Lesson 7: Concepts and Principles for the Elementary Science Education Program:

Biology includes Parts and Functions of Plants and Animals, Heredity; Inheritance and
Variation, Biodiversity and Evolution and Ecosystem

Lesson 3: Female and Male Reproductive System [Grade 5]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Identified the parts of the male and female human reproductive system
2. Described the structure and function of the female and male reproductive system

Though it may hard to believe, all of us began our lives as a single cell. This single cell was
formed by the fusion of two sex cells – an egg and a sperm cell from our parents. As we reach
adolescence, we become capable of taking part in the reproductive process. Our sex organs
mature and undergo changes to be able to produce sex cells that will participate in a process of
producing new individuals. This sex cell contain structures called chromosomes that contain
genetic information which carries unique inherited traits such as skin or hair color. The organ
system of the body responsible for producing the young individual is called the reproductive
system. Reproduction is the process of which living things make new individuals of the same
kind. Humans produce through the reproductive system, a system or organs working together.
Both male and female reproductive systems are involved in producing new individuals.

The Female Reproductive System

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 Female Parts Description/Function
Ovaries are the female reproductive structures responsible for producing
eggs. They are located inside the abdominal cavity located just slightly
below the waist, with one ovary on each side of the body. The ovaries
produce hormones. Estrogen one of its hormones, triggers the development
of secondary female characteristics such as widening of the hips and the
Ovaries
enlargement of the breast enlargement and play a large role in the
menstrual cycle. The onset of mature – egg cell production among females
starts around the ages of 11 to 14 years old, during the first discharge of
blood from the vagina called menarche. There after each month a normal
adult female releases a mature egg or gamete in one of her ovaries.
The egg cell contains 23 chromosomes. During puberty, the increased
production of hormones enables one immature egg to complete its
development each month. In the lifetime of a female, out of the 400 000
eggs at the start of puberty only 300 to 400 eggs cell will mature. When an
Egg Cell [Ovum]
egg cell matures it is called an ovum.
About every 28 days an ovum is released in an adult female body. Hair like
structures called cilia sweep the ovum from the ovary into either of the two
fallopian tubes or oviducts.
Each fallopian tube is a passageway through which an ovum moves from
the ovary to the uterus. Smooth muscles that line the fallopian tube contract
Fallopian Tube or
rhythmically to allow the ovum to move down the tube toward the uterus. It
Oviduct
will take 3 to 4 days to have an ovum travel inside the fallopian tube. If the
ovum is not fertilized at this stage, it dies within 24 hours.
It is 3 – 4 inch passage way or canal inside the female. This is place where
a sperm maybe deposited by the male. It also allows passage of shed of
Vagina or birth endometrium during menstrual period and the baby during birth. It
canal produces fluid to cleanse and lubricate itself and help sperm travel. The
vagina opens between the legs where it is protected by folds of skin known
as vulva
The uterus is made of muscular, a lining called endometrium and a cervix. It
houses and protects embryo/fetus/baby and allows nutrients and waste
Uterus [womb]
exchange with placenta during pregnancy. It before a placenta also
nourishes the embryo before a placenta grows
A short canal that leads to the uterus. It is the bottom section of the uterus.
Cervix It produces fluids to help sperm cell travel. It also produces mucos plug to
keep out germs during pregnancy

The Male Reproductive System

What are the specific functions of the human male reproductive system? This organ
system produces sperm cells [male gametes] and delivers them inside the female reproductive
system. In males, the primary reproductive organs are the testes.

Male Parts Description/Function

A male has two testis or testes. At puberty, the testes produce sperm
cells and the sex hormones [testosterone and androgens]. Each is made
of 500 – 1,200 feet of tightly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.
Testis [testicles] Immature sperms are produced in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone
is responsible for the development of the male secondary sex
characteristics such as body hair, muscle development and deep voice.
These traits usually appear during adolescence
Scrotum is a protective sac of skin of testes. The location of the testes in
the scrotum, which is outside the body, is very important for the
development of the sperm. Since the scrotum lies outside the male body,
Scrotum
its temperature is 2 oC to 3 oC lower than the internal body temperature
[37 oC], making it ideal for sperm production, which requires a lower
temperature.

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Cowper’s gland It is a pair of glands also known as bulbourethral gland that produces pre
– ejaculatory alkaline fluid that cleans the urethra to protect the sperm
and neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra
Seminal vesicles A pair of simple tubular glands located within the pelvis that secrete fluid
rich in sugars that sperm cells use for energy
Prostate gland A muscular gland that is found just in front of the rectum and below the
bladder which produces alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the
female reproductive system
Semen Fluids secreted by Cowper’s glands, prostate glands and seminal vesicles
and sperm
Epididymis Coiled tube where sperms undergo maturation and provide storage of the
sperm
Vas deferens The tube that leads upward from each of the testis into the lower part of
the abdomen. The two vas deferens join at the urethra, which is the
passage way for the elimination of urine and sperm that leave the male’s
body
Sperm A male reproductive system. It fertilizes an egg cell from the female. It
consists of three parts: head with very little cytoplasm that contains the
chromosomes. Enzymes at the tip of the head help the sperm penetrate
an egg cell during fertilization. The midpiece contains mitochondria that
supply the energy needed to propel the sperm through the female
reproductive system. The tail of the sperm is a powerful flagellum that
whips back and forth, enabling it to move.

Evaluate
Match the parts of the reproductive system to its function. Write the letter only.
A. Function B. Parts
1. Produces the male sex hormones a. scrotum
2. Fluid secreted by the Cowper’s gland b. testis
3. Cells from the male sex organ c. ovum
4. Main reproductive organ of females d. semen
5. Carries the female chromosomes e. ovary
6. Refers to as the womb f. uterus
7. Male organ that becomes shorter when cold g. sperm
8. Passageway of ovum to uterus h. Prostate gland
9. Produces the semen of the male i. vagina
10. Short canal in female which leads to uterus j. cervix
k. fallopian tube

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Lesson 4: The Human Organ System at Work [Grade 6]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Explained how the organs of the different organ systems work together
2. Explained how the different organ systems work together
3. Created a chart showing healthful habits that promote proper functioning of the
different organ systems

The human organ system is complex.

The human body is made of trillions of
cells with different sizes, shapes and
functions. A group of cells with similar
structure and function form tissues.
Tissues comprise organs and several
organs comprise the organ system. These
organ systems worked together to help
organisms meet their basic needs and to
survive.

1. Integumentary System
The skin is an organ of double-layered tissue stretched over the surface of the body and
protecting it from drying or losing fluid, from harmful external substances, and from extremes
of temperature. The inner layer, called the dermis, contains sweat glands, blood vessels, nerve
endings (sense receptors), and the bases of hair and nails. The outer layer, the epidermis, is
only a few cells thick; it contains
pigments, pores, and ducts, and its
surface is made of dead cells that
it sheds from the body. (Hair and
nails are adaptations arising from
the dead cells.) The sweat glands
excrete waste and cool the body
through evaporation of fluid
droplets; the blood vessels of the
dermis supplement temperature
regulation by contracting to
preserve body heat and expanding
to dissipate it. Separate kinds of
receptors convey pressure,
temperature, and pain. Fat cells in
the dermis insulate the body, and oil glands lubricate the epidermis.
Regular bath and healthy diet make our skin clean and healthy. Using sunscreen when
exposed to strong sunlight protects your skin.

2. Skeletal System
The skeletal system consists of bones, joints and connective tissues. The skeleton provides the
basic shape of the human body and supports the different internal organs like the brain which is
protected by the skull. It also works with muscles to enable us to stand, walk and do other
manual tasks. Some bones enclose the marrow, the blood forming tissues. Calcium and
phosphorous are stored in bones to keep them strong. There are 206 bones in the human body.
They differ in size, shape and length. The connective tissues, mainly cartilage are found in the
tip of the nose, outer ears and between vertebrae of the spinal column. Cartilage cushions the

4
area where two or more bones usually meet. Some joints allow full movements of the bones.
The bones are held together by a tough tissue called ligaments.

Subdivisions of Skeletal System:

 Axial – form the longitudinal axis of the body
 Appendicular – limbs and girdles

Bones are supposed to last a lifetime but sometimes they are injured like when we fall
or slide causing bone fracture or slide causing bone fracture or sprain of ligaments and tendons.

3. Muscular System
Muscle, tissue or organ of the animal body characterized by the ability to contract, usually in
response to a stimulus from the nervous system. The basic unit of all muscle is the myofibril, a
minute, threadlike structure composed of complex proteins. Each muscle cell, or fiber, contains
several myofibrils, which are composed of regularly arranged myofilaments of two types, thick
and thin. Each thick myofilament contains several hundred molecules of the protein myosin.
Thin filaments contain two strands of the protein actin. The myofibrils are made up of
alternating rows of thick and thin myofilaments with their ends interleaved. During muscular
contractions, these inter digitated rows of filaments slide along each other by means of cross
bridges that act as ratchets. The energy for this motion is generated by densely packed
mitochondria that surround the myofibrils.
The muscular system enables us to move our parts to perform various tasks. Movement of
body parts requires muscles working with our bones. Muscles and bones are attached to each
other by tendons. Muscles help food move through our digestive track, flow of blood through
blood vessels and breathing. These are due to muscles that are not under conscious control.
For us to use our arms, our skeletal muscles contract to move a bone and when the muscle
relaxes, the bones returns to its original position and the muscles to their shape and form.
Regular exercises, healthy diet rich in minerals and proteins, avoiding overstressing of muscles
will help us make our muscles healthy.

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 4. Digestive System
Our Digestive System is a series of connected organs whose purpose is to break down, or
digest, the food we eat. Food is made up of large, complex molecules, which
the digestive system breaks down into smaller, simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the bloodstream. The simple molecules travel through the
bloodstream to all of the body's cells, which use them for growth, repair, and
energy.
Digestion generally involves two phases: a mechanical phase and a
chemical phase. In the mechanical phase, teeth or other structures physically
break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces. In the chemical phase,
digestive chemicals called enzymes break apart individual molecules of food to
yield molecules that can be absorbed and distributed throughout the body.
These enzymes are secreted (produced and released) by glands in the body.
If a human adult’s digestive tract were stretched out, it would be 6 to 9 m
(20 to 30 ft) long. In humans, digestion begins in the mouth, where both
mechanical and chemical digestion occurs. The mouth quickly converts food
into a soft, moist mass. The muscular tongue pushes the food against the
teeth, which cut, chop, and grind the food. Glands in the cheek linings secrete
mucus, which lubricates the food, making it easier to chew and swallow. Three pairs of glands
empty saliva into the mouth through ducts to moisten the food. Saliva contains the enzyme
ptyalin, which begins to hydrolyze (break down) starch—a carbohydrate manufactured by green
plants.
Once food has been reduced to a soft mass, it is ready to be swallowed. The tongue pushes
this mass—called a bolus—to the back of the mouth and into the pharynx. This cavity between
the mouth and windpipe serves as a passageway both for food on its way down the alimentary
canal and for air passing into the windpipe. The epiglottis, a flap of cartilage, covers the trachea
(windpipe) when a person swallows. This action of the epiglottis prevents choking by directing
food from the windpipe and toward the stomach. Further breakdown of food occurs in the
stomach; chemical digestion continues and ends in the small intestine where nutrients are
absorbed. Foods that are not broken down in the small intestine move to the large intestine and
after a while are released as solid wastes. The liver, gall bladder and pancreas are also involved
in digestion but are not part of the digestive tract. Digestive enzymes are produced by the
stomach, pancreas and small intestines to complete digestion not only of carbohydrates but also
fats and proteins.

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 Liver Stomach

Gallbladder

Large intestine Pancreas

Small intestine
Anus

Rectum

Our digestive system maybe infected by germs that cause diarrhea, vomiting and cholera.
We must clean and cook properly the food we take. Washing of hands with soap and water
before and after eating must be a habit. Do not eat spoiled food and drink plenty of water.

Sci – Bit
Did you know that eating a high protein diet [beef, pork or chicken] is not recommended? Proteins contain
nitrogen and any excess of it in the body is removed by the liver in the form of urea, which is then excreted
by the kidneys in the urine. This means that a diet high in protein content is adding more work for the liver
and the kidney. This causes the liver and kidney to overwork, resulting in damage of these organs.

5. Circulatory System
Circulatory System, or cardiovascular system, in humans, the combined function of the
heart, blood, and blood vessels to transport oxygen and nutrients to
organs and tissues throughout the body and carry away waste
products. Among its vital functions, the circulatory system increases
the flow of blood to meet increased energy demands during exercise
and regulates body temperature. In addition, when foreign
substances or organisms invade the body, the circulatory system
swiftly conveys disease-fighting elements of the immune system,
such as white blood cells and antibodies, to regions under attack.
Also, in the case of injury or bleeding, the circulatory system sends
clotting cells and proteins to the affected site, which quickly stop
bleeding and promote healing.
The heart, blood, and blood vessels are the three structural
elements that make up the circulatory system. The heart is the
engine of the circulatory system. It is divided into four chambers: the
right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle.
The walls of these chambers are made of a special muscle called
myocardium, which contracts continuously and rhythmically to pump
blood. The pumping action of the heart occurs in two stages for each
heart beat: diastole, when the heart is at rest; and, systole when the
heart contracts to pump deoxygenated blood toward the lungs and
oxygenated blood to the body. During each heartbeat, typically about
60 to 90 ml (about 2 to 3 oz) of blood are pumped out of the heart.
If the heart stops pumping, death usually occurs within four to five minutes.

Blood consists of three types of cells: oxygen-bearing red blood cells, disease-fighting white
blood cells, and blood-clotting platelets, all of which are carried through blood vessels in a liquid
called plasma. Plasma is yellowish and consists of water, salts, proteins, vitamins, minerals,
hormones, dissolved gases, and fats.

Three types of blood vessels form a complex network of tubes throughout the body.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry it toward the heart. Capillaries are the

7
tiny links between the arteries and the veins where oxygen and nutrients diffuse to body
tissues. The inner layer of blood vessels is lined with endothelial cells that create a smooth
passage for the transit of blood. This inner layer is surrounded by connective tissue and smooth
muscle that enable the blood vessel to expand or contract. Blood vessels expand during
exercise to meet the increased demand for blood and to cool the body. Blood vessels contract
after an injury to reduce bleeding and also to conserve body heat.

Arteries have thicker walls than veins to withstand the pressure of blood being pumped
from the heart. Blood in the veins is at a lower pressure, so veins have one-way valves to
prevent blood from flowing backwards away from the heart. Capillaries, the smallest of blood
vessels, are only visible by microscope—ten capillaries lying side by side are barely as thick as a
human hair. If all the arteries, veins, and capillaries in the human body were placed end to end,
the total length would equal more than 100,000 km (more than 60,000 mi)—they could stretch
around the earth nearly two and a half times.

The arteries, veins, and capillaries are divided into two systems of circulation: systemic and
pulmonary. The systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the heart to all the tissues
in the body except the lungs and returns deoxygenated blood carrying waste products, such as
carbon dioxide, back to the heart. The pulmonary circulation carries this spent blood from the
heart to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. The
oxygenated blood then returns to the heart before transferring to the systemic circulation.

6. Nervous System
From the moment you were born, the nervous system controls and interprets all the
activities going on with your body. Without your nervous system, you would not be able to
move, think, laugh, feel pain or enjoy the taste of food.
The nervous system enables the body to respond quickly to changes in the environment by
accomplishing four basic functions.
Transmits information to
the processing areas in the
brain and spinal cord

Gathers information Nervous Processes information

both from the outside to determine the best
world and from the System
response
inside of the body

Sends information to
muscles, glands and organs
so they can respond
correctly

The extraordinary amount of information that your body receives at one time is flashed
through your nervous system in the form of millions of messages. These messages bring news
about what is happening inside and outside your body – about the itch on your head, or the sad
news you heard or the odor of fried chicken. Almost immediately your nervous system tell other
parts of your body what to do – scratch the itch, be saddened by the news or eat the fried
chicken.
While your body is doing any of these activities, your nervous system is also busy
monitoring your breathing, blood pressure and body temperature, to name a few of the
processes your nervous system takes care without your awareness. Even during sleep, it is very
active. It monitors and adjusts internal processes and checks the outside world for dangers. Our
heart never stops but beats slower while we are at rest. The simple act of noticing that the
weather is getting warmer is an example of the way it monitors what is happening around you.

8
The nervous system response to this change is to make you feel warm, thus you remove your
sweater or you wear a light shirt.
The nervous system keeps your body working properly despite the constant changes
taking place around you. For example, a fly zooms toward your eye. You quickly and
automatically blink to avoid damage to your eye. In this case, the fly zooming toward you is the
stimulus and the blinking of your eye is the response.
Although some responses to stimuli are involuntary, such as blinking your eyes and
sneezing, many responses of the nervous system are voluntary [under control]. For example,
opening an umbrella because it is raining [stimulus] is a voluntary action. It is conscious effort
that involves the feelings of the moment, the memory of what happened the last time you
stayed out in the rain, and the ability to reason.
The nervous system is constantly alive with activity. It buzzes with messages that run to
and from all the parts of the body. Every second, hundreds of these messages are carried by
strings of special cells called neurons or nerve cells. Neurons are the basic functional units of
structure and function of the nervous system. Neurons carry information through the nervous
system in the form of nerve impulses.
Neurons are unique because, unlike most other cells in the body, the body cannot
produce neurons throughout lives. Once damaged, neurons cannot replace. This is not cause
for concern, because the neurons we are born with are more than enough for a lifetime.
Our body is divided into two main parts:

A. Central Nervous System [CNS]

All information about what is happening in the world inside or outside your body is
brought to the central nervous system [CNS]. It is the command or main control center for the
entire. As the main control center, it processes information and sends instructions to other parts
of the body. All the information gathered by sensory receptors is delivered to the CNS in the
form of nerve impulses. The CNS processes the information and responds by sending nerve
impulses to the motor nerves of the peripheral nervous system [PNS]. Interpreting the
information that pours in from all parts of your body and issuing appropriate commands to
these very same parts are the responsibility of the two main parts of the CNS: the brain and the
spinal cord.
The brain is the main control center of the CNS. It is the control center of the vital
activities for survival including emotions, learning abilities and talents. It is divided into three
parts: 1. cerebrum the largest part and has the brain centers that control thought processes,
speech, motor, touch, pressure, smell, hearing, vision and facial recognition; 2. cerebellum the
second largest part of the brain controls muscle coordination, balance and normal body
posture; 3.brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord. It coordinates many survival
functions such as breathing, heart rate, sleep and wakefulness. Three distinct regions make up
the brain stem: midbrain contains relay stations of neurons and reflex centers for involuntary
actions; pons connects the two halves of the cerebellum and links the cerebral cortex to the
medulla; medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions such as heart beat, breathing and
blood pressure. Two other important structures are found in the brain stem, the thalamus that
serves as a relay station by directing incoming messages from the spinal cord to the appropriate
parts of the brain on the other hand the hypothalamus monitors internal conditions such as
water content and temperature. It also acts as the link between the endocrine and nervous
system. The spinal cord is a tube like organ of neurons and blood vessels. Located inside the
backbone or spine, the spinal cord is about 1.8 cm wide. Aside from the protection of the spine,
three membranes called meninges, a cushion of fluid, care for our spinal cord. The spinal cord
relays nerve impulses to and from the brain. Impulses from the peripheral nervous system are
conducted to the spinal cord, which then relays the message to the brain. The brain in turn,
sends impulses down the spinal cord to the motor nerves of the peripheral nervous system.

B. Peripheral Nervous System [PNS]

The peripheral nervous system [PNS] is the link between the central nervous system [brain and
spinal cord] to the rest of the body. It is made up of a network and buddle rope like structures
called nerves that extend or branch out from the CNS and connect throughout the different
organs of the body. The PNS gathers and delivers information to and from the CNS.
The PNS consist of 43 pairs of nerves that arise from the brain and spinal cord, leading
to organs throughout your body. Many of the nerves are under the direct control of your

9
conscious mind. For example you “tell” your leg to move, a message travels from your brain to
your spinal cord and through a peripheral nerve to your leg. This part of PNS that stimulates
under conscious control is called somatic nervous system. Some activities in the somatic
nervous system such as spinal reflexes are involuntary. Spinal reflexes are extremely rapid such
that they involve the spinal cord and the PNS but not the brain. There is one part of the PNS
that is not under the direct control of your conscious mind. This part called the autonomic
nervous system; controls body activities that are involuntary that is, body activities that happen
automatically without you thinking about them. The autonomic nervous system directs motor
nerve fibers in smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and the glands. Contractions of the heart
muscle are one of the activities under the control of the autonomic nervous system.
The nerves of the autonomic nervous system can be further divided into two groups that
have opposite effects on the organs they control. These two divisions – the parasympathetic
division and sympathetic division – maintain stability in the body by working against each other
to keep body activities in balance.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system directs all activities of the body that occur without a person’s conscious control,
such as heartbeat, breathing, and food digestion. It has two parts: the sympathetic division, which is most active in
times of stress, and the parasympathetic division, which controls maintenance activities and helps conserve the body’s energy.

The nervous system may be affected by germs as in the case of meningitis, an acute
inflammation of the meninges or the covering of the membranes of the brain and spinal cord. It
could result in loss hearing, vision and changes in the child’s thinking and doing tasks. Avoiding
prohibited drugs, tobacco, alcoholic drinks and stress, washing hands properly and having
vaccinations for poliomyelitis and eating balanced diet make us healthy.

7. Respiratory System
Breathing is the physical act of inhaling and exhaling. When we exhale, we take in air.
Breathing is used to describe the movement of gases in and out of the body and this process is
associated with respiration. Respiration is the process of converting sugar with the presence of
oxygen, to produce useful energy for cell’s use.
Respiration has five events:
1. Breathing [ventilation] – movement of air into and out of the lungs.

10
 2. External respiration – exchange of gases between the external environment and the
lungs
3. Transport of oxygen to body cells and collection of carbon dioxide
4. Internal respiration – exchange of gases between the blood and body cells.
5. Use of oxygen in cell process and the expulsion of carbon dioxide

These five events won’t be accomplished with the parts of the respiratory system.
The parts of the human respiratory system are subdivided into:
A. Upper respiratory system
It consists of nose and pharynx. The nose is lined with hair which filters dust from the air.
Dust filtered air then flows into the nasal cavity which is lined with cilia and secretes mucus to
further filter the air. The nasal cavity is also where the air is warmed and moistened. The air
then flows into the pharynx which is the common tube or passageway for both air and food.
The pharynx splits into the trachea [leading to the lungs] and the esophagus [leading to the
stomach].

Anatomy of the Nose

The uppermost portion of the human respiratory system, the nose is a hollow air passage that functions in
breathing and in the sense of smell. The nasal cavity moistens and warms incoming air, while small hairs and
mucus filter out harmful particles and microorganisms.
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B. Lower Respiratory System

Parts of the lower respiratory system:
The larynx is also known as the voice box. It contains two important structures –
epiglottis and the vocal cords. The epiglottis is a flap like tissue that closes the trachea when
swallowing to prevent swallowed materials from entering the lungs. The vocal chords vibrate
when air passes through them producing sound.
The trachea is also known as windpipe. It is made up of cartilage which stretches when
you shout. The trachea is lined with cilia and mucus for further filtering the air. Dust particles
mixed with air stick to the mucus lining of the trachea and get propelled by cilia up to the
trachea.
These dust particles may then be either swallowed or coughed out. The trachea branches out
into two tubes called bronchi.
The left and right bronchi tubes are made up of primary and secondary tubes.
These structures measure 1 mm in diameter. The terminal bronchioles measure 0.5 mm and
they connect to alveolar sacs. These ducts eventually lead to the air sacs. These air sacs, which
are called alveoli, are the small units of the lungs where the actual exchange of gases takes
place.

11
 In humans the lungs occupy a large portion of the chest cavity
from the collarbone down to the diaphragm. The right lung is
divided into three sections, or lobes. The left lung, with a cleft
to accommodate the heart, has only two lobes. The two
branches of the trachea, called bronchi, subdivide within the
lobes into smaller and smaller air vessels known as bronchioles.
Bronchioles terminate in alveoli, tiny air sacs surrounded by
capillaries. When the alveoli inflate with inhaled air, oxygen
diffuses into the blood in the capillaries to be pumped by the
heart to the tissues of the body. At the same time carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, where it is
exhaled.

Evaluate:
1. What is the relationship of balance diet, exercise and diseases?

12
Lesson 5: Living Things Reproduce [Grade 3]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Inferred that living things reproduce
2. Identified observable characteristics that are passed on from parents to offspring

All living things produce their own kind. The process by which living things produce their
own kind is called reproduction. This is the basis of heredity and the process that enables
species to perpetuate and thrive. When organisms reproduce the adult give birth to the young
that are more or less with similar characteristics as the parents. Through reproduction, we get
some genes from our parents that are expressed as traits or characteristics that we can observe
or see. Genes are the genetic factors that we inherit from parents. For example, when one
parent has dimples, you might have it.

A. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is a process that involves the union of sex cells or gametes. The
gametes come from two parents of opposite sexes – the male that reproduces the sperm [male
gamete] and the female that reproduces the egg cell or ovum [female gamete]. In humans, the
sperm is relatively motile and has a flagellum. On the other hand, the ovum is non motile and
relatively large in comparison to male gamete.
Sexual reproduction results in offspring with diverse traits, and is the predominant form of
reproduction among plants, animals, and most other organisms. In sexual reproduction it
requires two parents. Each parent creates sex cells, or gametes that contain half the parent’s
genetic information. Human sex cells—sperm and eggs—contain 23 single, unpaired
chromosomes rather than the 23 paired chromosomes found in all other body cells, or somatic
cells. When egg and sperm unite in the process called fertilization, they form one fertilized cell
called zygote that contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, the normal number for human body cells.
The cell develops into a child that has a mixture of genetic information from both parents. As a
result, the child is similar to each of the parents but not identical to either of them.
There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place: in external fertilization, a
watery or moist environment is needed so the gametes will not dry out. Both the male and
female cluster into the same area to simultaneously release their gametes into the surrounding.
This process is called spawning. Amphibians and frogs are examples of animals that exhibit this
type. It is advantageous since it results in the production of a large number of offspring. In
internal fertilization, the egg is fertilized within the female reproductive tract in a process called
copulation [sexual intercourse or mating]. Development of the fertilized egg or zygote happens
in different ways. Among animals, there are two major ways by which the young is produced –
egg laying [oviparous] or young is given birth [viviparous] by the female.

B. Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, one parent transmits all of its genetic information to the offspring,
and the offspring is therefore identical [clone] to the parent. Asexual reproduction typically is a
rapid and reliable method of reproduction. It is limited, however, because the genetic uniformity
in the offspring makes them all equally susceptible to a change in the environment. If a new
disease, a new predator, or a climate change is lethal to one individual, it is lethal to all
genetically identical organisms. Such changes can effectively wipe out entire populations of
genetically identical organisms.
a. Budding – is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops form an
outgrown bud that grows in a specific site in the body of a matured or older species.
Buds develop due to repeated cell division. Buds form if the food is abundant in the area
where the organism lives. Budding is observed among yeast cells.
b. Binary fission – involves the replication of the genetic material and the subsequent
division or splitting of the cell into two genetically identical daughter cells
c. Fragmentation and regeneration – in fragmentation a new organism grows from a
fragment of the parent. The body of the parent breaks into several pieces in a process
called autonomy. Each of these pieces develops into a complete organism. On the other

13
 hand regeneration is the ability to grow back any missing parts of the body. This type of
reproduction occurs in simple organisms such as starfish.
d. Parthenogenesis – is a form of reproduction in which the offspring are produced
asexually. This happens as females produce egg cells that develop into new individuals
without fertilization.
e. Vegetative propagation – a process by which new individuals are formed not from seeds
but other plant parts.

Evaluate:
1. What is the advantage of having cuttings of plants for propagation if you are into
gardening and ornamental plant business?

14
Lesson 6: Life Cycles of Humans, Animals and Plants [Grade 4]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Described the stages in the development of a human being
2. Described examples of life cycle in plants and animals
3. Differentiated the life cycles of animals and plants

Most animals reproduce sexually through the union of egg cell and sperm cell. This means
that genetic information is crossed between individuals, and variability between parents and
offspring is maintained. Animals reproduce animals like themselves the same is true with plants.
Some animals are born as baby animals. Others are hatched from eggs. However, there are
others that are developed from fertilized eggs outside the mother’s body. There are animals
that grow through different stages of development before looking like their parents. The change
in form and structure that occurs from young animals to adult animals is called metamorphosis.
Most animals, including fish, mammals, reptiles and birds have very simple life
cycles. These animals have three stages: before birth, young and adult. Such stages of
development are affected by different environmental conditions such temperature, air,
light, food and habitat.
Insects undergoing complete metamorphosis or complete stages of growth and
development have four stages in their life:
 Egg: the unborn stage
 Larva, referring to its young stage where most of the feeding is done and that
insect looks like worm
 Pupa, the inactive stage [no feeding] and takes place between larva and adult
stages and is usually well camouflaged as a sign of protection
 Adult stage: the final breeding stage wherein the insect usually grows into a
mature one
On the other hand, other insects undergo three of development is referred to as
incomplete metamorphosis. They do not have a pupal form. Examples are dragonflies,
grasshoppers and cockroaches. There are three stages:
 Egg: unborn stage
 Nymph refers to the young stage where most feeding is done
 Adult: final stage wherein the development of wings is included

Frog Life Cycle

Most frogs have a life cycle with two distinct stages, typically living in water as young and on land as adults. Adult
frogs lay large numbers of eggs in water or other moist places (A). The eggs hatch into small, fishlike larvae called
tadpoles (B), which grow larger as they feed on algae and bits of plant material in the water (C). As it begins
metamorphosis, or change into the adult body form, the tadpole grows hind limbs (D). After both pairs of limbs are
complete and the animal has exchanged its gills for lungs, the young frog crawls out on land (E). The frog resorbs
the rest of its tail and continues to grow until it reaches its adult body size (F).

15
Life Cycle of Humans: Stages of Human Growth and Development
1. Fertilization – union of egg cell and sperm cell
The process of human development begins with the process known as prenatal
development. It begins with the union of egg and sperm cell in the process called fertilization or
conception. The chromosomes of the egg combine with the chromosomes of the sperm cell to
form a new cell called zygote. The zygote, which contains a combination of genetic material
from both parents, develops into the embryo. The embryo then develops embryonic and extra
embryonic tissues which will later form the fetal membranes and the placenta. Embryo is the
developing organism from the third week of development until the end of the second month;
fetus on the other hand is the developing organism from the beginning of third month to birth.
The amnion is a membrane that surrounds the developing organism; it contains a clear fluid
that cushions the growing organism. The placenta is structure which materials are exchanged
between blood of the fetus and that of the mother. The umbilical cord attaches the fetus to the
placenta; blood vessels inside the cord transport materials to and from the placenta.
2. Birth the release of the baby from the womb or uterus to the outside world
During the first stage of labor, contractions of the uterus push the baby towards the cervix,
the cervix dilates, during the second stage the emerges, and the umbilical cord is cut, during
the third stage the baby emerges, the placenta and the amnion is forced outside of the
mother’s body by contraction of the uterus.
3. Infancy or babyhood
Infancy and baby hood is the stage from birth to 2 years of age. This stage marks the
rapid physical growth. It is considered as one of the most remarkable and busiest times of
development. Physical growth occurs rapidly during the first two years of life. Development
occurs in gross and fine motor, language, emotional and temperament
4. Early and later childhood
Early childhood happens from two
up to 6 years of age. Healthy children
at this stage exhibit important growth
and development in various areas such
as social and emotional, language and
communication, movement and
physical and cognitive.
The late childhood happens
from six up to 12 years of age. Physical
development is slow and steady in this
stage. The child gains greater control
over his body. In terms of social
development, the child’s relationship
changes towards others and the child
will generally have multiple social
contacts outside the family.
Emotionally, the child controls and
understands his emotions and becomes
skilled in expressing his emotions. Most of the child’s cognitive development takes place in
school as the brain continues to develop.
5. Adolescence
This stage happens from13 to 19 years of age. It is considered as the transition stage
between childhood and adulthood stage. Sex maturation and rapid physical development
happen in this stage. Boys begin to show secondary sexual traits such as deeper voice due to
thickened vocal cords, increased growth of hair in the face, chest, armpits and pubic regions.
Some parts of the body may have more muscles and fats. Inside the body of the male, the
testes enlarge and produce sperms. Among females the secondary characteristics include
enlargement of the breast, development of hair in the armpits and pubic area and the
menstrual cycle. The female is able to produce an egg one at a time in the 28 day cycle.
6. Early Adulthood
It happens from 19 to 40 years. This stage of life generally consists of leaving home,
completing education, completing full time work, attaining financial independence, establishing
a long term intimate relationship and starting a family.

16
 7. Middle Age
This stage happens between the ages 40 and above up to 65. It is the transition stage and
physical adjustment stage. An individual may experience decline in physical and mental
capabilities.
8. Old Age
It happens from 65 to death. In this stage and individual could experience rapid physical
and mental decline as well as psychological and physical illness.
9. Death
This is the physical condition of the body when all the organs do not function to continue life.
This is sometimes called cellular or organ death. This state may not always happen after old
age. Some people die young.

Life Cycle of a Non flowering Plant

Ferns are plants with alternating generations. However they do not produce flowers.
The mature plants produces spores enclosed in capsule and when it matures it breaks to
release spores a kind of asexual reproduction. These spores can be found on the underside of
the leaflets. When the spores hit moist places they germinate and grow into heart shaped
gametophytes that produce female and male sex cells. After fertilization the zygote grows into a
young plant that is spore bearing. The underground stems or rhizomes produce young plants.

Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant

Flowering plants reproduce through their flowers. Flowers can be unisexual if they
contain only one type of sex organ, which is
either the male stamen or female pistil. They
can also be bisexual if they contain both
stamen and pistil in the same flower. In the
sporophyte generation, flowering plants
produce via meiosis, two types of spores within
the flowers. These haploid spores later become
microscopic gametophytes inside the flower.
The male stamen contains the pollen
bearing anther where microspores are found.
Microspore mother cells found in the pollen
sacs of the anther undergo meiosis to produce
haploid microspores. Each haploid microspore
develops into a gametophyte which contains a
water tight pollen grain. A pollen grain usually

17
contains two sperms. The other spore known as megaspore found in the ovule of the pistil
develops into a female gametophyte, which appears to be a cluster of cell permanently residing
inside the flower.
During the process of pollination, the pollen elongates through the development of a
pollen tube that burrows itself deeply into the flower’s ovaries penetrating the female
gametophyte. The male gametophyte releases its sperm inside the female gametophyte and
fertilization occurs. The union of the egg and sperm produces a zygote which is enclosed in a
drought resistant seed. The seed contains the embryonic plant and a food supply protected by
hard coating.

Plants are grouped according to their life cycles such as annuals that have a life cycle of
one year; biennials have life cycle of two years and perennials those plants that have a life cycle
of more than two years. These three types of plants follow the same basic steps in their life
cycle.

Evaluate:
1. Compare a ten week old fetus with a 20 week old fetus regarding size and body
systems. Provide description of organ system development.

18
Lesson 7: Reproduction among Flowering and Non – Flowering Plants [Grade 5 and 6]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Described the sexual and asexual reproduction of plants

Plants, just like other living organisms, are part of the “circle of life”. They cannot live
forever and therefore each species must produce younger members. Plants do this in two ways,
asexually and sexually.

A. Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Most plants reproduce asexually in various means. They reproduce asexually through their
vegetative parts such as stems, roots and leaves. The new plant that results from this process
is genetically identical to its parent plants. Asexual can occur either naturally or artificially with
the aid of humans.
In most plants, vegetative propagation is actually faster than sexual reproduction.

Vegetative Part Description

Slender prostate branch with nodes and internodes that grow
Runners/stolons above the ground. The nodes develop roots and buds that grow
into a new plant. Example: Bermuda grass
New stems grow from the root base of the existing plant. The new
Suckers
stem develops into a new plant. Example: banana
Swollen parts of an underground stem with pits or “eyes” where
Tubers buds grow and develop into new plants. Examples: potato, carrot,
cassava
Short vertical underground stems with nodes and internodes where
Corms
buds grow and develop into new plant. Example: gabi
Long, horizontal underground stems with nodes and internodes.
Rhizomes
Example: ginger
Short, underground stems with fleshy leaves [called scales] that
Bulbs
store food. Example: onion
Structures found at the margins of some leaves where new tiny
Notches buds emerge. The buds develop into new plants that detach from
the notch and live in an independent existence. Example: begonia

19
 Asexual methods can be done with little help from humans. This practice is known as
artificial plant propagation. It is often faster than faster than growing plants from seeds. Below
is the lists of some methods of artificial plant propagation that are widely used to grow plants.

Vegetative Part Description

Simplest method of artificial method. A part of the plant is cut off
Cutting from the mother plant and placed in a new environment where it
can grow into a new plant. Examples: ornamental trees
Shoot or branch from a parent plant is bent close to the ground
enough to be covered with moist soil. After sometime, the buried
branch or shoot produce adventitious roots and develops into new
Layering
plant. This plant can then be separated and planted in another
place.

A form of regeneration. In grafting, two plants are used to develop

a new plant that contains the combined traits of the parent plants.
One plant [scion] with a desirable characteristic is cut and attached
above the also cut stem of the second rooted plant [stock] with
Grafting
another desirable characteristic. A wax is applied to cover the part
where the grafting is done to avoid infection. After sometime, the
two plants are joined together as one plant. Example: fruit and nut
trees
Tissue culture Pieces of tissues from one plant are placed on a sterile medium
[laboratory and used to grow new plants. Examples: orchids, potatoes, many
technique only] house plants

B. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flowering plants display their bloom to show that they are ready for reproduction. The
flowering stage in a plant’s life is when the blooms are very attractive in a variety of colors,
scents, texture and appearance. Flowers also contain the male and female organs of the plants.
A fruit forms after a successful fertilization. The seeds signify that life can begin from the plant’s
offspring, the seedling. The seedling possesses all the traits of the parent plant.
All flowering plants reproduce sexually, which involves the fusion of sex cells from parent
plants. Sexual reproduction happens in the sexual organs of flowering plants, which are
contained in the flower. Most plants are hermaphrodites, which mean that each flower has both
male and female sex organs. Some plants like papaya have the male and female organs in
separate flowers.

Parts of a Flower:
Male reproductive organs
 Stamen – male reproductive part
 Anther – produces pollen which
contains male sex cells
 Filament – holds up the anther
Female reproductive organs
 Pistil – male reproductive part
 Stigma – top part of the pistil that
has a sticky surface to trap pollen
 Style – joins the stigma and ovary
 Ovary – contains the female sex cells
called ovules

20
Stages of Sexual Reproduction:
 Pollination
The first stage in sexual
reproduction among flowering
plants is pollination. It is the
transfer of pollen grains from
anther to stigma. Pollen grains
produced by the anther of one
plant land on and stick to the
stigma of the flower of another
plant. When pollen is carries from
anther to the stigma of the same
plant, the process is called self
pollination. When pollen is carried
to the stigma of another plant is
called cross pollination. Most
plants have developed ways to
avoid self pollination since it reduces genetic variation, unlike cross pollination which increases
variety and can generate changes that give species advantages to survive. Pollination occurs
with the help of wind, water as well as bees, bats, and birds that can transport pollen to the
stigma.
 Fertilization
Once the pollen lands on the sticky, sugary substance that covers the stigma, a tube like
structure grows from the stigma and elongates to form the pollen tube. The pollen tube,
nourished by the sugary substance, continues to grow with the male gamete travelling down
ward until the tube penetrates the ovule in the ovary. The pollen tube then bursts and releases
the male gamete, which then fuses with the female gamete. The ovary swells and ripens to
form a fruit which may contain one or many seeds. Inside the seed, a plant embryo awaits
growth. After fertilization, many of its flower parts wither and die, since the plant no longer
needs them.
What is a seed? It is a reproductive structure that contains the plant embryo and the food
source enclosed inside a seed coat [testa]. A seed coat is a strong tissue that protects the
delicate embryo inside.

Flower Pollination and Fertilization

Flowers contain the structures necessary for sexual reproduction. The male component, or stamen, consists of a
thin stalk called the filament, capped by the anther. The female component, the pistil, includes the stigma, a sticky
surface that catches pollen; the ovary, which contains the ovule and embryo sac with its egg; and the style, a tube
that connects the stigma and ovary (A). Pollen is produced in the anther (B), and is released when mature (C).
Each mature pollen grain contains two sperm cells. In self-pollinating plants, the pollen lands on the stigma of the
same flower, but in cross-pollinating plants—the majority of plants—the pollen is carried by wind, water, insects, or
small animals to another flower. If the pollen attaches to the stigma of a flower from the same species, the pollen
produces a pollen tube, which grows down the neck of the style, transporting the sperm to the ovule (D). Within
the embryo sac of the ovule, one sperm cell fertilizes the egg, which develops into a seed. The second sperm cell

21
unites with two cells in the embryo sac called polar nuclei, and this result in the development of the endosperm,
the starchy food that feeds the developing seed. The ovary enlarges (E) and becomes a fruit.
 Dispersal
Sees together with its fruits, are sometimes carried away from a parent plant by wind,
water, animal or explosion.
 Germination
When the seed sometimes with its fruit lands on the ground, it breaks through the seed
coat and grows to form a new plant. The process is called germination. However most seeds do
not grow as they dispersed; some stay dormant as their metabolism slows down until there are
favourable conditions for growth. A seed may germinate if it has enough water, oxygen and
warmth.

22
Lesson 8: Common Characteristics of Animals and Plants for Classification [Grade 6]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Classify organisms using the hierarchical taxonomic system based on structure and
function.
2. Identify and describe the basic characteristics and life processes of representative
organisms in the major taxonomic categories

The best calculation of new species on earth is about 8.7 million, in which 6.5 million are
terrestrial and 2.2 million are aquatic. According to the Census of Life, this count is based on a
new analytical technique. The species count on earth was previously about 3 to 100 million.
To date, there are around 2 million species of living organisms that have been named and
classified. With the tremendous diversity of living organisms, it is too chaotic to study them
without assigning names to each species and without grouping them into distinct groups.
Classifying organisms helps explain the great diversity of life on earth and how organisms are
related to each other. In order to fully understand your own biological evolution, you need to be
aware that humans are animals and that you have close relatives in the animal kingdom.
Understanding the relationships, similarities and differences among the species is important for
you to appreciate why you are on top of the food chain.
Classification of organisms involves the grouping of organisms based on a set of criteria.
Classifying living organisms has been practiced since people started to pay attention to different
organisms. One primal system that was developed was based on “harmful” and “non harmful”
organisms or edible and non edible plants. Organisms can also be classified according to the
presence of backbones [vertebrates] or absence of backbones [invertebrates]. There are 5
major groups of vertebrates, the mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds and fishes. Below is the
summary of their differences:

Characteristics Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes

Body covering Fur or hair Feather Scales Skin Scales
Breathing organ Gills [young]
Lungs Lungs Lungs Gills
Lungs [adult]
Give birth to
Lay eggs
the young
that hatch Most lay Lay eggs that Most lay
Reproduction except
outside the eggs hatch eggs
platypus and
body
echidna
Warm or cold
Warm Warm Cold Cold Cold
blooded
Mostly on Mostly on Land and Land and
Habitat Water
land land water water
Man, dog, Chicken, Gecko, Milkfish,
Examples carabao turkey, crocodile, Frog, toad tilapia,
snake African hito
[Warm blooded animals have internally controlled body temperature while cold blooded animals have body temperature that change
with the environment]

Invertebrates are composed of several major phyla.

Unique feature Habitat Examples
Group Body covering
of the body
Sessile or Bath sponge,
attached to Venus flower
Sponges Porous body Water
rocks, body is basket
loosely organized
Coelenterates or Soft skin, stony Body has radial Jellyfish, corals,
Water
cnidarians corals produce symmetry, with sea anemone

23
 outer covering of stinging cells and
limestone tentacles, one
body opening,
some are
attached to the
substratum
Flat bodies, two Water, parasite Tapeworm,
Flatworms Skin segments inside cow and planaria, liver
pig fluke
Unsegmented Ascaris,
Roundworms Skin Soil
round body pinworms
Segmented Segmented soft Earthworm,
Skin Moist soil, water
worms body leech
Some with hard Soft body Snail, oyster,
Mollusc Water, land
shells mussel
Body is divided in Shrimp. Crab.
two to three Spider ant,
Exoskeleton
Arthropods segments, with Land, water, air beetle
/chitin
paired legs that
vary in number
Exoskeleton Body with radial
maybe spiny. symmetry, move
Sea star, sea
Echinoderms Skeleton made by means of tube Water
urchin, star fish
up of plates feet
covered by skin

Group Major Characteristics Examples

Low growing, plants live in
moist places, lack well
Non vascular plants:
developed roots, stems, and Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
Bryophytes
leaves, sexual and asexual
reproduction
Vascular plants: Tracheophytes
Seedless, spore bearing, live
in moist places and tree Tree fern, maiden hair fern,
Ferns and allies
trunks, reproduce sexually horsetail, club moose
and asexually
Non flowering, mostly with
seeds found in cones, conifers
Gymnosperms Cycad, conifers- pine trees
with needle like leaves, grow
in cool and dry places
True flowers, seed bearing,
one cotyledon, parallel leaf
veins, flower parts in multiple Rice, corn, coconut, bamboo,
Angiosperms – monocots
of three, vascular tissue lemon grass
scattered in stem, fibrous
roots
True flowers, seed bearing
with two cotyledons, netted
leaf veins, flower parts in Guava, mango, rambutan,
Angiosperms – dicots
multiples of five, vascular petunia
tissue arranged in a circle in
the stem, taproot system

Carolus Linnaeus made a scheme of classifying all known and unknown organisms
according to their similarities. He developed a system of classification with hierarchical
categories based on the organism’s morphological [physical] and behavioural characteristics. In

24
simple terms, he assigned organisms into groups within groups, within groups, on and on until
an organism is defined within its own species or individual group. Kingdom is the highest level
in Linnaean system, followed by phyla or division, class, order, family, genus and the lowest is
species. Organism in this category is capable of breeding with one another to produce fertile
offspring.
Philippines Kingdom Animalia

Iloilo Phylum Chordata

Janiuay Class Mammalia

n

Rosal Order Primata

Zone 0 Family Hominidae

Banquillo Genus Homo

Marian Species sapiens

Marian Banquillo
Zone 0
Rosal
Janiuay, Iloilo
Philippines

The Linnaean system of classification is hierarchical from the largest to the smallest grouping
which is analogous to the different parts of a postal address.

Taxonomists proposed the five kingdom system which is recognized today. The five
kingdoms include Kingdom Monera [true bacteria, bacteria – like organisms and the blue green
algae], Kingdom Protista [protozoans and algae], Kingdom Plantae [plants], Kingdom Fungi
[fungi, molds, yeasts] and Kingdom Animalia [animals].

Evaluate:
1. What are the advantages of naming organisms with scientific names as compared to
common names?

25
Lesson 9: Beneficial and harmful Interactions among Living Things [Grade 6]

Lesson Outcomes:
1. Described how organisms interact in the environment
2. Identified the biotic and abiotic components of the environment
3. Described how energy is transformed through feeding relationship

Life on earth is a complex web of life. Organisms continually interact with one another and
with their environment. Ecology is the science which tries to understand how and why these
kinds of interaction happen. It is the study of the relationships and interactions of living things
with another and with their external environment. It involves learning about ways living things
and nonliving world interact to support life.
To make sense of the complexity of our world, ecologists often speak of various layers of
ecological organization.
 Biosphere – part of earth that supports life, which includes the top portion of the
earth’s crust, all the bodies of water on earth’s surface and the surrounding
atmosphere
 Ecosystem – composed of all living things interacting with one another and with their
environment. Ecosystems maybe large, such as ocean, wetland and forest. They
maybe small like a pond or a single tree
 Biome – set of ecosystems occupying large ecological areas sharing distinct abiotic
characteristics among its unique flora and fauna. Biomes are usually defined by
abiotic factors such as climate patterns, soil types and vegetation
 Community – consists of different species of organisms that interact with each other
in a given area. A species is a group of organisms that share general physical
characteristics and are able to interbreed and produce offspring. A community is
made up of all the populations in a given habitat. The variety of life forms is
collectively known as biological diversity or biodiversity.
 Population – group of organisms of the same species that live in a defined area. A
community may have different populations
 Habitat – the actual place or type of environment in which an organism or
population lives.

An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals and microorganisms that interact with their
physical environment and depend on each other for survival.
The biotic component of an ecosystem is
made up of two groups of organisms: those
that can produce their own food called
producers or autotrophs such as plants and
those that consume or eat other organisms
called consumers or heterotrophs such as
animals. A special type of consumers that feed
on dead plants and animals are known as
decomposers which include bacteria.
Scavengers are consumers that wait their prey
to die before they feed them.
The abiotic components are the nonliving
chemical and physical factors that help sustain
life in the ecosystem. Examples include the rain,
which supplies moisture, dead organic matter in
the soil that provide nutrients, the sun that gives energy to start photosynthesis and the air
which is a mixture of gases.

26
Energy Flow:
Energy flows through the ecosystem in a series of
steps of eaten and being eaten.
The energy from the sun flows to the producers, the
consumers, decomposers and back again to the
producers. No other organisms on earth can capture
solar energy to produce their own food except the
producers.

Life is about survival. All organisms, big or small, require energy. They get this energy from
the food they eat.
A food chain traces the sequence of how organisms obtain their energy. It is a single – path
flow chart of what are what. The arrow points from the source of the energy to its consumer. A
food chain usually starts with a plant and ends with an animal. To complete the cycle,
decomposers come in to “clean up” the waste and return nutrient to the soil.

A food web describes the feeding relationship of organisms

in an ecosystem. It shows how a variety of food chains are
interrelated with one another. It shows the big picture of
feeding relationships and energy transfers within an
ecosystem. A food chain shows only a part of the food web.
An ecosystem is a group of organisms living together and
sharing the same resources. Definitely, there would be
organisms eating the same kinds of food.

If we graphically represent the relationship between

producers and consumers based on energy transfer, we
will end up with a pyramid. The energy pyramid shows the
relative amount of solar energy transferred from one
trophic or feeding level to the next.
A feeding level tells the location of an organism along a
food chain. The producers form the first feeding level,
herbivores the second, the carnivores the third or fourth.
To each feeding level, organisms use the energy to carry
out their life activities. The shape of pyramid indicates the
amount of available energy [calories] decreases at each
successive level.
About 90% of energy is lost to the environment as food is transferred from one trophic level
to the next. That is why only 10% of energy is consumed at one level is passed on to the next;
organisms use much of it before they themselves are eaten. The base of the pyramid
represents the producers. This is the level with the greatest amount of energy so it is presented

27
by the largest area of the pyramid. Because the energy decreases from one level to the next,
the pyramid is always broad at the base and narrow toward the apex.

Interactions in an Ecosystem:
Interactions in an ecosystem depend highly on an organism’s pursuit for food to ensure its
survival. These interactions maybe classified as follows:

Mutualism – both sides benefit

Do you remember Nemo, the clownfish, who lived with his father inside the sea
anemone? The animated film “Finding Nemo” presents one of the better known instances of
mutualism – that which takes place between the clownfish and the sea anemone. The
clownfish, living among the tentacles of the sea anemone, is protected by their stings; in return,
the sea anemone receives scraps of food that fall from the fish’s mouth. For the clownfish, the
relationship is one of absolute necessity: if it moves away from the sea anemone’s tentacles, it
will easily be devoured by predators. For the sea anemone, on the other hand, the relationship
is not so indispensable – it can live well enough without the clownfish’s leftovers.
Another mutualistic relationship, the interaction between gobies (small fish belonging to
the family Gobiidae) and shrimps, is crucial for both parties. The fish and the shrimp live
together in a burrow on the ocean bed: the shrimp digs the burrow, keeps it clean and regularly
removes sand from its opening; the goby positions itself at the burrow’s entrance and warns
the shrimp, which has poor eyesight, of impending danger. Using its antennae, the shrimp
maintains constant contact with the tail of the goby, which signals danger via tail movements.

Competition – both sides lose

When two species share a resource that is insufficient for both, competition develops
between them. For example, competition over food: when a cheetah or a leopard catches its
prey, it must eat it rapidly before other predators, such as hyenas, lions or scavenger birds,
gather round to enjoy the bounty. Competition can also take place between two individuals of
the same species. For example, two male deer may compete for the right to mate with all
females in the herd.
Predation – the predator benefits, the prey loses
In predatory interactions, organisms of one species feed on organisms of another
species. Predatory interactions are not exclusive to animals – a cat consuming a mouse, for
example. They also relate to animals that eat plants. As strange as it may seem to us, in
biological terms, herbivorous animals are also defined as predatory, preying on vegetarian food.
Parasitism – the parasite benefits, the host loses
In parasitic interactions, one organism, called the parasite, lives on or inside another
organism, called the host, and feeds off it. Many diseases are the result of parasitism, in which
a bacterium, a fungus or some other organism harms the host on which it lives. The head louse
and the dog tick are examples of two parasites familiar to many of us from our daily lives.
Commensalism – someone benefits, but no-one loses
In commensalism, one party benefits from the relationship, while the other is neither
positively nor negatively affected by it. For example, barnacles are small marine crustaceans
that attach themselves to the backs of whales or the shells of sea turtles. Unaffected by the
barnacles in any way, the sea turtles and whales provide these smaller organisms with several
benefits: a mobile habitat, defense against predators and opportunities to find readily-available
food.
Symbiosis simply refers to the living together of two or more organisms, called symbionts, in an
ecosystem over a long period of time. It generally refers to any of the three identified
interactions of organisms: mutualism, commensalism and parasitism.

Natural Ecosystems:
Natural ecosystems abound the planet earth. They are biological environments in the
planet that are not created or have not been altered by man. They can be classified either
terrestrial or aquatic environments. Below is the map showing the distribution of major biomes
of the world.

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 Biome Distribution Map

All Things are interconnected:

An ecosystem is a dynamic assembly of biotic and abiotic components interrelated to
one another through the energy that moves across trophic levels. Ecosystems have their own
way of managing interactions in a harmonious and balanced way. A functioning ecosystem uses
both energy and various inorganic substances. The energy first enters an ecosystem from the
outside – the sun and flows through it in a non cyclic manner. This means that energy has to be
constantly supplied to an ecosystem. Materials however need not come from the outside, they
are obtained within the environment and move around the ecosystem. Thus, in a “balanced”
ecosystem, materials are never lost; they are continuously recycled. Materials and other
materials pass between and among organisms as well as the physical environment in a self
sustaining natural cycle.
Industrial and commercial agricultural activity can disrupt these cycles in a global or
local scale. Understanding how these cycles work and how we affect them is essential to the
future life on the planet.

Evaluate:
1. How do we build a harmonious relationship with other organisms and our environment?

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