all the defined cabins is considered to cut the AFT part of the AFM envelope.

FORWARD SEATING ALLOWANCES: Considering seating order from FIRST ROW to LAST
ROW and WINDOWS FIRST to AISLE AFTER distribution. The most influent moment of all the
defined cabins is considered to cut the FOWARD part of the AFM envelope.

2.6.2 FLIGHT ALLOWANCES:

These are the deviations that affect the CG position in flight. All takeoff and landing
allowances plus flight attendant and catering service movement are considered in-flight
allowances.

FWD FLIGHT ALLOWANCES: The most restrictive between movement of the AFT flight
attendant to the FWD galley and movement of the FWD flight attendant to the cockpit.

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AFT FLIGHT ALLOWANCES: The most restrictive between movement of the FWD flight
attendant and a trolley to the aftermost row and movement of a mid cabin passenger to
the AFT lavatory.

2.6.3 FUEL ALLOWANCES:

There are some conditions under which it is possible to have both ZFW CG and TOW CG
located inside the CG envelope and the LW CG outside the CG envelope. This behavior is
caused by the particular fuel loading characteristics of each type of airplane, where the
initial fuel loaded causes a forward moment and then higher fuel loading causes an aft
moment.

It is necessary to consider a fuel allowance due to CG shift caused by the reduction of fuel
quantity during the flight.
In addition, it may be necessary to consider an allowance due to variations in the fuel
density.

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The CG curtailment process is a critical procedure because the amount of CG margin

(curtailment) depends on the possible deviations considered by the airline. If excessive
deviations (allowances) are considered by the airline, a very thin Operational CG envelope
may be obtained, resulting in huge difficulties to balance the aircraft during airline
operations. In the other hand, if few deviations (allowances) are considered, a large
Operational CG envelope is obtained, but safety may be jeopardized by CG deviations
from the assumed load distribution.

NOTE: For Ferry or Training flights, in which passenger or flight attendant movement is not
an issue, a constrained center of gravity envelope without some of the takeoff and
flight allowances may be used so as not to limit these types of flight unnecessarily.

3. EXAMPLE OF CG POSITION CALCULATION

According to what it was discussed during the definition of the Center of Gravity, the
aircraft CG can be calculated through the sum of momentums. The figure bellow brings
the BEW, operational items and cargo weights, number of passengers and respective
arms.

D
A
T
U
M

300 600 900 1200 1500

FWD CARGO COMP 3000 lb in
AFT CARGO COMP 3000 lb
POTABLE WATER 242.50 lb
FWD GALLEY G1 66.14 lb
FWD GALLEY G2 537.14 lb
FWD FLIGHT ATT. 180 lb
AFT GALLEY G3 617.28 lb
AFT FLIGHT ATT. 180 lb
AFT FLIGHT ATT. 2 180 lb
CREW (2 PILOTS) 380 lb
BEW 57579.54 lb
98 PAX
18620 lb

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On the table bellow, the momentums generated by the items that define the ZFW CG are
added:

ITEM Arm (in) Weight (lb) Moment (in.lb)

FWD CARGO COMPARTMENT 350,87 3000 1052610
AFT CARGO COMPARTMENT 944,96 3000 2834880
POTABLE WATER 1119,56 242,5 271493,3
FWD GALLEY G1 156,3 66,14 10337,682
FWD GALLEY G2 214,1 357,14 76463,674
AFT GALLEY G3 1139,6 617,28 703452,288
FWD FLIGHT ATTENDANT 194,5 180 35010
1ST AFT FLIGHT ATTENDANT 1089,7 180 196146
2ND AFT FLIGHT ATTENDANT 1109,7 180 199746
CREW (2 PILOTS) 110,63 380 42039,4
BEW 659,92 57579,54 435494,4064
98 PAX 680 18620 12661600
TOTAL 84402,6 56081668,38

Therefore, the ZFW CG position can be calculated:

W d + W2 d 2 + ..... + Wi di ΣM 56081668.38
CG = 1 1 = = = 664.45in
W ΣW 84402.6

For a MAC = 144.96 in and LEMAC = 625.83 in, the ZFW CG position can be defined related to
the MAC:

( BA − LEMAC) (664.45 − 625.83)

CG(%) = .100 = .100 = 26.64%
MAC 144.96

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4. TYPICAL FLIGHT: WEIGHT and CG CHANGE

During a flight, due to fuel consumption, the CG position changes. In the example bellow, the
BOW CG, ZFW CG, TOW CG and LDW CG are shown in order to evidence this change.

WEIGHT CG%
BOW 66000 lb 19.5%
CARGO FWD 2400 lb
CARGO AFT 2400 lb
PAX(90@190lb) 17100 lb
ZFW 87900 lb 19.3%
TAKEOFF FUEL 19000 lb
ATOW 106400 lb 15.7%
TRIP FUEL 14000 lb
LW 92000 lb 18.2%

ATOW (106400 / 21%)

LW (92000 / 23.5%)

ZFW (87400 / 25%)

BOW (65500 / 19.5 %)

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5. INDEX SYSTEM

When determining the aircraft CG position, it is necessary to make calculations adding

and/or subtracting the moments caused by each individual item loaded in the aircraft.
Moment, per definition, is weight multiplied by the distance to a reference point. If the
moment of the aircraft and of the items loaded on it are computed in reference to the
aircraft datum, very long numeric expressions result, as it was shown on the example
above.
As the operational usage of long numeric expressions may result in safety problems (since
personnel may get confused with the long numbers), airlines usually adopt an Index
System for weight and balance purposes.
The Index Systems is just a convention for presenting aircraft or body moments on a
different measuring system. When using the Index System, short numeric expressions
result.
The Index System formula is presented below:

W .( Arm − A)
I= +C
B

Where:

I = Index
W = Aircraft or body weight
Arm = Aircraft or body Center of Gravity
A = Reference arm. Selected arm around which all index values are calculated. On the
balance chart CG envelope, the Reference Arm CG% line is the only vertical CG% line
B = Constant used as a denominator to convert moment values into index values. On the
balance chart CG envelope, B controls the CG% lines splay (splay decreases with
increasing B)
C = Constant used as a plus value to avoid negative index figures. It is only used when
computing the aircraft Operating Empty Weight Index (OEI), and is not used when
computing individual bodies index influence. On the balance chart CG envelope, the
Reference Arm CG% vertical line is at C index units
Values for A, B and C may be chosen at the operator discretion.

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5.1 INDIVIDUAL INDEX INFLUENCE

The individual index influence is the variation on the aircraft index whenever a specific
item is added. It is defined by the following formula:

W .( Armi − A)
∆I i =
B

6. BALANCE CHART
A Balance Chart is a document used to perform the Aircraft Weight and Balance. The idea
is to add to the BOI the Index Influence of the cargo, passengers and fuel in a graphic way
and to verify if the TOW, LDW and ZFW CG positions are inside the aircraft operational
envelope.
Some important aspects of a Balance Chart are given bellow:
a) It can be used by relatively untrained personnel (low cost);
b) An error in the alignment of the overlay can cause balance error. Training is important
to minimize this possibility;
c) All calculations are permanently recorded and can be checked;
d) Visual indication of balance effect on airplane is given for each load item. Therefore,
planning cargo distribution is simplified;
e) Calculation and art work are required for revision if new weights or CG limits are
certified.
f) The printing of the grid and the overlay requires a relatively high degree of accuracy.

An example of a Balance Chart is given:

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7. BEST CG POSITION FOR PERFORMANCE

In general, the best position for fuel saving is an aft CG, since this condition results in
smaller stabilizer down forces and, therefore, smaller wing lift forces. The reduction on
the lift results in less drag, therefore reducing fuel consumption.
Some airplanes have an automatic system to maintain CG as aft as possible, in order to
optimize fuel consumption.
Similarly to this fuel consumption analysis, an aft CG is also beneficial to takeoff
performance. For this reason the certification flight tests must be performed in the most
forward CG position, so that the AFM takeoff performance is conservative for any CG
position located aft of the forward limit of the CG envelope.
Some airplanes have a special AFM supplement with a restricted CG envelope, in order to
improve the takeoff performance.

Case 1: A forward CG position requires higher lift forces and moments for the same
aircraft weight.

FWD CG POSITION

Lift

C
C
MAC
Elevator
Downforc

Weight

HIGHER LIFT REQUIRED ⇒ HIGHER α⇒ HIGHER DRAG ⇒HIGHER FUEL

CONSUMPTION

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Case 2: An aft CG position reduces lift required, drag and fuel consumption.

AFT CG POSITION

Lift

C
C
MAC
Elevator
Downforc

Weight

LOWER LIFT REQUIRED ⇒ LOWER α ⇒ LOWER DRAG ⇒ LOWER FUEL

CONSUMPTION
8. FUEL BALLAST (IATA AHM 537)

There are some loading configurations that may lead the ZFW outside the lower part of
the CG envelope. This is typical for ferry or test flights where there is no payload or the
Zero Fuel Weight is approximately equal to the Basic Operational Weight.

ZFW

Fuel can be used as ballast in order to relocate the ZFW inside the envelope.

The ballast fuel must be shown in the weight manifest as an adjustment to the BOW (or
DOW), which will then be included in the ZFW. A minimum fuel quantity on board is then
required and shall not be considered for flight planning.

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9. REFERENCES

1) Jet Airplane Performance, Lufthansa Consulting, 1988.

2) Performance Engineer Operations Course, volume 1 and 2, Boeing, 1997.
3) Performance Engineer General Course, volume 1 and 2, Boeing, 1999.
4) Aerodinámica y Actuaciones del Avión, I. Carmona, Editorial Paraninfo, 1996.
5) ETPS Fixed Wing Flight Test Manual, Empire Test Pilot School.
6) FAR 25, FAR 121, FAA AC-25-7A, FAA AC-120-91.
7) RBHA 121.
8) JAR 25, JAR-OPS-1.
9) AIRCRAFT HANDLING MANUAL (AHM) - IATA

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