Task 4

4.1: Outline the structure and functions of the male and

female human reproductive system.
The sperm-producing testes, the penis, the epididymis, the vas
deferens, the ejaculatory ducts, and the urethra are all parts of the
male reproductive system. The fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina,
and vulva make up the female reproductive system, which also
includes the ovaries (which generate eggs or oocytes).

Key Points:
 The male reproductive system consists of external organs.
The testes in the scrotum produce the male gamete, sperm,
which is ejaculated in seminal fluid by the penis.
 The female reproductive system primarily consists of
internal organs. The female gamete, ovum, is produced in
the ovaries and is released monthly to travel to the uterus
via the Fallopian tubes.
 Fertilization can occur if the penis is
inserted through the vulva into the
vagina and sperm is ejaculated
towards the cervix. If an ovum is
currently in the uterus, it can then
be fertilized by sperm that manage
to enter the cervix.
 Once fertilized, an ovum becomes a
zygote and if all goes well, develops
into a fetus in the uterus.
 Natural birth occurs when the fetus is pushed from the
vagina after nine months in the uterus.

the organs, glands, and tissues that are responsible for childbirth.
The ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina are all parts of
the female reproductive system. It includes the penis, prostate, and
testes in men.

M(Vi) Describe the structure and function of the male and

female reproductive system.
The reproductive system is made up of several organs and a network of
hormone-producing cells that collaborate to produce life.
The sperm-producing testes, the penis, the epididymis, the vas deferens, the
ejaculatory ducts, and the urethra are all parts of the male reproductive
system.
The fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva make up the female
reproductive system, which also includes the ovaries (which generate eggs or
oocytes).
A couple cannot naturally conceive unless both the male and female
reproductive systems are healthy. Infertility may be brought on by an issue
with the design or operation of either reproductive system.

A man can impregnate a woman who then gives birth to a child thanks to the
reproductive system, which is made up of a network of hormone-producing
organs in both men and women. A fertilised egg (embryo) that implants and
develops in the uterus during pregnancy is produced during conception when a
sperm cell from the male unites with an egg cell from the woman.

The most frequent reasons of infertility in both men and women include
abnormalities or injury to the reproductive organs, as well as problems with
the hormone distribution and production system.

Reproductive hormones in women:

The menstrual cycle is regulated by the complex interactions of hormones
produced in the hypothalamus, pituitary and ovary. FSH released from the
pituitary stimulates the ovarian follicles to begin maturation and growth.
Follicles are sac-like structures in the ovary containing eggs. As the follicle and
egg develops, cells within the follicle produce estrogen. Follicle cells produce
another hormone called inhibin that circulates back to the hypothalamus and
pituitary to decrease the release of FSH.

The production of estrogen continues to rise under the influence of FSH as the
follicle matures and increases in size. When the follicle is mature, maximum
production of estrogen occurs and this signals a rapid rise in LH from the
pituitary gland. LH, along with the estrogen produced by the ovaries, helps in
the maturation process of the egg. LH also triggers ovulation – the release of a
mature egg from one of the follicles in the ovary. After ovulation, the follicle
turns into a different structure, the corpus luteum, which produces
progesterone.

In order to prepare for implantation, progesterone acts on the endometrium of

the uterus to cause it to thicken. Embryo development and pregnancy depend
on progesterone. If implantation doesn't take place, the thicker endometrium
will disintegrate and disappear with menstrual flow.

Reproductive hormones in men:

Spermatogenesis is the process by which the pituitary glands FSH prompts the
testicles to create sperm in men. The pituitary glands LH instructs the testicles
to create testosterone, which speeds up the maturation of sperm. The main
hormone involved in male sex is testosterone.

Key functions & parts of the female reproductive system

The female reproductive system is designed to:

 Produce the eggs necessary for reproduction, called the ova (ovum is
singular for one egg) or oocytes.
 Incubate and nourish a fertilized egg until it is fully developed.
 Produce female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.

The female reproductive organs include:

 Ovaries — Located on either side of the uterus, the ovaries are two
diminutive glands with an oval shape. They generate estrogenic, the
hormone involved in female sex, and are the location of the female sex
cells, also known as eggs.

 Fallopian tubes — A fertilised egg travels down to the uterus through

the fallopian tubes, which are tiny passageways. Fertility issues can
occasionally result from damage to or obstruction of the fallopian tubes,
often known as tubal illness. Study up on typical infertility issues.

 Uterus — Between the bladder and the rectum in a woman's lower

abdomen, the uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped structure. It also goes by
the name "womb" and is where the foetus is kept throughout
pregnancy. The uterus creates an endometrium, which is a nutrient-rich
 lining, each month. To feed a growing foetus, this lining's reproductive
function is to support reproduction. Infertility may result from uterine
abnormalities such fibroids or endometriosis that prevent the fertilisation of
eggs or the implantation and growth of embryos.

 Cervix — Between the bladder and the rectum, the lower, narrower
portion of the uterus is known as the cervix. The tube it creates leads to
the vagina. The cervix, also known as the neck or the opening to the
womb, allows menstrual blood to exit and semen to enter the uterus.
The growth of the embryo or the process of fertilisation can occasionally
be impacted by polyps, growths in the cervix.

 Vagina — The cervix—the bottom portion of the uterus—joins the

exterior of the body through the vagina, commonly referred to as the
birth canal.

 Vulva — The female genital organs' exterior portion is represented by

this.

Key functions & parts of the male reproductive system

The male reproductive system performs the following functions:
 Produces and secretes male sex hormones that are responsible for
sustaining the male reproductive system.
 Produces, maintains, and transports sperm (male reproductive cells) and
protective fluid (semen).
 Releases sperm within the female reproductive canal during sex.

Unlike in the female reproductive system, most male reproductive

organs are not located internally. They include:
 Penis — The penis is made up of two parts, the shaft and the head. The
urethral opening at the tip of the penis delivers sperm into the vagina
during sexual intercourse.

 Scrotum — The sac-like organ that hangs below and behind the penis is
called the scrotum. Along with numerous nerves and blood vessels, it
houses the testicles (also known as testes).

 Testicles (testes) — The main male reproductive organ is the testes,

which are oval organs located in the scrotum and produce sperm and
testosterone.
 Epididymis — On the underside of each testicle is the epididymis, a C-
shaped tube. Sperm cells made in the testes are transported and stored
by it. Since the sperm that emerges from the testes are immature and
incapable of fertilisation, the epididymis also helps the sperm reach
maturity. Contractions push the sperm into the vas deferens during
sexual stimulation.

 Ductus (vas) deferens — A lengthy, muscular tube called the vas

deferens extends from the epididymis across the pelvic cavity and ends
right beyond the bladder. In preparation for ejaculation, the vas
deferens delivers mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that conveys
urine or sperm outside of the body.

 Ejaculatory ducts — These are created when the vas deferens and
seminal vesicles combine. The urethra receives the ejaculatory ducts'
discharge.

 Urethra — The tube that transfers urine from the bladder to the
outside of the body is called the urethra. When a guy experiences sexual
climax, it also has the added function of ejaculating semen. The flow of
urine from the urethra is restricted while the penis is erect during sex,
allowing only semen to be ejaculated at climax.

 Other glands — Semen or fluid is produced by a number of glands to

aid in reproduction. Fructose is produced by the seminal vesicle and
gives the sperm energy as they search for an egg. Additionally, the
prostate gland creates a fluid that facilitates sperm transit through the
female reproductive system more quickly. Bulbourethral glands, also
known as Cowper's glands, are a different group of glands that produce
a fluid that shields sperm as they travel through the urethra.
 M(Vii) Describe how gametes are produced.

A gamete, sex, or reproductive cell that only has one set of different
chromosomes, or only has half the genetic material needed to make
a full creature, is referred to as a haploid. Meiosis (reduced division),
in which a germ cell splits into two pieces and produces four
gametes, is the process by which gametes are created. Male and
female gametes combine during fertilisation to create a diploid
zygote, which has paired chromosomes.

As in some species of algae, fungi, and protozoans, gametes may

have the same shape (isogamy), or they may differ in shape
(heterogamy, or anisogamy), as in the case of many green algae of
the genus Chlamydomonas. Oogamy is a sophisticated kind of
heterogamy that is present in the gametes of all higher plants,
certain algae, and some fungi. The sperm, one of the gametes in
oogamy, is small and mobile, whereas the egg is big and immobile
Because meiosis reduces the number of
chromosomes in a gamete to half and then
restores the normal diploid number of
chromosomes during fertilisation, gametes must
be produced by meiosis in order to reproduce
sexually.
Spermatogenesis. Diagrammatic representation of a cross section through
a seminiferous tubule in a reptile testis:

Gamete structure and production:

During spermatogenesis, cells (spermatogonia) in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes create male gametes
(spermatozoa). To create more spermatogonia, which
develop into primary spermatocytes, spermatogonia go
through mitotic divisions. These cells then divide twice
during meiosis to become spermatids. Spermatozoa are
created during the differentiation of the
Structure of spermatozoan of a hylid frog.
Only the base of the tail is shown, and the
head of the sperm has been shortened.
spermatids and are fed by Sertoli cells. Each spermatozoon is a highly
modified cell that consists of three parts: a head, a middle region
filled with mitochondria for the cell's energy requirements, and a
filamentous tail for movement. The cell nucleus is in the head and is
covered by an acrosome. Proteolytic enzymes made by the acrosome
break down the egg capsule, enabling the spermatozoon to enter an
egg. Spermatozoan morphology differs significantly between
amphibians and reptiles. It remains to be seen whether sperm
morphology will out to be a helpful characteristic in phylogenetic
analysis and attempts to correlate sperm morphology with breeding
behaviours have even produced conflicting results.

Gamete structure and production:

The ovary in females is where gametes or ova are made. Primordial
gonocytes are nonsex cell capsules that are found in the ovary's wall
and are called follicles. To create oogonia (cells that will generate
eggs), primordial gonocytes undergo mitotic division. Oogonia divide
through two rounds of mitosis, grow to form primary oocytes, which
then go through two rounds of meiosis. A secondary oocyte and the
first polar body, a non-functional cell, are produced by the first
meiotic division; the ovum and a secondary polar body are produced
by the second meiotic division. Thus, only one ovum is produced by
each oogonium.

Egg development in reptiles and

amphibians. All reptiles undergo
internal fertilisation following the
ovulation of the eggs into the
oviducts. Many amphibians fertilise
externally. Corpora lutea are
uncommon in amphibians but
frequently present in reptiles. After
the clutch is produced, the process is repeated as unused ovarian
follicles mobilise lipids for the subsequent clutch's production.
Depending on the species and the environment, further clutches may
be born during the current season or the one after.
Sex cell development is a crucial component of human reproduction.
An egg cell and a sperm cell unite during fertilisation. These sex cells
are also known as gametes or reproductive cells. Both men's testicles
and women's ovaries generate sperm and egg cells, respectively.

Male gametes Female gametes

The male gametes are known as
sperms and are produced by the
process of spermatogenesis.
They are usually small and
motile.
They are produced in large
number.
In humans, the male gametes
decide the sexuality of the
offspring.
The female gametes are known
as the egg or ovum and are
produced by oogenesis.
They are large and nonmotile.
Only a single gamete is formed
at a time
Female gametes do not
determine sexuality in humans.

Information:

Fertilisation is the process through which male and female gametes

join to form a zygote. Only when a person enters puberty in humans
can they begin to create these gametes. It is a period when a
person's structural growth, which eventually leads to sexual
development, occurs. Similar to how guys' face and pubic hairs, voice
changes, etc., while females' menstrual
cycle and breast development are two
examples of typical alterations. These
processes are regulated by a number of
hormones. Males generate sperm in the
scrotum, which is an organ that is external
to the body, whereas females make ovum
through a process called gametogenesis in the ovaries. Sperm
development continues throughout a person's life, although
ovulation stops when a woman reaches menopause.
Notes:
The male process of releasing sperm and other fluids is known as
ejaculation. These gametes are haploid, which implies that they have
only half as many chromosomes. Gametes are categorised according
on their morphology. In Monocytic, there are gametes that are
identical to one another. Anisogametes differ from those found in
mammals. In oogamy, the male gamete is small and motile, similar to
red algae, while the female gamete is huge and motile.

M(Viii) Describe fertilisation.

Fertilisation is a multi-step, intricate process that takes 24 hours to

complete. The beginning of pregnancy and the start of a female's
280-day journey begin when male sperm and female ovum combine
to form a zygote.

The zygote changes and grows quickly in the first few weeks
following fertilisation. The organ genic period, which lasts for the
first eight weeks of development, is the embryonic stage. The organs
of the embryo go through a critical stage of development currently.
Teratogens have an all or nothing impact on the embryo throughout
the first three weeks. Growth and function are impacted from the
third to the eighth week. The foetal period is the
nine-to-thirty-seven-week period of pregnancy. This
time frame is crucial for considerable size expansion
and ongoing organ system differentiation. Just before
birth, the respiratory system is completely
developed. These processes start at the foetal stage
and last through adolescence in both males and females. An ovum
and sperm are produced as a result of this mitotic and meiotic
process. The embryonic development of gametes is identical in males
and females before they grow into gametogonia, and they can be
distinguished at week ten. The gametogonia are created when
primordial germ cells undergo mitotic divisions and migrate from the
dorsal endoderm of the yolk sac to the hindgut of the gonadal ridge.
Fertilization is of two types:
1. Internal Fertilization:
The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is
known as internal fertilization. For ex. humans, cows, dogs, etc. This
method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals. However, some
aquatic animals also adopt this method. This may take place by direct
introduction of sperms by the male in the female reproductive tract,
or the male deposits the sperms in the environment which is picked
up by the female in her reproductive tract.

They are three ways by which offspring are produced by

internal fertilization:
Oviparity- The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they receive
nourishment from the yolk.
Ovoviviparity - The fertilized eggs are retained in the female's body
where they receive nourishment from the yolk. They are ready to
hatch.
Viviparity - The offspring are born directly instead of hatching from
the eggs. They receive nutrition from the mother. This can be seen in
mammals.
2. External Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place outside the female is called external
fertilization. For ex., frogs, fish Most fertilization takes place during
the process of spawning. The environmental signals such as water
temperature trigger spawning.
Fertilization in Humans:
The fusing of male and female gametes results in the creation of a
zygote, which is the consequence of fertilisation, which is a natural
life process. In humans, the fallopian tube is where fertilisation
occurs. Thousands of sperm are inseminated into the female vagina
during coitus, which produces semen. Only a small percentage of
sperm will make it to the fallopian tube's opening as they travel
towards the uterus. The secondary oocyte emerges from the ovary's
mature Graafian Follicle and travels into the fallopian tube, where it
is fertilised and expelled from the ovary 24 hours later. The oocyte is
fertilised by a single sperm while being surrounded by numerous
sperm. The sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte and completes
the meiosis during meiosis-Il. The egg is then known as the
secondary oocyte. Sperm and eggs can both only briefly display their
vitality. In a female reproductive system, sperm can live for 48–72
hours, whereas the egg can be fertilised for up to 24 hours before
being released. ovaries' tubes.

Steps of Fertilization in Humans:

In humans, fertilisation occurs over several steps that combine both
chemical and physical processes. Below are listed the various stages
of human fertilisation:

Inflammatory Response

When sperm become incapacitated, acrosomal reactions occur,

releasing chemicals from the acrosome known as sperm lysis.

The secondary oocyte and the sperm's plasma membranes are fused
together by the acrosomal reactions, allowing the sperm's contents
to enter. The secondary oocyte's plasma membrane and the sperm's
plasma membrane link together, depolarizing the oocyte's plasma
membrane. Hence, polygamy is avoided. The acrosomal process
heavily depends on calcium ions. An ideal pH, temperature, and
calcium and magnesium concentration are the primary requirements
for acrosomal reactions.
Activation of Eggs:
The entry of sperm triggers the metabolism in the zygote.
Consequently, protein synthesis and cellular respiration increase.
Implantation-
Once fertilization happens, the cell starts to divide and multiply
within 24 hours in the fallopian tube. This detached multi-celled
structure is called a zygote. Later, after 3-4 days it travels to the
uterus and now, we call it as an embryo.
The embryo develops and undergoes various stages and gets
attached to the endometrial layer of the uterus. This process of
attachment is known as implantation.
In the early stage of pregnancy, the conceptus clings to the walls of
the uterus and the conceptus are called a blastocyst. In order to
grow, the fetus receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother.
When the eggs leave the ovary, the fertilization process of the eggs
begins. This transportation of eggs is done through the Fallopian
tubes.
When male sperm cells are deposited in the female reproductive
tract, they try to unite with the egg and travel to the proximity of the
Fallopian tubes.
After getting fertilized, the egg has to go through a series of cell
division. It takes 9 days for the egg to reach the uterus.
By this time the egg with single cell gets divided and a ball of around
200 cells gets created.

D(Vi) Explain how the structure of given organs in the male

and female human reproductive system are related to their
function.

The reproductive organs of the male and female reproductive

systems are connected to their activities in the following ways. One
factor in how the organs work is their structure. For instance, the
ovaries and testes must both be capable of producing eggs and
sperm, respectively. Additionally, for these eggs and sperm to be
fertilised, the reproductive organs must be able to release them. For
fertilisation to take place, the sperm must pass via the ejaculatory
duct and exit the body through the penis. The eggs must also travel
from the ovaries down the fallopian tubes to the uterus, where
sperm may fertilise them.
The male reproductive system's organs are specialised for three
main purposes:

 To create, retain, and transport semen (a

protective fluid) and sperm (male
reproductive cells).

 To cause sperm to flow out of the female

reproductive system.
 To create and secrete sex hormones in men.
Functions
Organs Functions
Testes Produce spermatozoa and make
male hormone testosterone
which stimulates change during
puberty.
Scrotum Sac covering testes which hangs
outside the body to make it cool
as sperm cannot develop or be
stored at 37*C or above.
Sperm duct Small tubules outside the testes
store sperm for maturation.
Sperm ducts connect these
tubules to urethra.
Urethra Urethra carries urine and sperm
but not at the same time. A ring
of muscle around the urethra
contracts to prevent urine loss
during sexual intercourse.
Prostate and other gland Secrete fluid for sperm cell to
swim. Prostates secrete mucus
and other secrete sugar for
respiration of sperm cell. Spam
 cell + fluid = semen.
Penis Urethra runs down the centre of
penis. It is main function is to
deliver sperm to the vagina for
fertilization.

Female reproductive system:

Both internal and exterior organs make up the female reproductive
system.

Internal organ:
Uterus
-The uterus is a hollow organ that resembles a pear in both size and
shape.
-It performs two crucial jobs: it is the menstrual
organ, and, during pregnancy, it absorbs the
fertilised ovum, holds onto it, and feeds it until
the foetus is expelled during labour.
Vagina:
-The 6 inch long, thin-walled muscle tube that
connects the uterus to the external genitalia is
known as the vagina.
-Between the bladder and the rectum, it is situated.

Fallopian Tubes (two):

-Each tube, which extends medially from each ovary and empties
into the superior area of the uterus, is approximately 4 inches long.
-Ovum is transported to the uterus by the fallopian tubes from the
ovaries. Fallopian tubes are not in contact with the ovaries.

External organs:
Mons pubis
-This is the fatty rounded are overlying the symphysis pubis and
covered with thick coarse hair.
Labia majora:
- Starting from the mons pubis, the labia majora runs posteriorly.

- They are the two lengthy, hair-covered folds of skin.

- They contain and safeguard additional external reproductive
organs.

Labia minora:
The labia minora are 2 smaller folds enclosed by the labia majora.
They protect the opening vagina and urethra.

Vestibule:
The clitoris, urethral meatus, and vaginal introitus make up the
vestibule. The short erectile organ known as the clitoris, which is
located at the top of the vaginal vestibule, is used for sexual
stimulation. The mouth or aperture of the urethra is known as the
urethral meatus. Urine leaves the bladder through a little tube called
the urethra. The vaginal introitus serves as the opening.

Perineum:
This is the skin-covered, skeletal region between the anus and the
vaginal opening (introitus). It helps to close off the anal, vaginal, and
urine openings. It aids in supporting the pelvic contents as well.
Vestibular or vulvovaginal glands are Bartholin's glands. On either
side of the vaginal entrance, there are Bartholin's glands. They create
a mucoid material that acts as lubricant during sex.
The gonads, which are part of both the male and female
reproductive systems, create gametes. A zygote is a single diploid cell
that is created when a gamete and another haploid gamete join
during fertilisation. The gonads create sex hormones in addition to
gametes.
 D(Vii) Explain why gametes need half the number of
chromosomes of somatic cells.
Only half of your father's and mother's chromosomes were passed
down to you. You would have twice as many
chromosomes as you are intended to have if you
inherited them all. The average human has 23
pairs of chromosomes. You would have 46 pairs of
chromosomes if you inherited all your parents'
genes.

Gametes, which include sperm and eggs, are reproductive cells. The
number of chromosomes must be cut in half as gametes are created.
The gametes must include half of the chromosomes found in healthy
body cells because the zygote must contain genetic material from
both the mother and the father. There are the expected number of
chromosomes produced when two gametes fuse together during
fertilisation. Meiosis, a unique form of cell division, is how gametes
are created. Meiosis involves two rounds of cell division without a
break for DNA replication. The number of chromosomes is cut in half
through this procedure.

Each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes

found in human cells is referred to as a
homologous chromosome. You inherited
one chromosome from your mother and
one from your father for each of the 23
pairs. Genes on chromosomes can be
found in several forms called alleles. Even
though they could have different alleles, identical chromosomes
contain the same genes. Homologous chromosomes are thus very
similar but not identical. When gametes are formed, the homologous
chromosomes are divided. Gametes therefore only have 23
chromosomes, not 23 pairs.
If gametes had the same number of chromosomes as body
cells, what problem would this cause at fertilization?
The embryo would have double the number of chromosomes – 92
instead of 46 in humans.

Why does this not happen?

Only one chromosome from each homologous pair in the parent cell
is copied to the gemmates during call division.
This means that human gametes only have
23 chromosomes. Gametes are said to be
haploid cells.

Somatic cells
-body cells
 Contains the diploid {2n} chromosome
number. (2 sets of DNAS, 46 total
chromosomes, and 1 set from each
parent)
 Produced through mitosis.
 Example: muscle cell, nerve cell, and stomach cell.

Gametes
-sex cell
 Contain the haploid {n} chromosome number. (1 set of DNA, 23
total chromosomes, and ½ set from each parent.)
 Produced through meiosis.
 Example: sperm cell and egg cell

Meiosis: two- stage cell division in the chromosome number if the

parent cell is reduced by half. Meiosis is the process by which
gametes are formed.
Gametes: sex cells that have a haploid (n) chromosome number.
 D(Viii) Describe fertilisation in terms of cellular and
intracellular changes.

A gamete merger is referred to as fertilisation. Sperm and egg

combine during fertilisation to create a diploid zygote, which starts
foetal development. The sperm-egg attachment process in mammals
includes several sequential phases, such as the acrosome reaction,
zona pellucida penetration, and membrane fusion. One would
assume that the processes of fertilisation are understood given the
success of in vitro fertilisation, yet the specifics of many of the steps
in fertilisation are still unknown. Recent research combining
structural biology and genetic knockout mouse models is shedding
important light on the molecular mechanisms underlying sperm-egg
adhesion and fusion. Here, we summarise findings from recent
structural and functional investigations that shed light on the
interactions involved in human gamete attachment as we discuss the
cell biology of fertilisation.

Two specialised cells, called gametes, combine during fertilisation to

create a new life. A sperm and an egg undergo a sequence of cell-
matrix and cell-cell interactions during fertilisation, which eventually
lead to cell fusion. At fertilisation, an egg undergoes significant
change. These modifications affect its capacity for development,
physiology, gene expression profile, and cell surface.

The stages of fertilization can be divided into four processes: 1)

sperm preparation, 2) sperm-egg recognition and binding, 3) sperm-
egg fusion and 4) fusion of sperm and egg pronuclei and activation of
the zygote. After fertilization, the flower loses its shine. After
fertilization four major changes that take places are development of
endosperm and embryo, development or maturation of ovules into
seeds and formation fruit from ovary.
Hundreds of sperm attracted to the corona radiata begin to break
through the barrier of granulosa cells and approach the zona
pellucida.
Connect with the zona pellucida triggers the acrosome reaction,
causing sperm to secrete digestive enzymes that break down the
glycoprotein membrane of the zona pellucida and help to expose the
oocytes plasma membrane.
A single sperm succeeds in burrowing through the corona radiata and
zona pellucida and contacting the oocyte’s plasma membrane. The
sperm’s plasma membrane fuses with that of oocyte and sperm
releases its nucleus into the cytoplasm of the oocyte.
Secondary oocyte:
 Haploid cell (22x) that is released after
meiosis ll (ovulation)
 It has a glycoprotein layer – zona
pellucida.
 Surrounded by multiple layers of
granulosa cells – corona radiata.
 Moves into the uterine tube with the
help of peristalsis and ciliated
epithelial cells.
 Remains active for about 12-24 hours after ovulation.
Fertilization must occur within this 12-to-24-hour window to
insure survival of ovum.
 Takes approximately 72 hours for the egg to reach the uterus:
therefore, fertilization must occur in the fallopian tube
otherwise the ovum would die prior to reaching the sperm.
Intercellular denotes a space between cells. Contrasted with this is
intracellular, which simply means inside the cell. A cell membrane, a
phospholipid sheath that envelops and encloses the cell, is present in
all cells. The term "intracellular" refers to anything that is contained
within the cell membrane.
In intracellular digestion, food components are broken down into
small molecules within of the cell's food vacuoles. In extracellular
digestion, meal components are broken down into small molecules
outside of the cell, either in the alimentary canal lumen or on the
decomposing organic matter.
For example, intracellular fluid pertains to the
fluid inside the cell while intercellular fluid is the fluid between cells.
Word origin: from Latin intra- (within) + cellular from Latin cellulitis,
equivalent to cellule(a) (live cell).