Hypothesis Testing

Chapter Outline
• Type of Errors
• Z-test about population Mean & Proportion.
• t - test about population Mean.
• Chi – square test about population Variance or S.D.
• Tests if there is a Linear Relationship Between 2 Numerical Variables.
• t Test for Population Slope.

1
 What is a Hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is an I assume the mean GPA
assumption about of this class is 3.5!
the population
parameter.
– A parameter is a
Population mean,
proportion or variance.
– The parameter must be
identified before
analysis.
© 1984-1994 T/Maker Co.
2
 The Null Hypothesis, H0
 The null hypothesis, denoted by H0 , is a tentative
assumption about a population parameter.
• Always contains the ‘ =, or ’ sign.
e.g. The average # TV sets in US homes is at least 3. (H0:  3)
The Null Hypothesis may or may not be rejected.

The Alternative Hypothesis, H1

 The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 is the opposite of
what is stated in the null hypothesis.
• Always contains the ‘  < or > ’ sign.
e.g. The average # TV sets in US homes is less than 3. (H1:  < 3)
The Alternative Hypothesis may or may not be accepted.

3
Question: For each conjecture, state the null and alternative
hypothesis. Identify which is the claim.
(i) The average age of taxi drivers in New York city is 36.3 years.
(ii) The average income of nurses is $36,250.
(iii) The average number of calories of brand A’s low calorie meals is at
most 300.
(iv) The average weight loss of people who use brand A’s low calorie
meals for six weeks is at least 3.6 pounds.
(v) The average electric bill for residents of White Pine Estates exceeds
$52.98 per month.
(vi) The average cost of a VCR is no more than $297.75
(vii) A research organization reports that 9% of all grocery shoppers never
buy the store brand.
(viii) The standard deviation of the basic price of a certain type of car is
fewer than and equal to $1220.
(ix) At least 14% of all homeowners have a home security alarm.
(x) A battery manufacturer guarantees that the variance of the life of its
wristwatch batteries is less than 5 months.
4
 Level of Significance, a and
the Rejection Region ( )
One-tailed
H0:  o Critical value will be
a (lower-tail)
with negative sign

H1:  < o - +
0
H0:   o Critical value will be
a
H1:  > o
with positive sign
One-tailed
-
0
+
(upper-tail)

H0:  =o a/2

H1:   o Critical values will
be with ± sign
Two-tailed
- +
0
5
1. Type I and Type II Error. Reject null hypothesis when it is true
is called type I error and denoted by a.
Accept null hypothesis when it is false is called type
II error and denoted by b.
2. Region of Rejection and Region of Acceptance. The
result obtained from any sampling experiment can be
classified into two groups: First Group: results which
leads us to accept the null hypothesis. Second
Group: results which leads us to reject the null
hypothesis. The first group is known as region of
acceptance and second group is known as region of
rejection or critical region (CR.)
3. Powerful Test (1- b). It is the probability of rejecting a null
hypothesis when it is false. The power generally
increases with an increase in the sample size. A test
for which b is small, is defined to be a powerful test.

6
4. OC Curve. A curve giving the probabilities of making type II
errors for various parametric values under alternative
hypothesis, is called an Operating Characteristic
Curve or simply the OC curve.
5. Test Statistic. It is formula which is obtained from the value of the
sample in such a way that it provides us the basis
to accept or reject the hypothesis. Most commonly
used test statistics are normal, t, c2 or F.
6. One Tailed & Two Tailed Tests or One-Sided & Two-Sided
Tests When the entire region of rejection is located only at
one end of the distribution (it may be the right end or
left end) or if our alternative hypothesis consists of
only one aspect then it is termed as a one-sided test

When the region of the rejection consists of both end

of the distribution or if our alternative hypothesis
consists of two aspects then it is termed as two-sided
test. 7
7. Test of Significance. A test of significance is a rule or
procedure by which sample results are used to decide
whether to accept or reject a null hypothesis. Such a
procedure is usually based on a test statistic and the
sampling distribution of such a statistic under H0. A value
of the statistic is said to be statistically significant when
the value of test statistic falls in the region of rejection or
it is greater than its corresponding tabulated value then
we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the value
of the test statistic is significant. If, on the other hand,
value of the test statistic falls in the region of acceptance
or it is less than and equal to its corresponding tabulated
value, then we accept the null hypothesis and conclude
that the value of the test statistic is insignificant.

8
 Type I and Type II Errors

Population Condition

H0 True H0 False
Conclusion Suppose ( <) Suppose ( > )

Correct
Accept H0
Decision (No Error) Type II Error (b)
(Conclude  < )
1–a
Correct
Reject H0
Type I Error (a) Decision (No Error)
(Conclude  > ) 1-b

9
 Relation between a and b
There is an inverse relationship between a and b.
When a becomes smaller, b tends to become larger
and when a becomes larger, b tends to become
smaller. In general a + b  1, as a is an area in the
right tail of the distribution under Ho and b is the area
in the area in the left tail of the distribution under H1.
We can reduce both a and b by increasing the sample
size, which may or may not be possible. The most
generally accepted procedure for selecting a “best”
test of a statistical hypothesis is to put a limit on the
more serious error (Type I) and then select the test
that minimizes the other error (Type II).
10
 Type – II Error (b) & Power (1 – b)
b = P(Accept Ho / Ho is false) DISTRIBUTION UNDER Ho

1 – b = P(Reject Ho / Ho is false)
(Ho:   20)
a = P(Reject Ho / Ho is true)
To represent a, b and power of a test a = 0.05
graphically, we show the distributions of
the test-statistic under both hypothesis Ho
and H1 as: 1- a
a
If Ho:  20 X  = 20
H1:  < 20 Reject H0 Accept H0

a = 0.05 (H1:  < 20) DISTRIBUTION UNDER H1

(say 18)
Represent b.

b
1-b
 = 18 11
Reject H0 Accept H0
 Type – II Error (b) & Power (1 – b)
To represent a, b and power of a test
graphically, we show the distributions of DISTRIBUTION UNDER Ho
the test-statistic under both hypothesis Ho
and H1 as:
(Ho:  = 180)
If Ho:  = 180
H1:   180
a = 0.05 1- a
a = 0.025 a = 0.025
a/2 a/2
Represent b.  = 180
X
Reject H0 Accept H0 Reject H0

(H1:  < 180 or H1:  > 180) DISTRIBUTION UNDER H1

(say 182)

1-b
b
 = 182 12
Accept H0 Reject H0
 Example 1: Type – II Error (b)
A random sample of size 25 is drawn (Ho:   67)
from a normal population with known s
= 3, the hypothesis Ho:   67 against
H1:  > 67 is tested at a = 0.05. Compute
(i) The value of X. 67.99
67
(ii) b, the probability of type – II error, if  = Accept H0 Reject H0
68.5, 68.0, 67.5 and 66 are used.
Now at X = 67.99 we H1:  > 67)
(given H1:  = 68.5)
find
z = ( 67.99 – 68.5)/(3/5)
b
(i) We are given the following information
n = 25, s = 3 and Ho:   67, H1:  > 67, = - 0.85
68.5
a = 0.05, using one sided test. - - 0.85 0
To find the values of X (the critical
point) which would lead to rejection Accept H0 Reject H0
of hypothesis Ho by the test statistic
b= area between -  and - 0.85, i.e.
X -
Z= , 1.645 = ( X – 67) / ( 3 / 5 ) 0.5 – P( - 0.85 < z < 0) = 0.5 – 0.3023 = 0.1977
s X = 67.99
n
(ii) b= P( Type II error /  = 68.5 )

13
 Example 1: Type – II Error (b)
(Ho:   67)
b= P(Type II error /  = 66)

Now at X = 67.99 we find

67 67.99
z = ( 67.99 – 66)/(3/5) = 3.32 Accept H0 Reject H0

b= area between z = -  & 0 and 0 & z = 3.32, i.e.

0.5 + P( 0 < z < 3.32) = 0.5 + 0.4995 = 0.9995 b (given H1:  = 66)

66
- 0 3.32
Accept H0 Reject H0

14
 Example 2: Type – II Error (b)
A random sample of size 36 is drawn (ii) A type II error can be committed only by
from a normal population with known s accepting a false Ho.
= 15 and mean weight of a population The hypothesis Ho:  = 140 will be false if 
of people is 140 lbs, a = 0.05 find takes a value greater than 140. Given
hypothesis H1:  = 150, so that Ho: = 140
(i) The values of X which would lead to becomes false.
rejection of hypothesis. (Ho:  = 140)
(ii) b, the probability of type – II error, if  = z = ( 135.1 – 150)/(15/6)
150 lbs. Use a two sided test.
= - 5.96

(i) We are given the following information 144.9

135.1 140
n = 36, s = 15 and Ho:  = 140, a = 0.05
Reject H0 Accept H0 Reject H0 H1:  > 140)
(given H1:  = 150)
To find the values of X (the critical point) Now at X = 144.9
which would lead to rejection of and 135.1 we find
hypothesis Ho:  = 140 we use the
z = ( 144.9 – 150)/(15/6) b
test statistic
X -  , + 1.96 = ( X – 140) / (15 / 6) = - 2.04
Z= -
s X = 135.1 and 144.9 - 5.96 - 2.04 150
n Accept H0 Reject H0
Hence the hypothesis Ho:  = 140 will be
rejected if X < 135.1 or X > 144.9
b= P( 0.5 – 0.4793 ) = 0.0207

15
Question # 1
A random sample of size 81 is drawn from a normal population with
known s = 15, the hypothesis Ho:   70 against H1:  < 70 is tested at
a = 0.01. Compute
(i) The value of X.
(ii) b, the probability of type – II error, if  = 69, 73 and 64 are used.
Ans: Mean = 66.12, b = 0.9582, 0.9998, 0.1020
Question # 2
Given H0: 200, H1:  < 200, n = 100, a = 0.023, and s = 25.
(i) Compute the sample mean x.
(ii) Compute b if  is actually 191.
(iii) What is the power of the test in part (ii)?
(iv) What does it mean? Ans: (i) Mean = 195. (ii) b = 0.0548. (iii) power = 0.9452 (iv) Reject null hypothesis when it is false.
Question # 3
A normal distribution is known to have a variance of 2.8. A one-tailed
(increase) test is proposed of the form H0:  14 versus H1:  > 14. Find the
probability of making a Type-II error (b)with a sample of size 2 if the
significance level of the test is 0.05, when the true population mean is 16.5.
Ans: b = 0.3228.
16
Question # 4
A random sample of size 100 is drawn from a normal population with
known s = 10, the hypothesis Ho:  = 100 against H1:   100 is tested
at a = 0.05. Compute
(i) The value of 𝑋ത .
(ii) b, the probability of type – II error, if  = 105. Ans: X = 98.04 and 101.96, b = 0.0012

Question # 5
A random sample of size 4 is drawn from a normal population with
known s2 = 15, the hypothesis Ho:   30 against H1:  > 30 is tested at
a = 0.05. Compute
(i) The value of X.
(ii) b, the probability of type – II error, if  = 31, 32, 34 and 36 are used.
(iii) Also calculate the powers of the test.
Question # 6 Ans: X = 33.19, b = 0.8708, 0.7291, 0.3372, 0.0735. Power = 0.1292, 0.2709, 0.6628, 0.9265

A random sample of size 4 is drawn from a normal population with

known s2 = 15, the hypothesis Ho:   30 against H1:  < 30 is tested at
a = 0.017. Compute b, the probability of type – II error, if  = 27 17
Ans: X = 25.89, b = 0.7157
 Critical Z values
Level of One Tail Two tail Level of General Procedure for
Confidence (Zα ) (Zα/2 ) Significance Testing of Hypothesis
(1 - α) (α)
1. State the null & alternative
hypothesis and identify the
99% 2.33 2.58 0.01 claim.
98% 2.05 2.33 0.02 2. Choose level of significance.
97% 1.88 2.17 0.03 3. Compute the test value.
96% 1.75 2.05 0.04 4. Find the critical value(s) from
95% 1.65 1.96 0.05 the appropriate table. Make a
94% 1.55 1.88 0.06 rough sketch. Add critical
value(s) to your sketch.
93% 1.48 1.81 0.07
92% 1.41 1.75 0.08 5. Make the decision (conclusion)
to reject or accept the null
91% 1.34 1.70 0.09 hypothesis.
90% 1.28 1.65 0.10

If a = 0.04 and
Two tail test is
applicable then
Z a/2 = ± 2.05
Three methods used to test hypothesis are
1. Traditional Method. RR Acceptance Region RR
2. P – value Method. - 
3. Confidence Interval Method - 2.05 0 2.05
18
 Testing of Hypothesis
1. Testing Hypothesis About Population Mean. 2. Testing Hypothesis About Population Proportion.
(General Procedure). (General Procedure). (Large samples)
(i) (a) Ho :  = o and H1 :   o (Two Tailed Test) (i) (a) Ho : p = po and H1 : p  po (Two Tailed Test)
(b) Ho :   o and H1 :  > o (One Tailed Test) (b) Ho : p  po and H1 : p > po (One Tailed Test)
(c) Ho :   o and H1 :  < o (One Tailed Test) (c) Ho : p  po and H1 : p < po (One Tailed Test)
(ii) Choose the level of significance a. (ii) Choose the level of significance a.
(iii) The Test Statistic is (iii) The Test Statistic is
x-
z= (When s is known) ˆ-p
p
s z=
n ( pq)
x- n
z= (When s is unknown and n  30)
S (iv) Determine critical value(s) and add them to your
sketch.
n (v) Make the decision (conclusion) to reject or accept
(iv) Determine critical value(s) and add them to your the null hypothesis. Summarize the results.
sketch.
(v) Make the decision (conclusion) to reject or accept the
null hypothesis. Summarize the results.

19
Example: One Tail Test Example: One Tail Test

•Does an average box of cereal H0: 368

contain more than 368 grams H1:  > 368 (claim)
of cereal? A random sample of
25 boxes showed X = 372.5. a= 0.05
The company has specified s X -  372.5 - 368
Z= = = 1.50
to be 15 grams. Test at the s 15
a=0.05 level. n 25
Critical Value: Za = 1.65

- 0 1.65 +

368 gm. We will accept H0 at a = 0.05

and conclude that average box of
A bottle of milk being poured into a bowl of cereal
cereal contain maximum 368
grams of cereal.
20
Example: Two Tail Test Solution: Two Tail Test
•Does an average box of cereal H0: =368 (claim)
contains 368 grams of cereal? H1:  368
A random sample of 25 boxes
showed X = 372.5. The a= 0.01
company has specified s to be Test Statistic

15 grams. Test at the a=0.01 X -  372.5 - 368

Z= = = 1.50
level. s 15
n 25
Critical Value: Za/2 = ± 2.58

Conclusion: - - 2.58 0 2.58 +

368 gm. We will accept H0 at a = 0.01
and conclude that average box of
cereal contain 368 grams of cereal.
21
 P-Value Method
1. If P-Value  a, accept the alternative hypothesis (H1) a= 0.10
2. If P-Value > a, accept the null hypothesis (H0)
Z =1.50, From table Lookup 1.50 0.4332
(for one tail) H1:  >or H1:  < P-Value = 0.5 – 0.4332 = 0.0668 ( < a = 0.10, so we will accept H1).
(for two tail) H1:   P-Value = 2(0.5 – 0.4332) = 0.1336 ( > a = 0.10, so we will accept H0).

a= 0.10


-
0 Z

22
 Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1688 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4848 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993 23
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996
 Example: Two Tail Test
Solution: Two Tail Test
A marketing company claims that it H0: p =0.04 (claim)
receives 4% responses from its Mailing.
To test this claim, a random sample of H1: p  0.04
500 were surveyed with 25 responses. a= 0.03
Use a = 0.03 significance level.
Test Statistic
pˆ - p 0.05 - 0.04
Z= = = 1.14
( pq) 0.04  0.96
n 500
^
p = x/n = 0.05
Critical Value: Za/2 = ± 2.17

- - 2.17 +
Conclusion: 0 2.17
We will accept H0 at a = 0.03
and conclude that marketing company receives
4% response through its mailing.
24
Question # 7 Franchise Investment
You think that the average franchise investment 50 Average investment is
information given in the graph is incorrect, so 43% $143,260
41%

Percent responding
you randomly select 30 franchises and 40

determine the necessary investment for each. 30

The sample mean investment is $135,000 with a
standard deviation of $30,000. Is there enough 20
14%
evidence to support your claim at a = 0.05? Use 10
a P-value. Ans: z = - 1.51, P-value = 0.1310 Less than $100,000 Don’t know /
$100,000 and up did not answer

Question # 8
The average serum cholesterol level in a certain group
of patients is 240 milligrams. The population standard
deviation is 18 milligrams. A new medication is designed
to lower the cholesterol level if taken for one month. A
sample of 40 people used the medication for 30 days,
after which their average cholesterol level was 229
milligrams. At a = 0.01, does the medication lower the
cholesterol level of the patients?
Ans: z = - 3.87 and CR= - 2.33
25
Question # 9
A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average
age of lifeguards in Ocean city is greater than 24 years.
She selects a sample of 36 guards and finds the mean
of the sample to be 24.7 years, with a standard deviation
of 2 years. Is there evidence to support the claim at a =
0.05? Use the P-value method. Ans: z = 2.10 and p-value = 0.0179

Question # 10
A university professor claims that the average cost of a
paperback textbook is greater than $27.50. A sample of
50 books has an average cost of $29.30. The standard
deviation of the sample is $5.00. Find the P-value for
the test. On the basis of the P-value, should the null
hypothesis be rejected at a = 0.05?
Ans: z = 2.55 & P-value = 0.5 – 0.4946 = 0.0054

26
Question # 11
From past records, a hospital found that 37% babies
born in the hospital weighted more than 7 pounds 2
ounces. This year a sample of 100 babies showed that
23 weighted over 7 pounds 2 ounces. At a = 0.01, is
there enough evidence to say the percentage has
changed? Ans: z = - 2.90 and CR = ± 2.58

Question # 12
In the past, 10% of all airline passengers flew first class.
In a sample of 40 passengers, 6 flew first class. At a =
0.10, can one conclude that the proportions have
+
changed? Ans: z = 1.06 CR = - 1.65

Question # 13
An attorney claims that more than 25% of all lawyers
advertise. A sample of 200 lawyers in a certain city
showed that 63 had used some form of advertising.
At a = 0.05, is there enough evidence to support the
attorney’s claim? Use the P-value method.
Ans: z = 2.12 & P-value = 0.5 – 0.4830 = 0.0170
27
Question # 14 Power Grid

An electrical company claimed that at least

95% of the parts which they supplied on a
government contract conformed to
specifications. A sample of 400 parts was
tested, and 45 did not meet specifications. Can
we accept the company’s claim at a = 0.05
level of significance? Ans: z = - 5.74

Question # 15
A coin is tossed 900 times and heads appear 490
times. Does this result support the hypothesis that
the coin is unbiased? Use a = 0.05.
Ans: z = 2.63
Question # 16
A recent study claimed that 53.7% of 3-year-olds were given
over-the-counter drugs (such as Tylenol) in a period of 30
days. To test this claim you conduct a random telephone 166 134
survey of 300 parents of 3-years-olds. In the survey, you find
that 166 of 3-year-olds were given an over-the-counter drug
during the past 30 days. At α = 0.05, is there enough Given OTC
drugs in the
28
evidence to support the study’s findings? Ans: z = 0.54
past 30 days.
Not given OTC drugs
in the past 30 days.
Question # 17
A researcher claims that the average wind speed in a
certain city is 8 miles per hour. A sample of 32 days
has an average wind speed of 8.2 miles per hour. The
standard deviation of the population was 0.6 mile per
hour. At a = 0.05, is there enough evidence to reject
the claim? Use the P-value method.
Ans: z = 1.89 and p-value = 0.0588
Question # 18
The heights of college male students are known to be
normally distributed with a mean of 67.39 inches and
s = 1.30 inches. A random sample of 400 students
showed a mean height of 67.47 inches. Using a 0.05
significance level, test the hypothesis Ho:  ≤ 67.39
Ans: z = 1.23

29
 Table: Critical Values of t Table: Critical Values of Chi-Square (c2 )
d.f t 0.10 t 0.05 t 0.025 t 0.01 t 0.005 d.f c2 0.995 c2 0.99 c2 0.975 c2 0.95 c2 0.90 c2 0.10 c2 0.05 c2 0.025 c2 0.01 c2 0.005
1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 1 0.04393 0.03157 0.03982 0.02393 0.0158 2.71 3.84 5.02 6.63 7.88
2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.956 9.925 2 0.0100 0.0201 0.0506 0.103 0.211 4.61 5.99 7.38 9.21 10.60
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 3 0.072 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 6.25 7.81 9.35 11.34 12.84
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.064 4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.064 7.78 9.49 11.14 13.28 14.86
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 5 0.412 0.544 0.831 1.145 1.61 9.24 11.07 12.83 15.09 16.75
6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 6 0.676 0.872 1.24 1.64 2.20 10.64 15.29 14.45 16.81 18.55
7 1.415 1.895 2.356 2.998 3.499 7 0.989 1.24 1.69 2.17 2.83 12.02 14.07 16.01 18.48 20.28
8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 8 1.34 1.65 2.18 2.73 3.49 13.36 15.51 17.53 20.09 21.96
9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 9 1.73 2.09 2.70 3.33 4.17 14.68 16.92 19.02 21.67 23.59
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 10 2.16 2.56 3.25 3.94 4.87 15.99 18.31 20.48 23.21 25.19
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 11 2.60 3.05 3.82 4.57 5.58 17.28 19.68 21.92 24.73 26.76
12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 12 3.07 3.57 4.40 5.23 6.30 18.55 21.03 23.34 26.22 28.30
13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 13 3.57 4.11 5.01 5.89 7.04 19.81 22.36 24.74 27.69 29.82
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 14 4.07 4.66 5.63 6.57 7.79 21.06 23.68 26.12 29.14 31.32
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 15 4.60 5.23 6.26 7.26 8.55 23.21 25.00 27.49 30.58 32.80
16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 16 5.14 5.81 6.91 7.96 9.31 23.54 26.30 28.85 32.00 34.27
17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 17 5.70 6.41 7.56 8.67 10.09 24.77 27.59 30.19 33.41 35.72
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 18 6.26 7.01 8.23 9.39 10.86 25.99 28.87 31.53 34.81 37.16
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 19 6.84 7.63 8.91 10.12 11.65 27.20 30.14 32.85 36.19 38.58
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 20 7.43 8.26 9.59 10.85 12.44 28.41 31.41 34.17 37.57 40.00
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 21 8.03 8.90 10.28 11.59 13.24 29.62 32.67 35.48 38.93 41.40
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 22 8.64 9.54 10.98 12.34 14.04 30.81 33.92 36.78 40.29 42.80
23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 23 9.26 10.20 11.69 13.09 14.85 32.01 35.17 38.08 41.64 44.18
24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 24 9.89 10.86 12.40 13.85 15.66 33.20 36.42 39.36 42.98 45.56
25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 25 10.52 11.52 13.12 14.61 16.47 34.38 37.65 40.65 44.31 46.93
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.497 2.779 26 11.16 12.20 13.84 15.38 17.29 35.56 38.89 41.92 45.64 48.29
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 27 11.81 12.88 14.57 16.15 18.11 36.74 40.11 43.19 46.96 49.64
28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 28 12.46 13.56 15.31 16.93 18.94 37.92 41.34 44.46 48.28 50.99
29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 29 13.12 14.26 16.05 17.71 19.77 39.09 42.56 45.72 49.59 42.34
30 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 30 13.79 14.95 16.79 18.49 20.60 40.26 43.77 46.98 50.89 53.67
40 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 40 20.71 22.16 24.43 26.51 29.05 51.81 55.76 59.34 63.69 66.77
60 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 50 27.99 29.71 32.36 34.76 37.69 63.17 67.50 71.42 76.15 79.49
∞ 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 60 35.53 37.48 40.48 43.19 46.46 74.40 79.08 83.30 88.38 91.95

30
 Testing of Hypothesis
3. Testing Hypothesis About Population Mean. 4. Testing Hypothesis About Population Variance.
(General Procedure). (Small samples) (General Procedure). (Large samples)
(i) (a) Ho :  = o and H1 :   o (Two Tailed Test) (i) (a) Ho : s2 = s 02 and H1 : s2 s 0
2
(Two Tailed Test)
(b) Ho :   o and H1 :  > o (One Tailed Test) (b) Ho : s2  s 0 and H1 : s2 >s 0
2 2
(One Tailed Test)
(c) Ho :   o and H1 :  < o (One Tailed Test) (c) Ho : s  s 0 and H1 : s < s 0
2 2 2 2
(One Tailed Test)
(ii) Choose the level of significance a. (ii) Choose the level of significance a.
(iii) The Test Statistic is (iii) The Test Statistic is
x- (X - X) 2 (n - 1)s2
t= (When s is unknown and n < 30) c = 2
or
s s 2
s2
n (iv) Determine critical value(s) and add them to your
(iv) Determine critical value(s) and add them to your sketch.
sketch. (a) H1 : s2 s 0 c2 <
2 c2a and c 2 > c a2
1- (n - 1) (n - 1)
The critical region is 2 2

H1 : s2 >s 0 c > c a (n – 1)
t 2
(a) H1 :   o, | t |  a (n - 1) 2 2
(b)
2
(b) H1 :  > o, t > ta (n - 1)
c2 < c1-a (n – 1)
2
H1 : s2 < s 0
2
(c)
(c) H1 :  < o, t < – ta (n - 1)

(v) Make the decision to reject or accept the null

hypothesis. Summarize the results.
 0 
0 0 
c21 – a/2 (n – 1)

c2a (n – 1)

c21 - a (n – 1)
c2a/2 (n – 1)

(v) Make the decision to reject or accept the null 31

hypothesis. Summarize the results.
 Example: One Tail t - Test Solution: One Tail t -Test

•Does an average box of cereal H0:  368

contain less than 368 grams of H1:  < 368 (claim)

cereal? A random sample of

a= 0.05
25 boxes showed X = 372.5, Test Statistic
and s = 15 grams. Test at the X -  372.5 - 368
t= = = 1.50
a=0.05 level. s 15
n 25
Critical Value: t0.05 (24) = - 1.711

368 gm. Conclusion: - -1.711 0 +

We will accept H0 at a = 0.05

and conclude that an average box
Accept H0 at a = 0.05 of cereal contain as low as 368 32
grams of cereal.
Example: One Tail Chi-Square Test Solution: One Tail c2 -Test
An instructor wishes to see H0: s2  225
whether the variation in scores of H1: s2 < 225 (claim)
the 23 students in her class a = 0.05
is less than the variance of the (n - 1)s2
population. The variance of the c =
2

s2
class is 198. ls there enough
(23 - 1)(198)
evidence to support the claim that c2 = = 19.36
the variation of the students is 225
less than the population variance CR : c12- 0.05( 22) = c 02.95( 22) = 12.338
(s2 = 225) at a = 0.05? Assume
that the scores are normally
distributed.

0 12.338

Conclusion:
Accept the Ho. Since the test value 19.36
falls in the noncritical region, as shown in
the Figure above. Thus there is enough
evidence to reject the claim that the s2 <
225. 33
Example: One Tail Chi-Square Test Solution: One Tail c2 -Test
An instructor wishes to see H0: s2  225
whether the variation in scores of H1: s2 > 225 (claim)
the 23 students in her class a = 0.05
is greater than the variance of the (n - 1)s2
population. The variance of the c =
2

s2
class is 198. ls there enough
(23 - 1)(198)
evidence to support the claim that c2 = = 19.36
the variation of the students is 225
greater than the population CR : c 02.05( 22) = 33.924
variance (s2 = 225) at a = 0.05?
Assume that the scores are
normally distributed.
33.924 
0

Conclusion:
Accept the Ho. Since the test value 19.36
falls in the noncritical region, as shown in
the Figure above. Thus there is enough
evidence to reject the claim that the s2 >
225. 34
Example: Two Tail Chi-Square Test Solution: Two Tail c2 -Test
A cigarette manufacturer wishes H0: s2 = 0.644 (claim)
to test the claim that the variance H1: s2  0.644
of the nicotine content of its a = 0.05
cigarettes is 0.644. Nicotine (n - 1)s2
content is measured in milligrams, c =
2

s2
and assume that it is normally
(20 - 1)(1.0)
2
distributed. A sample of 20 c2 = = 29.5
cigarettes has a standard 0.644
CR : c 2 c 02.025(19) = 8.907 and 32.852
deviation 1.0 milligram. At a = 0.975(19 ) and

0.05, is there enough evidence to

reject the manufacturer’s claim?

32.852 
0 8.907

Conclusion:
Accept the Ho. Since the test value 29.5
falls in the noncritical region, as shown in
the Figure above. Thus there is enough
evidence to accept the claim that the
s2 = 0.644. 35
Question # 19
A fitness magazine advertises that the average monthly
cost of joining a health club is $25. You work for a
consumer advocacy group and are asked to test this
claim. You find that a random sample of 18 clubs has a
mean monthly cost of $26.25 and a standard deviation
of $3.23. At a = 0.10, do you have enough evidence to
reject the advertisement’s claim? Ans: t = 1.642 and CR = ± 1.740
Question # 20
A used car dealer says that the mean price of a 1995
Honda Civic car is at least $16500. You suspect this
claim is incorrect and find that a random sample of 14
similar vehicles has a mean price of $15700 and a
standard deviation of $1250. Is there enough evidence
to reject the dealer’s claim at a = 0.05? Ans: t = - 2.39 CR = -1.771
Question # 21
A person claims that the average price of a car wash
in West Newton is $3.00. A sample of five car washes
had an average price of $3.70 and a standard deviation
of $0.30 At a = 0.05, test the claim. Ans:, t = 5.22, CR = ±2.776
36
Question # 22
A new laboratory technician read a report that the
average number of students using the computer
laboratory per hour was 16. To test this hypothesis, he
selected a day at random and kept track of the number
of students who used the lab over an eight-hour period.
The results were as follows:
20, 24, 18, 16, 16, 19, 21, 23. At a = 0.05, test the claim
that the average is actually 16. Ans: X = 19.625, s = 2.97, t = 3.45
and CR = ± 2.356

Question # 23
A researcher estimates that the average height of the
buildings of 30 or more stories in a large city is at least
700 feet. A random sample of 10 buildings is selected
and the heights in feet are shown. At a = 0.025 is there
enough evidence to reject the claim? 485, 511, 841,
725, 615, 520, 535, 635, 616, 582.
Ans X = 606.5, s = 109.1, t = - 2.71 and CR = t = - 2.262

37
Question # 24
A random sample of 16 values from a normal population
gave a mean of 42 and an unbiased estimate of the
population variance s2 = 2.25. Test the hypothesis that
the mean in the population is 43.5. Use a = 0.05.
Question # 25 Ans:, t = - 4.0

The average amount of rainfall during the summer

months for the northeast part of the United States is
11.52 inches. A researcher selects a random sample of
10 cities in the northeast and finds that the average
amount of rainfall for 2012 was 7.42 inches. The
standard deviation of the sample is 1.3 inches. At a =
0.05, can it be concluded that for 2012 the mean rainfall
was below 11.52 inches? Ans: t = -9.97, CR = - 1.833
(Reject the Ho . There is enough evidence to support the claim that the rainfall is below average)

Question # 26
A rental agency claims that the average rent that
small-business establishments pay in Eagle City is $800. A
sample of 10 establishments shows an average rental rate
of $863. The standard deviation of the sample is $20. At a
= 0.05, is there evidence to reject the agency’s claim? 38
(Reject the Ho . There is enough evidence to reject the claim that the average rent that small-business establishments pay in Eagle City is $800.) Ans:, t = 9.96, CR = ± 2.262
Question # 27
A recent survey stated that the average single-person
household received at least 37 telephone calls per
month. To test the claim, a researcher surveyed 29
single-person households and found that the average
number of calls was 34.9. The standard deviation of the
sample was 6. At a = 0.05, can the claim be rejected‘?
Ans: t = - 1.89, CR = - 1.701 (Reject the Ho . There is enough evidence to reject the claim that average
household receives at least 37 telephone calls per month.)

Question # 28
A manufacturer claims that the standard deviation of the
drying time of a certain type of paint is 18 minutes. A
sample of five test panels produced a S.D. of 21 minutes.
Test the claim at a = 0.05 Ans: c = 5.44, CR = 0.484 & 11.143 2

Question # 29
Eighteen 5-gallon containers of fruit punch are
selected, and each is tested to determine its weight in
ounces. The variance of the sample is 6.5. Test the claim
that the population variance is greater than 6.2, at a = 0.01
Ans: c2 = 17.822, CR = 33.409

39
Question # 30
A researcher knows from past studies that the standard
deviation of the times it takes to inspect a car is 16.8
minutes. A sample of 24 cars is selected and inspected.
The standard deviation was 12.5 minutes. At a = 0.05,
can it be concluded that the standard deviation has
changed? Ans: c = 12.733, CR = 11.69 & 38.08
2

Question # 31
A company claims that the variance of the sugar
content of its yogurt is greater than or equal to 25. (The
sugar content is measured in milligrams per ounce.) A
sample of 20 servings is selected, and the sugar content is
measured. The variance of the sample is found to be 36.
At a = 0.10, is there enough evidence to reject the claim?
Ans: c2 = 27.36, CR = 11.651

40
 Testing of Hypothesis about Population Correlation Coefficient r = 0.

General Procedure
Test the significance of the correlation
H0: r = 0 (No linear relationship) coefficient when n = 6. Use a = 0.05
H1: r  0 (Linear relationship) and r = 0.897
Choose the level of significance a.
Test statistic is H0: r = 0
H1: r  0
t=
r n-2 level of significance a = 0.05
1- r2 Test statistic is
The critical region is defined as r n-2
t= = 4.059
ta 1- r 2
H1 : r  0, |t|  (n - 2)
2 CR: |t|  2.776
Conclusion:

- - 2.776 0 2.776 +

Conclusion:
Reject null hypothesis & conclude that
there is a significant relationship
between the variables. 41
 Purpose of Regression Testing of Hypothesis about Population
Regression Coefficient b
Regression Analysis is Used Primarily
for Prediction. (General Procedure).
A statistical model used to predict the (i) (a) Ho : b = b o and H1 : b  b o (Two Tailed Test)
values of a dependent or response variable
(b) Ho : b  b o and H1 : b > b o (One Tailed Test)
based on values of at least one independent
or explanatory variable. (c) Ho : b  b o and H1 : b < b o (One Tailed Test)
(ii) Choose the level of significance a.
• The simple linear regression model relating Y
to X is (iii) The Test Statistic is
Yi = a  bX i   i
Random Error (b - b )
t=
Dependent
Y intercept
Slope
Independent sb
(Response) Variable (Explanatory) Variable nXY - (X)( Y)
Where b = a = Y - bX
• Regression model is useful nX 2 - (X) 2
(whether the slope differs from s Y.X. Y 2 - aY - bXY
zero, i.e. b  0) sb = , s Y.X. =
Testing individual b parameter. (X - X) 2 n-2
Ho: b = 0 (parameter is not useful) or two variables ( X)2
 (X - X) = X -
2 2
are not linearly related. where
n
H1: b  0 (parameter is useful)
(iv) The critical region is defined as
(a) H1 : b  bo, |t|  t a (n - 2)
If model is Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 +  2
(b) H1 : b > bo, t > ta (n – 2)
Hypothesis for testing whether a multiple (c) H1 : b < bo, t < –ta(n – 2)
regression model is useful for predicting Y. (v) Conclusion:
Ho: b 1 = b 2 = 0 (Overall model is not useful)
H1: At least one of the model parameters, b 1 or b 2
differs from zero. (Overall model is useful) 42
A random sample of 27 pairs of observations
from a bivariate normal population gave a co-
efficient of correlation of 0.30. Is it consistent
Find the linear regression equation from
with the hypothesis that the coefficient of
correlation in the population is zero? Use 5% the following data.
level of significance. Answer: t = 1.58
CR: |t|  2.06 X 65 50 55 65 55 70 65 70 55 70 50 55
A random sample of 20 pairs of
Conclusion: Y 85 74 76 90 85 87 94 98 81 91 76 74
observations gives a co-efficient of Test the hypothesis that b > 0 at a = 0.01.
correlation of 0.45. Test the hypothesis at a
= 0.05 that the correlation co-efficient in the
Answer: t = 2.14
population is zero.
CR: |t|  2.10
Solving the above data the equation of
Conclusion:
On the basis of a sample of size 20 a regression line is Y = 30.043 + 0.897 X.
regression equation of Y on X was found to be sb = 0.167
is Y = 12.13 – 0.1608 X. If s2b = 0.0406, test the
hypothesis that the population regression Ho : b  0
coefficient at 5% level of significance is H1 : b > 0 (claim)
(i) as low as 0.1510 (ii) as high as 1.0051 a = 0.01.
Ans (i) t = - 1.55 (ii) t = - 5.78
(b - b )
Suppose you fit the first-order multiple t= = 5.37
regression model y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 +  to sb
n = 25 data points and obtain the prediction CR: t > t0.01 (10) = 2.764
equation ŷ = 6.4 + 3.1x1 + 0.92x2 Conclusion: Reject null hypothesis …..
The estimated standard deviations of the
sampling distributions of b1 b2 are 2.3 and
0.27 respectively.
(i) Test b1 > 0. Use a = 0.05
(ii) Test b2  0. Use a = 0.05
Answer: (i) t = 1.348, CR: t > 1.717, d.f = 25 – 3 = 22 Conclusion:
43
(ii) t = 3.407 CR: |t|  2.074 Conclusion:
The data given below represent the heights (X) and the weights (Y) of five girls.
Use 5% level of significance and assuming normality,
X 60 62 65 70 72
Y 130 135 158 170 185
(i) Test the regression model is useful.
(ii) Test the hypothesis that b  6
Answer: a = - 137.87, b = 4.46, sb = 0.483

(i) t = 9.23, CR: t 0.025(3) = 3.18 (ii) t = - 3.188,

From 10 pairs of values, the following

quantities are calculated:
X = 311, Y = 310.1, XY = 10074
X2 = 10100, Y2 = 10055.09.
Test the hypothesis that b 1 at a = 0.05
Answer: a = - 0.2362, b = 1.0047, sb = 0.0447, t = 0.11, CR: t 0.025(8) = 2.306

From 10 pairs of values, the following

quantities are calculated:
X = 320, Y = 250, XY = 9415, X2 = 12400,
Y2 = 7230.
Test the hypothesis that b is greater than 0.4
at a = 0.05
Answer: a = 4.04, b = 0.655, sb = 0.055, t = 4.64, CR: t 0.05(8) = 1.86

From the following data test b > 1.2 use a = 0.05

X 1 2 3 4
Y 6 6 8 10 44
Answer: a = 4, b = 1.4, sb = 0.346, t = 0.578, CR: t 0.05(2) = 2.92 Accept H0
 Testing the Significance of R

General Procedure
H0: r1.234….k = 0 (where ρ represents the population Test the significance of the R
correlation coefficient for multiple when n = 5 and k = 2. Use a =
correlation.) 0.05 and R2 = 0.978
H1: r 1.234….k  0
H0: r 1.23 = 0
Choose the level of significance a.
H1: r 1.23  0
Test statistic is 2 level of significance a = 0.05
R 1.234... k / k
F= Test statistic is
(1 - R 21.234... k ) / (n - k - 1) R 21.23 / k
F= = 44.45
where n is the number of data groups (1 - R 21.23 ) / ( n - k - 1)
(x1, x2, .... y) and k is the number of CR: F  F (2, 2) 0.05 = 19.00
independent variables. Conclusion:
Reject null hypothesis & conclude that
The d.f are ʋ1 = k and ʋ2 = n – k – 1) there is a significant relationship
Conclusion: between the variables.

This test is equivalent to testing the hypothesis Ho: b1 = b2 = bk = 0 simultaneously. A test of such a
hypothesis is also called a test of the overall significance of the estimated multiple regression.

R2 is the coefficient of multiple determination, and it is the amount of variation explained by the
regression model. The expression 1 – R2 represents the amount of unexplained variations, called the
error or residual variation. If R = 0.989, R2 = 0.978 and 1 - R2 = 1 – 0.978 = 0.022. 45
Question # 40
The marks in QTR (Y) are expressed as a function of marks
in TQM (X1) statistics (X2) and intelligence tests (X3). For a
random sample of 44 students, the multiple correlation co-
efficient Ry.123 was found to be 0.582. Test the hypothesis
that the multiple correlation co-efficient in the population is
zero. Let a = 0.05 Ans: F = 6.83, k = 3, CR = F = 2.84
0.05(3, 40)

Question # 41
In a sample of 20 sets of values from a trivariate normal
population, R1.23 was found to be 0.35. Test the hypothesis
at the 0.05 level of significance that the multiple correlation
co-efficient in the population between X1 and the variables
X2 and X3 is zero. Ans: F = 1.19, k = 2, CR = F = 3.590.05(2, 17)

Question # 42
In a sample of 25 sets of values from a quadrivariate
normal population, R1.234 was found to be 0.4. Test the
hypothesis at the 0.05 level of significance that the
multiple correlation co-efficient in the population between
X1 and the variables X2, X3 and X4 is zero.
Ans: F = 1.33, k = 3, CR = F0.05(3, 21) = 3.07 46
 Formula for the adjusted R2

 (1 - R 2)(n - 1) 
R 2adj =1 -  
 ( n - k - 1) 
Both R2 and R2adj are usually reported in a multiple regression.

Calculate the adjusted R2 when n = 5 and k = 2 and R = 0.989

 (1 - 0.9892)(5 - 1) 
R 2adj =1 -   = 0.956
 (5 - 2 - 1) 

47
Question # 11: Explain the meaning of multiple correlation coefficient, R.
Ans: R is a measure of the strength of the relationship between the
depended variable and all the independent variables.
Question # 12: What is the range of values R can assume?
Ans: 0 to +1
Question # 13: Define R² and R²adj.
Ans: R2 is the coefficient of multiple determination. R²adj is adjusted
for sample size.
Question # 14: What are the hypotheses used to test the significance of R?
Ans: H₀:ρ1.2345….k = 0 and H₁:ρ1.2345….k ≠ 0
Question # 15: What is the test used to test the significance of R?
Ans: The F test is used to test the significance of R.
Question # 16: What is the meaning of adjusted R2? Why is it computed?
Ans: The adjusted R2 is the adjusted coefficient of multiple
determination. The adjusted R² is usually smaller than R2
and is better estimate because R2 can be artificially high
when n ≈ k (where n is the number of data groups (x1, x2, .... y)
and k is the number of independent variables).
48
 PRACTICE
( Basic Skills & Concepts )
• What is the critical t-value for a two-tailed test when
a = 0.01 and n = 4 (a) 5.841 (b) 4.541 (c) 2.353
(a)

• What is the P-value, based on two tailed test if

Z = –2.12 at a = 0.05.? (a) 0.0340 (b) 0.0170 (c) 0.4830
(a)

PRACTICE
Complete the following statements
1. Type I
1. Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is called a ______________. 2. n–1
3. Hypothesis
2. The degrees of freedom for chi-square test are ____________. 4. b

3. Stating the __________ in the first step used in hypothesis testing.

4. The probability of committing a type II error is symbolized by ______.

49
Explain the following:
1. Type I and Type II Error
2. Test Statistic
3. Region of Rejection and Region of Acceptance
4. Powerful Test
5. Test of Significance
6. OC Curve
7. Null and Alternative Hypothesis
8. General Procedure for Testing of Hypothesis
9. One Tailed & Two Tailed Tests
10. How is the Type – I error is related to Type – II error? Are
Type – I and Type – II errors such that a + b = 1?

50
 Table: CRITICAL VALUES OF F - Test

a= 0.05
Denominator n 2

Numerator n1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30
1 161.4 199.5 215.7 224.6 230.2 234.0 236.8 238.9 240.5 241.9 243.9 245.9 248.0 249.1 250.1
2 18.51 19.00 19.16 19.25 19.30 19.33 19.35 19.37 19.38 19.40 19.41 19.43 19.45 19.45 19.46
3 10.13 9.55 9.28 9.12 9.01 8.94 8.89 8.85 8.81 8.79 8.74 8.70 8.66 8.64 8.62
4 7.71 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 6.09 6.04 6.00 5.96 5.91 5.86 5.80 5.77 5.75
5 6.61 5.79 5.41 5.19 5.05 4.95 4.88 4.82 4.77 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.56 4.53 4.50
6 5.99 5.14 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28 4.21 4.15 4.10 4.06 4.00 3.94 3.87 3.84 3.81
7 5.59 4.74 4.35 4.12 3.97 3.87 3.79 3.73 3.68 3.64 3.57 3.51 3.44 3.41 3.38
8 5.32 4.46 4.07 3.84 3.69 3.58 3.50 3.44 3.39 3.35 3.28 3.22 3.15 3.12 3.08
9 5.12 4.26 3.86 3.63 3.48 3.37 3.29 3,23 3.18 3.14 3.07 3.01 2.94 2.90 2.86
10 4.96 4.10 3.71 3.48 3.33 3.22 3.14 3.07 3.02 2.98 2.91 2.85 2.77 2.74 2.70
11 4.84 3.98 3.59 3.36 3.20 3.09 3.01 2.95 2.90 2.85 2.79 2.72 2.65 2.61 2.57
12 4.75 3.89 3.49 3.26 3.11 3.00 2.91 2.85 2.80 2.75 2.69 2.62 2.54 2.51 2.47
13 4.67 3.81 3.41 3.18 3.03 2.92 2.83 2.77 2.71 2.67 2.60 2.53 2.46 2.42 2.38
14 4.60 3.74 3.34 3.11 2.96 2.85 2.76 2.70 2.65 2.60 2.53 2.46 2.39 2.35 2.31
15 4.54 3.68 3.29 3.06 2.90 2.79 2.71 2.64 2.59 2.54 2.48 2.40 2.33 2.29 2.25
16 4.49 3.63 3.24 3.01 2.85 2.74 2.66 2.59 2.54 2.49 2.42 2.35 2.28 2.24 2.19
17 4.45 3.59 3.20 2.96 2.81 2.70 2.61 2.55 2.49 2.45 2.38 2.31 2.23 2.19 2.15
18 4.41 3.55 3.16 2.93 2.77 2.66 2.58 2.51 2.46 2.41 2.34 2.27 2.19 2.15 2.11
19 4.38 3.52 3.13 2.90 2.74 2.63 2.54 2.48 2.42 2.38 2.31 2.23 2.16 2.11 2.07
20 4.35 3.49 3.10 2.87 2.71 2.60 2.51 2.45 2.39 2.35 2.28 2.20 2.12 2.08 2.04
21 4.32 3.47 3.07 2.84 2.68 2.57 2.49 2.42 2.37 2.32 2.25 2.18 2.10 2.05 2.01
22 4.30 3.44 3.05 2.82 2.66 2.55 2.46 2.40 2.34 2.30 2.23 2.15 2.07 2.03 1.98
23 4.28 3.42 3.03 2.80 2.64 2.53 2.44 2.37 2.32 2.27 2.20 2.13 2.05 2.01 1.96
24 4.26 3.40 3.01 2.78 2.62 2.51 2.42 2.36 2.30 2.25 2.18 2.11 2.03 1.98 1.94
25 4.24 3.39 2.99 2.76 2.60 2.49 2.40 2.34 2.28 2.24 2.16 2.09 2.01 1.96 1.92
26 4.23 3.37 2.98 2.74 2.59 2.47 2.39 2.32 2.27 2.22 2.15 2.07 1.99 1.95 1.90
27 4.21 3.35 2.96 2.73 2.57 2.46 2.37 2.31 2.25 2.20 2.13 2.06 1.97 1.93 1.88
28 4.20 3.34 2.95 2.71 2.56 2.45 2.36 2.29 2.24 2.19 2.12 2.04 1.96 1.91 1.87
29 4.18 3.33 2.93 2.70 5.55 2.43 2.35 2.28 2.22 2.2.18 2.10 2.03 1.94 1.90 1.85
30 4.17 3.32 2.92 2.69 2.53 2.42 2.33 2.27 2.21 2.2.16 2.09 2.01 1.93 1.89 1.84
40 4.08 3.23 2.84 2.61 2.45 2.34 2.25 2.18 2.12 2.2.08 2.00 1.92 1.84 1.79 1.74
60 4.00 3.15 2.76 2.53 2.37 2.25 2.17 2.10 2.04 1.99 1.92 1.84 1.75 1.70 1.65
120 3.92 3.07 2.68 2.45 2.29 2.17 2.09 2.02 1.96 1.91 1.83 1.75 1.66 1.61 1.55
∞ 3.84 3.00 2.60 2.37 2.21 2.10 2.01 1.94 1.88 1.83 1.75 1.67 1.57 1.52 1.46
51
 Denominator n 2 a= 0.025

Numerator n1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30
1 647.8 799.5 846.2 899.6 921.8 937.1 948.2 956.7 963.3 968.6 976.7 984.9 933.9 997.2 1001
2 38.51 39.00 39.17 39.25 39.30 39.33 39.36 39.37 39.39 39.40 39.41 39.43 39.45 39.46 39.46
3 17.44 16.04 15.44 15.10 14.88 14.73 14.62 14.54 14.47 14.42 14.34 14.25 14.17 14.12 14.08
4 12.22 10.65 9.98 9.60 9.36 9.20 9.07 8.98 8.90 8.84 8.75 8.86 8.56 8.51 8.46
5 10.01 8.43 7.76 7.39 7.15 6.98 6.85 6.76 6.68 6.62 6.52 6.43 6.33 6.28 6.23
6 8.81 7.26 6.60 6.23 5.99 5.82 5.70 5.60 5.52 5.46 5.37 5.27 5.17 5.12 5.07
7 8.07 6.54 5.89 5.52 5.29 5.12 4.99 4.90 4.82 4.76 4.67 4.57 4.47 4.42 4.36
8 7.57 6.06 5.42 5.05 4.82 4.65 4.53 4.43 4.36 4.30 4.20 4.10 4.00 3.95 3.89
9 7.21 5.71 5.08 4.72 4.48 4.32 4.20 4.10 4.03 3.96 3.87 3.77 3.67 3.61 3.56
10 6.94 5.46 4.83 4.47 4.24 4.07 3.95 3.85 3.78 3.72 3.62 3.52 3.42 3.37 3.31
11 6.72 5.26 4.63 4.28 4.04 3.88 3.76 3.66 3.59 3.53 3.43 3.33 3.23 3.17 3.12
12 6.55 5.10 4.47 4.12 3.89 3.73 3.61 3.51 3.44 3.37 3.28 3.18 3.07 3.02 2.96
13 6.41 4.97 4.35 4.00 3.77 3.60 3.48 3.39 3.31 3.25 3.15 3.05 2.95 2.89 2.84
14 6.30 4.86 4.24 3.89 3.66 3.50 3.38 3.29 3.21 3.15 3.05 2.95 2.84 2.79 2.73
15 6.20 4.77 4.15 3.80 3.58 3.41 3.29 3.20 3.12 3.06 2.96 2.86 2.76 2.70 2.64
16 6.12 4.69 4.08 3.73 3.50 3.34 3.22 3.12 3.05 2.99 2.89 2.79 2.68 2.63 2.57
17 6.04 4.62 4.01 3.66 3.44 3.28 3.16 3.06 2.98 2.92 2.82 2.72 2.62 2.56 2.50
18 5.98 4.56 3.95 3.61 3.38 3.22 3.10 3.01 2.93 2.87 2.77 2.67 2.56 2.50 2.44
19 5.92 4.51 3.90 3.56 3.33 3.17 3.05 2.96 2.88 2.82 2.72 2.62 2.51 2.45 2.39
20 5.87 4.46 3.86 3.51 3.29 3.13 3.01 2.91 2.84 2.77 2.68 2.57 2.46 2.41 2.35
21 5.83 4.42 3.82 3.48 3.25 3.09 2.97 2.87 2.80 2.73 2.64 2.53 2.42 2.37 2.31
22 5.79 4.38 3.78 3.44 3.22 3.05 3.93 2.84 2.76 2.70 2.60 2.50 2.39 2.33 2.27
23 5.75 4.35 3.75 3.41 3.18 3.02 2.90 2.81 2.73 2.67 2.57 2.47 2.36 2.30 2.24
24 5.72 4.32 3.72 3.38 3.15 2.99 2.87 2.78 2.70 2.64 2.54 2.44 2.33 2.27 2.21
25 5.69 4.29 3.69 3.35 3.13 2.97 2.85 2.75 2.68 2.61 2.51 2.41 2.30 2.24 2.18
26 5.66 4.27 3.67 3.33 3.10 2.94 2.82 2.73 2.65 2.59 2.49 2.39 2.28 2.22 2.16
27 5.63 4.24 3.65 3.31 3.08 2.92 2.80 2.71 2.63 2.57 2.47 2.36 2.25 2.19 2.13
28 5.61 4.22 3.63 3.29 3.06 2.90 2.78 2.69 2.61 2.55 2.45 2.34 2.23 2.17 2.11
29 5.59 4.20 3.61 3.27 3.04 2.88 2.76 2.67 2.59 2.53 2.43 2.32 2.21 2.15 2.09
30 5.57 4.18 3.59 3.25 3.03 2.87 2.75 2.65 2.57 2.51 2.41 2.31 2.20 2.14 2.07
40 5.42 4.05 3.46 3.13 2.90 2.74 2.62 2.53 2.45 2.39 2.29 3.18 2.07 2.01 1.94
60 5.29 3.93 3.34 3.01 2.79 2.63 2.51 2.41 2.33 2.27 2.17 2.06 1.94 1.88 1.82
120 5.15 3.80 3.23 2.89 2.67 2.52 2.39 2.30 2.22 2.16 2.05 1.94 1.82 1.76 1.69
∞ 5.02 3.69 3.12 2.79 2.57 2.51 2.29 2.19 2.11 2.05 2.94 1.83 1.71 1.64 1.57

52
 a= 0.10
Denominator n 2

Numerator n1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30
1 39.86 49.50 53.59 55.83 57.24 58.20 58.91 59.44 59.86 60.19 60.71 61.22 61.74 62.00 62.26
2 8.53 9.00 9.16 9.24 9.29 9.33 9.35 9.37 9.38 9.39 9.41 9.42 9.44 9.45 9.46
3 5.54 5.56 5.39 5.34 5.31 5.28 5.27 5.25 5.24 5.23 5.22 5.20 5.18 5.18 5.17
4 4.54 4.32 4.19 4.11 4.05 4.01 3.98 3.95 3.94 3.92 3.90 3.87 3.84 3.83 3.82
5 4.06 3.78 3.62 3.52 3.45 3.40 3.37 3.34 3.32 3.30 3.27 3.24 3.21 3.19 3.17
6 3.78 3.46 3.29 3.18 3.11 3.05 3.01 2.98 2.96 2.94 2.90 2.87 2.84 2.82 2.80
7 3.59 3.26 3.07 2.96 2.88 2.83 2.78 2.72 2.75 2.70 2.67 2.63 2.59 2.58 2.56
8 3.46 3.11 2.92 2.81 2.73 2.67 2.62 2.59 2.56 2.54 2.50 2.46 2.42 2.40 2.38
9 3.36 3.01 2.81 2.69 2.61 2.55 2.51 2.47 2.44 2.42 2.38 2.34 2.30 2.28 2.25
10 3.29 3.92 2.73 2.61 2.52 2.46 2.41 2.38 2.35 2.32 2.28 2.24 2.20 2.18 2.16
11 3.23 2.86 2.66 2.54 2.45 2.39 2.34 2.30 2.27 2.25 2.21 2.17 2.12 2.10 2.08
12 3.18 2.81 2.61 2.48 2.39 2.33 2.28 2.24 2.21 2.19 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.04 2.01
13 3.14 2.76 2.56 2.43 2.35 2.28 2.23 2.20 2.16 2.14 2.10 2.05 2.01 1.98 1.96
14 3.10 2.73 2.52 2.39 2.31 2.24 2.19 2.15 2.12 2.10 2.05 2.01 1.96 1.94 1.91
15 3.07 2.70 2.49 2.36 2.27 2.21 2.16 2.12 2.09 2.06 2.02 1.97 1.92 1.90 1.87
16 3.05 2.67 2.46 2.33 2.24 2.18 2.13 2.09 2.06 2.03 1.99 1.94 1.89 1.87 1.84
17 3.03 2.64 2.44 2.31 2.22 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.03 2.00 1.96 1.91 1.86 1.84 1.81
18 3.01 2.62 2.42 2.29 2.20 2.13 2.08 2.04 2.00 1.98 1.93 1.89 1.84 1.81 1.78
19 2.99 2.61 2.40 2.27 2.18 2.11 2.06 2.02 1.98 1.96 1.91 1.86 1.81 1.79 1.76
20 2.97 2.59 2.38 2.25 2.16 2.09 2.04 2.00 1.96 1.94 1.89 1.84 1.79 1.77 1.74
21 2.96 2.57 2.36 2.23 2.14 2.08 2.01 1.98 1.95 1.92 1.87 1.83 1.78 1.75 1.72
22 2.95 2.56 2.35 2.22 2.13 2.06 2.01 1.97 1.93 1.90 1.86 1.81 1.76 1.73 1.70
23 2.94 2.55 2.34 2.21 2.11 2.05 1.99 1.95 1.92 1.89 1.84 1.80 1.74 1.72 1.69
24 2.93 2.54 2.33 2.19 2.10 2.04 1.98 1.94 1.91 1.88 1.83 1.78 1.73 1.70 1.67
25 2.92 2.53 2.32 2.18 2.18 2.02 1.97 1.93 1.89 1.87 1.82 1.77 1.72 1.69 1.66
26 2.91 2.52 2.31 2.17 2.08 2.01 1.96 1.92 1.88 1.86 1.81 1.76 1.71 1.68 1.65
27 2.90 2.51 2.30 2.17 2.07 2.00 1.95 1.91 1.87 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.70 1.67 1.64
28 2.89 2.50 2.29 2.16 2.06 2.00 1.94 1.90 1.87 184 1.79 1.74 1.69 1.66 1.63
29 2.89 2.50 2.28 2.15 2.06 199 1.93 1.89 1.86 1.83 1.78 1.73 1.68 1.65 1.62
30 2.88 2.49 2.28 2.14 2.05 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.85 1.82 1.77 1.72 1.67 1.64 1.61
40 2.84 2.44 2.23 2.09 2.00 1.93 1.87 1.83 1.79 1.76 1.71 1.66 1.61 1.57 1.54
60 2.79 2.39 2.18 2.04 1.95 1.87 1.82 1.77 1.74 1.71 1.66 160 1.54 1.51 1.48
120 2.75 2.35 2.13 1.99 1.90 1.82 1.77 1.72 1.68 1.65 1.60 1.55 1.48 1.45 1.41
∞ 2.71 2.30 2.08 1.94 1.85 1.77 1.72 1.67 1.63 1.60 1.55 1.49 1.42 1.38 1.34
53
 a= 0.01
Denominator n 2

Numerator n1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30
1 4052 4999.5 5403 5625 5764 5859 5928 5982 6022 6056 6106 6157 6209 6235 6261
2 98.50 99.00 99.17 99.25 99.30 99.33 99.36 99.37 99.39 99.40 99.42 99.43 99.45 99.46 99.47
3 34.12 30.82 29.46 28.71 28.24 27.91 27.67 27.49 27.35 27.23 27.05 26.87 26.69 26.60 26.50
4 21.20 18.00 16.69 15.98 15.52 15.21 14.98 14.80 14.66 14.55 14.37 14.20 14.02 13.93 13.84
5 16.26 13.27 12.06 11.39 10.97 10.67 10.46 10.29 10.16 10.05 9.89 9.72 9.55 9.47 9.38
6 13.75 10.92 9.78 9.15 8.75 8.47 8.26 8.10 7.98 7.87 7.72 7.56 7.40 7.31 7.23
7 12.25 9.55 8.45 7.85 7.46 7.19 6.99 6.84 6.72 6.62 6.47 6.31 6.16 6.07 5.99
8 11.26 8.65 7.59 7.01 6.63 6.37 6.18 6.03 5.91 5.81 5.67 5.52 5.36 5.28 5.20
9 10.56 8.02 6.99 6.42 6.06 5.80 5.61 5.47 5.35 5.26 5.11 4.96 5.81 4.73 4.65
10 10.04 7.56 6.55 5.99 5.64 5.39 5.20 5.06 4.94 4.85 4.71 4.56 4.41 4.33 4.25
11 9.65 7.21 6.22 5.67 5.32 5.07 4.89 4.74 4.63 4.54 4.40 4.25 4.10 4.02 3.94
12 9.33 6.93 5.95 5.41 5.06 4.82 4.64 4.50 4.39 4.30 4.16 4.01 3.86 3.78 3.70
13 9.07 6.90 5.74 5.21 4.86 4.62 4.44 4.30 4.19 4.10 3.96 3.82 3.66 3.59 3.51
14 8.86 6.51 5.56 5.04 4.69 4.46 4.28 4.14 4.03 3.94 3.80 3.66 3.51 3.43 3.35
15 8.68 6.36 5.42 4.89 4.56 4.32 4.14 4.00 3.89 3.80 3.67 3.52 3.37 3.29 3.21
16 8.53 6.23 5.29 4.77 4.44 4.20 4.03 3.89 3.78 3.69 3.55 3.41 3.26 3.18 3.10
17 8.40 6.11 5.18 4.67 4.34 4.10 3.93 3.79 3.68 3.59 3.46 3.31 3.16 3.08 3.00
18 8.29 6.01 5.09 4.58 4.25 4.01 3.84 3.71 3.60 3.51 3.37 3.23 3.08 3.00 2.92
19 8.18 5.93 5.01 4.50 4.17 3.94 3.77 3.63 3.52 3.43 3.30 3.15 3.00 2.92 2.84
20 8.10 5.85 4.94 4.43 4.10 3.87 3.70 3.56 3.46 3.37 3.23 3.09 2.94 2.86 2.78
21 8.02 5.78 4.87 4.37 4.04 3.81 3.64 3.51 3.40 3.31 3.17 3.03 2.88 2.80 2.72
22 7.95 5.72 4.82 4.31 3.99 3.76 3.59 3.45 3.35 3.26 3.12 2.98 2.83 2.75 2.67
23 7.88 5.66 4.76 4.26 3.94 3.71 3.54 3.41 3.30 3.21 3.07 2.93 2.78 2.70 2.62
24 7.82 5.61 4.72 4.22 3.90 3.67 3.50 3.36 3.26 3.17 3.03 2.89 2.74 2.66 2.58
25 7.77 5.77 4.68 4.18 3.85 3.63 3.46 3.32 3.22 3.13 2.99 2.85 2.70 2.62 2.54
26 7.72 5.53 4.64 4.14 3.82 3.59 3.42 3.29 3.18 3.09 2.96 2.81 2.66 2.58 2.50
27 7.68 5.49 4.60 4.11 3.78 3.56 3.39 3.26 3.15 3.06 2.93 2.78 2.63 2.55 2.47
28 7.64 5.45 4.57 4.07 3.75 3.53 3.36 3.23 3.12 3.03 2.90 2.75 2.60 2.52 2.44
29 7.60 5.42 4.54 4.04 3.73 3.50 3.33 3.20 3.09 3.00 2.87 2.730 2.57 2.49 2.41
30 7.56 5.39 4051 4.02 3.70 3.47 3.30 3.17 3.07 2.98 2.84 2.70 2.55 2.47 2.39
40 7.31 5.18 4.31 3.83 3.51 3.29 3.12 2.99 2.89 2.80 2.66 2.52 2.37 2.29 2.20
60 7.08 4.98 4.13 3.65 3.34 3.12 2.95 2.82 2.75 2.63 2.50 2.35 2.20 2.12 2.03
120 6.85 4.79 3.95 3.48 3.17 2.96 2.79 2.66 2.56 2.47 2.34 2.19 2.03 1.95 1.86
∞ 6.63 4.61 3.78 3.32 3.02 2.80 2.64 2.51 2.41 2.32 2.18 2.04 1.88 1.79 1.70
54
 a= 0.005
Denominator n 2

Numerator n1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30
1 16211 20000 21615 22500 23056 23437 23715 23925 24091 24224 24426 24630 24836 24940 25044
2 198.5 190.0 199.2 199.2 199.3 199.3 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.5 199.5
3 55.55 49.80 47.47 46.19 45.39 44.84 44.43 44.13 43.88 43.69 43.39 43.08 42.78 42.62 42.47
4 31.33 26.28 24.26 23.15 22.46 21.97 21.62 21.35 21.14 20.97 20.70 20.44 20.17 20.03 19.89
5 22.78 18.31 16.53 15.56 14.94 14.51 14.20 13.96 13.77 13.62 13.38 13.15 12.90 12.78 12.66
6 18.63 14.54 12.92 12.03 11.46 11.07 10.79 10.57 10.39 10.25 10.03 9.81 9.59 9.47 9.36
7 16.24 12.40 10.88 10.05 9.52 9.16 8.89 8.68 8.51 8.38 8.18 7.97 7.75 7.65 7.53
8 14.69 11.04 9.60 8.81 8.30 7.95 7.69 7.50 7.34 7.21 7.01 6.81 6.61 6.50 6.40
9 13. 61 10.11 8.72 7.96 7.47 7.13 6.88 6.69 6.54 6.42 6.23 6.03 5.83 5.73 5.62
10 12.83 9.43 8.08 7.34 6.87 6.54 6.30 6.12 5.97 5.85 5.66 5.47 5.27 5.17 5.07
11 12.23 8.91 7.60 6.88 6.42 6.10 5.86 5.68 5.54 5.42 5.24 5.05 4.86 4.76 4.65
12 11.75 8.51 7.23 6.52 6.07 5.76 5.52 5.35 5.20 5.09 4.91 4.72 4.53 4.43 4.33
13 11.37 8.19 6.93 6.23 5.79 5.48 5.25 5.08 4.94 4.82 4.64 4.46 4.27 4.17 4.07
14 11.06 7.92 6.68 6.00 5.59 5.26 5.03 4.86 4.72 4.60 4.43 4.25 4.06 3.96 3.86
15 10.80 7.70 6.48 5.80 5.37 5.07 4.85 4.67 4.54 4.42 4.25 4.07 3.88 3.79 3.69
16 10.58 7.51 6.30 5.64 5.21 4.91 4.69 4.52 4.38 4.27 4.10 3.92 3.73 3.64 3.44
17 10.38 7.35 6.16 5.30 5.07 4.78 4.56 4.39 4.25 4.14 3.97 3.79 3.61 3.51 3.41
18 10.22 7.21 6.03 5.37 4.96 4.66 4.44 4.28 4.14 4.03 3.86 3.68 3.50 3.40 3.30
19 10.07 7.09 5.92 5.27 4.85 4.56 4.34 4.18 4.08 3.93 3.76 3.59 3.40 3.31 3.21
20 9.94 6.99 5.82 5.17 4.76 4.47 4.26 4.09 3.96 3.85 3.68 3.50 3.32 3.32 3.12
21 9.83 6.89 5.73 5.09 4.68 4.39 4.18 4.01 3.88 3.77 3.60 3.43 3.24 3.15 3.05
22 9.73 6.81 5.65 5.02 4.61 4.32 4.11 3.94 3.81 3.70 3.54 3.36 3.18 3.08 2.98
23 9.63 9.73 5.58 4.95 4.54 4.26 4.05 3.88 3.75 3.64 3.47 3.30 3.12 3.02 2.92
24 9.55 6.66 5.52 4.89 4.49 4.20 3.99 3.83 3.69 3.59 3.42 3.25 3.06 2.97 2.87
25 9.48 6.60 5.46 4.84 4.43 4.15 3.94 3.78 3.64 3.54 3.37 3.20 3.01 2.92 2.72
26 9.41 6.54 5.41 4.79 4.38 4.10 3.89 3.73 3.60 3.49 3.33 3.15 2.97 2.87 2.77
27 9.34 6.49 5.36 4.74 4.34 4.06 3.85 3.69 3.56 3.45 3.28 3.11 2.93 2.83 2.73
28 9.28 6.44 5.32 4.70 4.30 4.02 3.81 3.65 3.52 3.41 3.25 3.07 2.89 2.79 2.69
29 9.23 6.40 5.28 4.66 4.26 3.98 3.77 3.61 3.48 3.38 3.21 3.04 2.86 2.76 2.66
30 9.18 6.35 5.24 4.62 4.23 3.95 3.74 3.58 3.45 3.34 3.18 3.01 2.82 2.73 2.63
40 8.83 6.07 4.98 4.37 3.99 3.71 3.51 3.35 3.32 3.12 2.95 2.78 2.60 2.50 2.40
60 8.49 5.79 4.73 4.14 3.76 3.49 3.29 3.13 3.01 2.90 2.74 2.57 2.39 2.29 2.19
120 8.18 5.54 4.50 3.92 3.55 3.28 3.09 2.93 2.81 2.71 2.54 2.37 2.19 2.09 1.98
∞ 7.88 5.30 4.88 3.72 3.35 3.09 2.90 2.74 2.62 2.52 2.36 2.19 2.00 1.90 1.79
55
 CRITICAL THINKING PROBLEM
( No # 1 )

EGGS AND YOUR HEALTH

Answer the questions about the following information.
The Incredible Edible Egg company recently found that eating eggs does not increase a
person’s blood serum cholesterol. Five hundred subjects participated in a study that
lasted for two years. The participants were randomly assigned to either a no-egg group
or a moderate-egg group. The blood serum cholesterol levels were checked at the
beginning and at the end of the study. Overall, the groups levels were not significantly
different. The company reminds us that eating eggs is healthy if done in moderation.
Many of the previous studies relating eggs and high blood serum cholesterol jumped to
improper conclusions.
1. What prompted the study? 1. Studies linking foods high in cholesterol to high blood serum cholesterol.

2. What is the population under study? 2. People in general.

3. Yes, 500 subjects.
3. Was a sample collected? 4. Eating eggs did not increase blood serum cholesterol.
4. What was the hypothesis? 5. Blood serum cholesterol levels were collected.

5. Was data collected? 6. Probably large sample dependent Z-test.

7. Eating a moderate amount of eggs will not significantly increase your blood-serum
6. Were any statistical tests run? cholesterol level. 56
7. What was the conclusion?
Salt Doctor taking patient's blood
Shaker pressure CRITICAL THINKING PROBLEM
( No # 2 )

SALT AND BLOOD PRESSURE

Salt is bad for your blood
pressure & health.

You are trying to watch your diet and a friend of yours reminds you that salt is bad for
your health. You decide to look up some of the most recent research on salt intake. You
find that the majority of recent articles show that salt intake studies compare amount of
intake to blood pressure. Also, most of them show reducing salt intake is of little benefit
to people with normal blood pressure. Some of the studies showed that people with high
blood pressure over the age of 45 can reduce the blood pressure slightly by reducing
their salt intake. Answer the questions about the following information.

1. How many variables were studied? 1. Two

2. What were the variables under study? 2. Salt intake and blood pressure.

3. Are the variables quantitative or qualitative? 3. Both quantitative

4. Both continuous.
4. Are they discrete or continuous? 5. Simple
5. Is it a simple relationship or multiple relationship? 6. Positive

6. Is it a positive relationship or negative relationship? 7. High blood pressure can be reduce by reducing the salt
intake.
7. What are your conclusions about the relationship
between salt and high blood pressure? 57
 Paris Hilton
CRITICAL THINKING PROBLEM
( No # 3 )
Polo

MEN’S FRAGRANCES
Men’s Fragrances Price($)
You are looking for a men’s fragrance and Paris Hilton 15.95
believe that you will have to spend about $20 Polo 12.94
for one of your popular brands. You decide Lancer 4.25
to look up prices on the internet to help you Eternity for Men 11.95
make a decision on which one to buy. Since Realm for Men 27.50
price is a major concern, you decide to test Preferred Stock 9.95
your hypothesis about the average price of Brut 3.75
Givenchy 10.44
men’s fragrances. Assume the prices you Safari for Men 13.99
find on the internet are randomly selected Stetson 9.21
and listed right. Input the prices listed in the Tribute 6.95
table and test your hypothesis. Old Spice 3.25
1. What is your hypothesis? 1. The average price is equal to $20.
2. Yes
2. Is this a small sample? 3. The prices of men’s fragrances are
3. What assumptions must be met? normally distributed and
independent of each other.
4. Which probability distribution will you use? 4. t-distribution

5. How many degrees of freedom are there? 5. 11

6. Two tailed; the direction of the
6. Would you run a one-or two-tailed test? Why? result is uncertain.

7. Is there enough support for you to change your hypothesis? 7. Yes 58

8. What range of prices do most men’s fragrances fall within? 8. 95% CI, 6.42 ~ 15.26
 CRITICAL THINKING PROBLEM
( No # 4 )
MORE AGE & GPA MEANS
MORE SCORE
The nursing instructor wishes to see whether a student’s grade point average and age
are related to the student’s score on the national board nursing examination. She
selects five students and obtains the following data. The correlation between score &
Student GPA, X1 Age, X2 National GPA is 0.845. The correlation
board score, Y between score & age is 0.791. The
A 3.2 22 550 correlation between GPA & age is
B 2.7 27 570 0.371. The regression equation is
C 2.5 24 525
Y = – 44.572 + 87.679X1 + 14.519X2.
D 3.4 28 670
E 2.2 23 490
Use this information to answer the
following questions.

1. National board score.

1. What is the dependent variable & What are the independent variables? GPA & Age

2. What are the multiple regression assumptions? 2. The independent

variables are not
3. Predict national board score, if student has a GPA of 3.0 & is 25 years. highly correlated.

4. Use MINITAB or SPSS to perform ANOVA. 3. 581.

4. ANOVA table
5. Test overall model is useful (At least one parameter differs from zero).
5. F = 45.93
6. Test parameters are useful in the model.
6. t = 5.75, t = 4.99
7. Compute R. Interpret the result. 7. Ry.12 = 0.989. strong
59
relationship between
the variables. Close to
1
 Homework
EXERCISES. (Elementary Statistics, Bluman, 4th Edition)

• Examples on Page # 350, 355, 365, 373

Example #: 9.3 ~ 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.12, 9.13, 9.16, 9.17 ~ 9.20.
• Exercises on Page # 358 ~ 360, 370, 376, 386.
Problems #: 9.14 ~ 9. 37, 9.47 ~ 9.60, 9.65 ~ 9.73,
9.81 ~ 9.87.

60