What is the

reproductive
system?
The reproductive
systems in both the
male and female
consist of primary
and secondary sex
organs and sex
glands.
The primary function of the reproductive systems
is to perpetuate the species through sexual or
germ cell fertilization and reproduction.
 The Male
Reproductive System
The male reproductive system performs
the following functions:

•Secretion of the male sex

hormones
•Production of sperm cells
•Transfer of sperm cells
Male reproductive system

The male gonads

are the testes
(sing. Testis)
hanging in the
scrotum.
Testis
The testis has
compartments that
contain tightly coiled
tubes called
seminiferous tubules.
•Scrotum. The
bag of skin
that holds
and helps to
protect the
testicles.
When a male is sexually
aroused

Sperm cells begin

their journey through
the vas deferens and
then exiting through
the urethra.
• Vas deferens. This is a
tube in which the sperm
is stored and it carries
the sperm out of the
scrotal sac. The vas
deferens are between
the epididymis and the
urethra and connect
these together.
Urethra is a common
passageway of urine
and semen.
The penis is an
external sex organ
that allows the
transfer of semen into
the vagina of the
female.
Three glands contribute fluid to the traveling sperm
cells:
(a) The seminal vesicles secrete a thick fluid that
contains nutrients
(b) prostate gland secretes a thick, milky alkaline fluid
to counteract the vagina and urethra and activate
the sperms, and
(c) the bulbourethral gland or Cowper’s gland
produces the lubricating effect. Altogether, the
sperm and the fluids make up the semen.
 Vas deferens
Penis

Epididymis
Urethra
Testis

Scrotum Presentation title 11

 Testosterone : The Male Sex
Hormone
Testosterone is the main male sex hormone
secreted by the testis. It is also necessary for the
maturation of the sperm cells with the help of
another hormone, the follicle-stimulating hormone
or FSH. Secondary sex characteristics. In males
include growth of facial, underarm, chest, pubic,
and body hair, enlargement of the voice box, and
increased secretion of sweat and oil.
Follicle- Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing Hormone ( LH)

FSH- signals sperm

production
( spermatogenesis)
LH- stimulates the
production of
testosterone
The Sperm
When you look at
the picture of the
human sperm,
what can you
compare it with?
A sperm has three main parts:
• The tail propels the sperm as it swims in the fluid.
• The middle piece contains mitochondria that
provide the sperm with energy during its journey
to the female body.
• The head of the sperm contains enzymes that
break the hyaluronic acid of the egg’s membrane.
The head of the sperm houses the genetic
material that will eventually unite with the egg’s
nucleus during fertilization.
The Sperm Challenge
•When a man ejaculates, about
200 to 500 million, sperms are
in the semen but only less than
1% of them make it to the egg.
Releasing them in millions increases the sperm’s chance to find
the egg. The sperm faces a lot of obstacles to reach the egg due
to the following reasons:
a. Millions already die in the vagina due to its acidic
environment;
b. Some sperms lose energy to continue the journey
c. Some sperms go to the oviduct or fallopian tube that does not
contain the egg;
d. Some sperms are blocked in the mucus covering the cervix;
and
e. Abnormal sperms resulting from its mass production are
unable to fertilize an egg.
 The Female
Reproductive System
The female reproductive system
performs the following functions:
•Production of female sex hormones;
•Production of egg cells
•Receive the male sex organ for the
transfer of sperms
•Protection and nourishment of the
developing embryo
• The female reproductive
system includes the ovaries,
fallopian tubes, uterus, and
vagina. The pair of ovaries,
lying on the right and left of
the upper pelvic cavity,
produce the mature egg
cell. This mature egg is
swept by the tiny fingerlike
projections of the oviducts
or fallopian tubes.
Female reproductive system: the
ovaries…
The two ovaries are
attached to each
side of the uterus
by a ligament. They
are oval-shaped,
and lie close to the
fimbria at the end of
the fallopian tubes.

Each ovary is filled, already at birth, with egg-

containing sacs called follicles. Each egg is called
an ovum.
Female reproductive system: the
fallopian tubes…
Tube widens to form the End of tube is
ampulla called the
infundibulum
The isthmus is
the portion that
connects to
uterus
Fimbria are the finger-like Opening
projections around the is called
opening that trap the egg as the
it leaves the ovary ostium
Female reproductive system: the
fallopian tubes…

The fallopian tube is 4-6 inches long. The egg, released

from the ovary, is captured by the fimbria and brought
into the fallopian tube. The egg is moved along inside
the tube by muscular contractions and the waving action
of cilia. It takes an egg about 3-4 days to travel the
length of the tube.
The uterus is an
inverted pear-shaped
muscular organ
where the embryo
may attach, to the
endometrium, its
inner wall.
Female reproductive system: the
uterus…
The uterus has 3
functions:
1. The endometrium
sheds the lining of the
uterus every 21 to 40
days by menstruation
2. It provides a place for
the protection and
nourishment of the
fetus during
pregnancy
3. It contracts during labor to expel the fetus
Cervix- the neck of the
uterus leading to the vaginal
canal.
Vagina- is a long, elastic,
muscular canal where
menstrual blood and tissue
are expelled from the body.
Hymen- is a membrane that
surrounds and partially
covers the opening of the
vagina.
Female reproductive system: the
vagina…
The vagina extends
from the cervix to the
outside of the body. It
is a 3 ½ inch long
muscular tube that
expands in length and
width during sexual
arousal.
The vagina is the female organ for copulation
receiving the seminal fluid from the male penis. It
is also a passageway for menstruation or the birth
of a fetus.
Female reproductive system: the vulva…
The vulva is 5 organs
making up the
external genitalia of
the female:
1. Mons pubis:
triangular-shaped
pad of fatty tissue
over the pubis
bone, covered with
pubic hair
Female reproductive system: the vulva…
2. Labia majora: 2
large folds of
adipose tissue on
the sides of the
vaginal opening
3. Labia minora: 2
smaller folds of
adipose tissue on
the inside of the
labia majora
Female reproductive system: the vulva…
4. Vestibule: area
between labia with
openings for the
vagina, urethra, and
two excretory ducts
for Bartholin’s
glands (provide
lubricant)
5. Clitoris: sensitive
fold of tissue
partially covered by
hood
Female reproductive system: the vulva…

The perineum is the area

located between the vaginal
opening and the anus. It is
a muscular sheet that can
be torn during childbirth.

Perineum

Some doctors avoid

uncontrolled tearing of
the perineum by making
a surgical incision called
an episiotomy.
 5. Fallopian tube

1. ovary 2. uterus
4.cervix
3.vagina
• The female sex hormones control the secondary
sex characteristics as well as the ovarian and
uterine cycle.
• Estrogen – regulates the menstrual cycle.
• Progesterone – it thickens the uterine lining and
creates a good environment for a fertilized egg to
implant
• Similar to males, females also secrete follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH) as directed by the pituitary gland during puberty.
• FSH- signals the
development of egg
cells ( oogenesis)
- causes the maturation
of ovarian follicles and
stimulates the release of
estrogen which is
responsible for
ovulation.
• LH- plays a role in the
development of ova, and
stimulation of estradiol
and progesterone
production
- which triggers
ovulation and formation
of corpus luteum and
release of progesterone.
Menarche- first menstruation
Menopause – a point in time 12
months after a woman’s last
period
Menstrual Cycle
1. Ovarian cycle
• Follicular phase
• Ovulation phase
• Luteal phase
2. Uterine cycle
•Menstruation
•Proliferative phase
•Secretory phase Presentation title 38
Female reproductive system: the
menstrual cycle…
The onset of the
menstrual cycle, or
menarche, begins at
puberty and ceases
at menopause. The
cycle has 3 phases:

The follicular phase is characterized by menstruation,

when the thickened lining of the endometrium is shed
because no egg was fertilized or implanted. Just prior to
this phase is a premenstrual period characterized by
hormonal and physical changes.
Female reproductive system: the
menstrual cycle…
The ovulatory phase
comes next. Estrogen is
the hormone produced by
the ovaries, which
stimulates the maturation
of a follicle and thickens
the endometrium.
The luteal phase follows ovulation, and is characterized
by the development of the corpus luteum, the secretion
of progesterone, the preparation of the endometrium for
implantation of a fertilized egg, and the formation of a
thick mucous to block the cervix once the egg passes
out of the fallopian tube.
Presentation title 41
 What is the
endocrine
system?

The endocrine system is made up of glands and the

hormones they secrete. Although the endocrine
glands are the primary hormone producers, the
brain, heart, lungs, liver, skin, thymus,
gastrointestinal mucosa, and placenta also produce
and release hormones.
 What is the endocrine system?
The primary
endocrine glands are
the pituitary, pineal,
thyroid, parathyroid,
islets of Langerhans,
adrenals, ovaries in
the female and testes
in the male.

The function of the endocrine system is the

production and regulation of chemical
substances called hormones.
 Hormones…

A hormone is a chemical transmitter. It is released in small

amounts from glands, and is transported in the
bloodstream to target organs or other cells. Hormones
are chemical messengers, transferring information and
instructions from one set of cells to another.
 Hormones regulate growth,
Hormones… development, mood, tissue
Hyposecretion or function, metabolism, and
hypersecretion of sexual function.
any hormone can
be harmful
to the body.
Controlling
the production
of hormones
can treat
many
hormonal
disorders in
the body.
 Hormones…

The pituitary gland has 2

lobes…

The endocrine system and nervous system work together

to help maintain homeostasis. The hypothalamus is a
collection of specialized cells located in the brain and is
the primary link between the two systems. It produces
chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone
secretions of the pituitary gland.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Growth Hormone
(GH): essential for
the growth and
development of
bones, muscles, and
other organs. It also
enhances protein
synthesis,
decreases the use of
glucose, and
promotes fat
destruction.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH): essential
for the growth of the
adrenal cortex.

Thyroid-Stimulating
Hormone (TSH):
essential for the growth
and development of the
thyroid gland.
 Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Follicle-Stimulating
Hormone (FSH): is a
gonadotropic hormone.

It stimulates the
growth ovarian
follicles in the female
and the production of
sperm in the male.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland… Luteinizing
Hormone (LH): is a
gonadotropic
hormone
stimulating the
development of
corpus luteum in
the female ovarian
follicles and the
production of
testosterone in the
male.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland… Prolactin (PRL):
stimulates the
development and
growth of the
mammary glands
and milk production
during pregnancy.

The sucking motion of the

baby stimulates prolactin
secretion.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH): regulates skin
pigmentation and promotes
the deposit of melanin in the
skin after exposure to sunlight
Secretions from the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland…
Antidiuretic
Hormone (ADH):
stimulates the
reabsorption of
water by the
renal tubules.
Hyposecretion
of this hormone
can result in
diabetes
insipidus.
Secretions from the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland…
Oxytocin: stimulates
the uterus to contract
during labor, delivery,
and parturition. A
synthetic version of
this hormone, used
to induce labor, is
called Pitocin. It also
stimulates the
mammary glands to
release milk.
Secretions from the pineal gland…
The pineal gland is pine-cone-shaped
and only about 1 cm in diameter.
Melatonin: communicates
information about
environmental lighting
to various parts of
the body. Has some effect
on sleep/awake cycles
and other biological
events connected to
them, such as a lower
production of gastric
secretions at night.
Secretions from the pineal gland…
Serotonin: a
neurotransmitter that
regulates intestinal
movements and affects
appetite, mood, sleep, anger,
and metabolism.
 Secretions of the thyroid gland…
The thyroid gland plays a
vital role in metabolism
and regulates the body’s
metabolic processes.

Calcitonin: influences
bone and calcium
metabolism;
maintains a
homeostasis of
calcium in the blood
plasma
 Secretions of the thyroid gland…
Thyroxine (T4) and
triodothyronine (T3):
essential to BMR – basal
metabolic rate (the rate at
which a person’s body
burns calories while at rest);
influences physical/mental
development and growth
Hyposecretion of T3 and T4 = cretinism,
myxedema, Hashimoto’s disease

Hypersecretion of T3 and T4 = Grave’s disease,

goiter, Basedow’s disease
Secretions of the parathyroid gland…

The two pairs of

parathyroid glands are
located on the dorsal or
back side of the thyroid
gland. They secrete
parathyroid (PTH) which
plays a role in the
metabolism of phosphorus.
Too little results in
cramping; too much
results in osteoporosis or
kidney stones.
The islets of Langerhans…

The islets of Langerhans are small clusters of

cells located in the pancreas.
Secretions from the islets of
Langerhans… Beta cells secrete the
hormone insulin, which is
Alpha cells essential for the maintenance
facilitate the of normal blood sugar levels.
breakdown of Inadequate levels result in
glycogen to diabetes mellitus.
glucose. This
elevates the blood
sugar.

Delta cells suppress

the release of
glucagon and
insulin.
The adrenal glands…
The triangular-
shaped adrenal
glands are
located on the
top of each
kidney. The
inside is called
the medulla and
the outside layer
is called the
cortex.
Secretions from the
adrenal cortex…
Cortisol: regulates
carbohydrate, protein, and fat
metabolism; has an anti-
inflammatory effect; helps
the body cope during times of
stress
Hyposecretion results Corticosterone: like
in Addison’s disease; cortisol, it is a
hypersecretion steroid; influences
results in Cushing’s potassium and
disease sodium metabolism
Secretions from the adrenal cortex…
Aldosterone: essential in regulating
electrolyte and water balance by
promoting sodium and chloride
retention and potassium excretion.

Androgens: several
hormones including
testosterone; they
promote the
development of
secondary sex
characteristics in
the male.
Secretions from the adrenal
medulla…

Dopamine is used
to treat shock. It
dilates the
arteries, elevates
systolic blood
pressure,
increases cardiac
output, and
increases urinary
output.
Secretions
from the
adrenal
medulla…

Epinephrine is also called adrenalin. It elevates

systolic blood pressure, increases heart rate and
cardiac output, speeds up the release of glucose
from the liver… giving a spurt of energy, dilates
the bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and
dilates the pupils to see more clearly. It is often
used to counteract an allergic reaction.
Secretions from the
adrenal medulla…

Norepinephrine, like epinephrine, is released when

the body is under stress. It creates the underlying
influence in the fight or flight response. As a drug,
however, it actually triggers a drop in heart rate.
 Secretions of the ovaries…
The ovaries produce
several estrogen hormones
and progesterone. These
hormones prepare the
uterus for pregnancy,
promote the development
of mammary glands, play a
role in sex drive, and
develop secondary sex
characteristics in the
female.
Estrogen is essential for the growth, development,
and maintenance of female sex organs.
 Secretions of the testes…
The testes produce
the male sex
hormone called
testosterone. It is
essential for normal
growth and
development of the
male sex organs.
Testosterone is
responsible for the
erection of the
penis.
 Secretions of the placenta…
During pregnancy, the
placenta serves as an
endocrine gland.

It produces
chorionic
gonadotropin
hormone,
estrogen, and
progesterone.
 Secretions of the gastrointestinal
mucosa…
The mucosa
of the pyloric
area of the
stomach
secretes the
hormone
gastrin, which
stimulates the
production of
gastric acid
for digestion.
 Secretions of the gastrointestinal
mucosa…
The mucosa of
the duodenum
and jejunum
secretes the
hormone
secretin, which
stimulates
pancreatic juice,
bile, and
intestinal
secretion.
 Secretions of the
thymus…
The thymus gland has
two lobes, and is part
of the lymphatic
system. It is a
ductless gland, and
secretes thymosin.
This is necessary for
the Thymus’ normal
production of T cells
for the immune
system.
 What is the
integumentary
system?
The integumentary
system consists of
the skin and its
accessory structures,
including the hair,
nails, sebaceous
glands, and sweat
glands.
 Skin…
The skin is the exterior
covering of the body. It
weighs more than 6
pounds in the average
adult, and covers more
than 3,000 square inches.
It is the largest organ of
the body. It is supplied
with blood vessels and
nerves.
 Functions of skin… The skin provides
protection. It
protects against
invasion by
bacteria and
other harmful
agents. It protects
delicate cells
beneath the
surface from
injury.
It inhibits excessive loss of water and electrolytes.
It produces a protective pigmentation to protect the
body against excessive exposure from the sun. It
helps produce the body’s supply of Vitamin D.
 The skin
Functions of skin… regulates
body
temperature.
When the
body is too
cold, the
skin’s blood
vessels
When the body is too hot, the constrict. This
blood vessels in the skin dilate. allows more
That brings more blood to the heat-carrying
surface for cooling by radiation. At blood to
the same time, sweat glands circulate to
secrete more sweat that cools the the muscles
body when it evaporates. and organs.
Functions of skin… The skin provides
sensations.
It contains millions
of nerve endings
that act as sensory
receptors for pain,
heat, cold, and
pressure. When
stimulation occurs,
nerve impulses are
sent to the cerebral
cortex of the brain…
and the brain
triggers any
necessary response.
 The skin has two layers… the
Epidermis… epidermis and the dermis.
The epidermis actually has 4
străta…

Stratum corneum
The stratum corneum
(STRĂT um KOR nee um) is
the outermost strata of
the epidermis. It is
mostly dead cells, filled
with a protein substance
called keratin. It is
thicker on the soles of
the feet than on the
eyelids…where there is
less pressure.
Epidermis…
The stratum lucidum
(LOO seh dum) is a

Stratum lucidum
translucent layer
lying directly
beneath the
corneum. It may not
even exist in thinner
skin. Cells in this
layer are also dead
or are in the process
of dying.
Epidermis…
The stratum granulosum
(grăn yū LŌ sum) is one

Stratum granulosum
or more layers of cells
starting to die and
become hard. They are
in the process of
keratinization…
(kare ah tin ī ZĀ shun)
becoming fibrous protein
similar to that in hair and
nails.
Epidermis… The stratum germinativum
(jer mah nah TĪV um)
is composed of several
layers of living cells
capable of cell division. It
is the innermost layer of

Stratum germinativum
the epidermis, and
contains melanin… the
pigment that gives color to
the skin. The more
abundant the melanin…
the darker the skin color.
Damage to this layer, such
as in severe burns,
requires skin grafts.
 The dermis…
The dermis
is beneath
the
epidermis
and is
composed
of
connective
tissue.
It contains the lymphatics, nerves, nerve endings,
blood vessels, sebaceous and sweat glands,
elastic fibers, and hair follicles.
 The dermis…
The dermis is divided into
two layers…
1. the papillary layer
(PĂP ah lair ee) is
arranged into microscopic
structures that form ridges.
These are the finger- and
footprints 2. The reticular layer
(ruh TĬK yoo ler) is
beneath the papillary
layer; it is a white fibrous
tissue that supports the
blood vessels
The dermis… The dermis is connected to
underlying tissue by the
The subcutaneous tissue.
subcutaneous
tissue or
hypodermis is
composed of
adipose and
connective
tissue. It
supports,
nourishes,
insulates, and
cushions the
skin. HYPODERMIS
 The hair is a threadlike
The hair… structure formed by a group of
cells that develop within a hair
follicle or socket. Each hair
has a shaft that is visible and
a root that is embedded in the
follicle.
A pilomotor (pī lah MŌ ter)
muscle is attached to the side
of each follicle. It is stimulated
by skin irritants, emotional
arousal, or cold temperatures,
and reacts by contracting.
This causes goose flesh or
goose pimples.
 The hair…
At the base of each hair
follicle is a bulb
enclosing a loop of
capillaries. It is called
the hair papilla
(pah PILL ah), and
provides nourishment
to the hair. It is one of
the few living parts of
the hair, and is
responsible for hair
growth.
 The transparent cuticle covers
The hair… the hair shaft like shingles on a
roof, protecting it from the
elements and chemicals, and
from losing moisture. The
cortex provides most of the
hair’s weight. It contains
melanin which provides color to
the hair, stores oils, provides
flexibility and elasticity, and
adds shape to the hair. When the
cuticle is damaged and exposes
the cortex, hair looks dull and
dry. The medulla is a inner
hollow core that runs the length
of the shaft.
 Sebaceous glands…
Sebaceous (sǐ BAY shuss) glands are oil glands. They
have tiny ducts that open into each hair follicle.
Each
sebaceous
gland secretes
sebum, which
lubricates the
hair and skin.
The amount of
secretion varies
with age,
puberty, and
pregnancy.
Nails…
Fingernails and toenails
are hard keratin
structures that protect
the ends of the fingers
and toes. The nail root,
also called the germinal
matrix or nailbed, begins
several millimeters into
the finger and extends to The under-surface
the edge of the white, of the nail plate or
crescent-shaped lunula. body of the nail has
This is where the growth grooves that help
occurs… approximately anchor it.
1 mm. per week.
Nails…
The cuticle is also called
the eponychium
(ep ǐ NĬK ee um). It
fuses the nail plate and
the skin of the finger
together to form a
waterproof barrier.
The hyponychium
(hī poh NĬK ee um) is
under the free edge of the
nail. It also creates a
waterproof barrier, fusing
the skin of the finger to A lost finger- or toenail
the underside of the nail will regenerate.
 Ingrown nail…

Ingrown nails are simply those that have curled

down or around and are growing into the skin. They
may become swollen and inflamed. Trim toenails
straight across to avoid this growth pattern.
 Sudoriferous Glands…
Sudoriferous (soo door RĬF or us) glands are
sweat glands. About 2 million are distributed over
the surface of the body, more numerous on the
palms of the hands, soles of the feet, forehead,
and axillae (AG zil ah) or underarms.
 Sudoriferous Glands…
Sweat glands produce sweat or perspiration. As
sweat collects on the skin surface, it evaporates
and creates a cooling effect. Sweat also rids the
body of waste through the pores of the skin.
As it accumulates, sweat
may become odorous by
the action of bacteria.

The average person

loses approximately ½
liter of fluid through
sweating each day.