BIO095 S53

Experiment 5: Reproductive, Endocrine System

And Mouse Dissection

Date of Experiment: 11th of March 2020

Group 2:
NAME MATRIC NO.
MUHAMMAD AMIR SHAFIQ BIN 2019299486
ZULKIPLI

MUHAMMAD ISA AFIF BIN NOOR IZHAM 2019400636

AINUN MAISARAH BINTI SEPIAN 2019435788

NUR FATIHAH BINTI ALIAS 2019445156

NUR SYAIDATUL RADHIAH BINTI MOHD 2019263448

SALIM

Lecturer Name: Miss Siti Sabrina binti Kasri

Objectives:
1. To identify the structures of male and female reproductive systems.
2. To view sperm morphology from prepared slides under microscope
3. To identify the stages of mitosis in onion root tip
4. To view spermatogenesis in testis of mouse
5. To observe the histologic structure of endocrine glands and nerve cells.
6. To observe a model of human respiratory system

Introduction:
Human reproductive system, an organ system through which humans replicate and produce live
offspring. Given that all organs are active, naturally built and function properly, the basic features of
human reproduction are release of an ovum or egg at a specific time in the reproductive cycle, internal
sperm or sperm cell fertilization of the ovum, the transportation of the fertilized ovum to the uterus or
womb, the blastocyst implantation, the early embryo formed from the fertilized ovum in the wall of the
uterus, the formation of the placenta and the maintenance of the unborn child throughout the
gestation period, the birth of the child and the expulsion of the placenta, and the suckling and care of
the child, with the eventual return of the child of the maternal organs to virtually their original state.

The male reproductive system includes the penis, scrotum, testes, epididymis, vas deferens,
prostate, and seminal vesicles. The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes,
where sperm are produced, and the penis. Penis and urethra are both a part of the male urinary and
reproductive systems. The samples are held in an external pouch known as scrotum, where they usually
remain slightly cooler than the temperature of the body to promote the processing of sperm. The penis
consists of the base (attached to the lower abdominal structures and pelvic bones), the shaft's visible
portion, and the penis glans (the cone-shaped end). The urethra opening (the channel which carries
semen and urine) is situated at the tip of the glans penis. The core of the penis glans is called the corona.
In uncircumcised males, the foreskin (prepuce) stretches over the glans penis from the corona.

The penis comprises three cylindrical spaces of the erectile tissue (blood-filled sinuses). When blood
fills those spaces, the penis becomes large and stiff. The scrotum is the thick-skinned membrane that
protects the testes, covering them. The scrotum also serves as a check climate control device, because
for natural sperm production they need to be slightly cooler than body temperature. The cremaster
muscles in the scrotum wall loosen so that the testes may drop farther from the body to cool down or
contract and bring the tests closer to the body for insulation or safety. The measurements are spherical
bodies with an average length of around 1.5 to 3 inches (4 to 7 centimeters), and volume of 2 to 3
teaspoons (20 to 25 milliliters). The left testis usually hangs down slightly lower than the right one. The
testes have two main functions which are sperm production (which contains the man's genes)
testosterone production (the dominant male sex hormone).
 The epididymis is a single coiled microscopic tube measuring about 20 feet (6 metres) in
circumference. The epididymis extracts sperm from the testis and provides the sperm habitat for
maturing and the ability to move and fertilize an ovum through the female reproductive system.
Another epididymis lies against every single testis. The vas deferens is a solid conduit (the thickness of a
spaghetti strand), which holds sperm from the epididymis. Another such duct passes to the back of the
prostate from each epididymis and enters one of the two seminal vesicles. Certain components in the
scrotum, such as muscle fibres, blood vessels, and nerves, also move along with each vas deferens and
together form a twisted chain, the sperm cord. Among males, the urethra has a dual purpose. This
conduit is the part of the urinary tract that brings water from the liver, and the part of the reproductive
system that ejaculates sperm through. The prostate sits just under the bladder and encircles the
urethra. For young men, walnut-sized prostate grows with age.

When the prostate expands too much, it can block the flow of urine through the urethra and cause
troubling urinary symptoms. Constructed above the prostate, the seminal vesicles join with the vas
deferens to form the ejaculatory ducts that pass through the prostate. The prostate and seminal vesicles
contain sperm-nourishing blood. This fluid provides the majority of semen volume, the fluid in which the
sperm is expelled during the ejaculation process. The secretion that makes up a very small volume of
sperm emerges from the vas deferens in the urethra and from the Cowper glands.There are two main
components of the human female reproductive system: the uterus and the ovaries which produce the
egg cells of a woman. There are two main parts of the human female reproductive system (or female
genital system): which is uterus. Its function is to host the developing fetus and produces vaginal and
uterine secretions. The anatomically male sperm travels through the fallopian tubes. Meanwhile, the
ovaries produce and keeps estrogen and progesterone secretion. The ovaries are a pair of small glands
about almond size and shape, situated on the left and right sides of the lateral pelvic body cavity to the
uterus ' upper part. Ovaries contain female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone, as well as
the female gametes, ova (commonly called "eggs").

Ova is formed from oocyte cells that mature gradually throughout the early life of a woman and
ripen after puberty. A mature ovum is released every month during ovulation. The ovum moves to the
Fallopian tube from the ovary, where it can be fertilized before it enters the uterus. The Fallopian tubes
are a series of muscle cords running from the uterus upper left and right corners to the bottom of the
ovaries. The Fallopian tubes terminate in a funnel-shaped structure called the infundibulum, lined with
thin finger-like projections or fimbriae. The fimbriae brush along the outside of the ovaries to gather
released ova and bring them into the infundibulum for transportation to the uterus. The inside of each
Fallopian tube is covered with cilia, which works with the tube's smooth muscle to carry the ovum to the
womb. Fallopian tubes are a collection of muscle cords extending from the upper left and right corners
of the uterus down to the ovary edge.

The Fallopian tubes end up lined with thin finger-like projections or fimbriae in a funnel-shaped
structure called the infundibulum. The fimbriae rub on the outside of the ovaries to gather released ovas
for shipment to the uterus. Cilia surrounds the inside of each Fallopian tube and interacts with the
smooth muscle of the tube to deliver the ovum to the womb. The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-
shaped organ located posterior to the urinary bladder and superior to that. The uterus is also known as
the womb, as it protects and supports the developing fetus during birth, attached to the two Fallopian
tubes at its upper end and to the vagina (via the cervix) at its lower end; The inner lining of the uterus,
known as the endometrium, during early development provides support for the embryo.
 During childbirth the uterus visceral muscles contract to push the fetus through the birth canal. The
vagina is an elastic, flexible conduit that links the uterine cervix to the body's outside. It is equivalent to
the uterus and similar to the urinary bladder. During sexual intercourse the vagina functions as the
receptacle for the penis and carries sperm to the uterus and Fallopian tubes. It also acts as the birth
channel by stretching to facilitate fetal delivery during childbirth. The menstrual fluid leaves the body via
the vagina during menstruation.

A cycle whereby a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells is referred to as cell division.
Cell division is a tiny part of the cycle. The process of cell division of normal eukaryotic cells is called
mitosis. The onion root tip is a rapidly growing component of the onion and thus there will be many cells
in various stages of mitosis. The root tips of the onion can be shaped and squashed in such a manner
that they can be flattened on a microscopic film, so that individual cell chromosomes can be readily
identified. During various stages of mitosis in the onion root tip cells, supercoiled chromosomes can be
visualized by using unique DNA stains such as Feulgen stain and Acetocarmine stain.

Next, to examine cells in the tip of an onion root, a thin slice of the root is placed on a microscope
slide and stained in such a way that the chromosomes are visible. In this experiment the cells you will be
looking at were shot with a light microscope and then pictures are taken so you can see them on the
screen. As for the observation of spermatogenesis in testis of mouse under the microscope, it could be
concluded that strong stem-cell system supports spermatogenesis in mice and other mammalians. Stem
cells maintain themselves and tend to produce sperm-differentiating progeny over a long period of time.

The endocrine system consists of the glands that generate and secrete hormones, chemical
compounds produced in the body that control cell or organ function. Such hormones control the
growth, metabolism (the body's physical and chemical processes), and sexual development and function
of the body. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and can affect one or more organs all over
the body.Hormones are body-created, chemical messengers. To coordinate the functions of the
different parts of the body, they transfer information from one set of cells into another. The endocrine
system's main glands are hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and
reproductive organs (ovaries, and testes). Also, the pancreas is a part of this system; it has a role in both
hormone production and digestion. However, in this experiment we observed only anterior and
posterior pituitary, ovary and nerve fibres.The pituitary gland is found below the hypothalamus at the
base of the brain and is no larger than a pea. It is often thought to be the most important part of the
endocrine system, as it releases hormones that regulate many other endocrine gland functions. It is
termed hypopituitarism when the pituitary gland does not contain one or more of the hormones, or not
enough of them.

The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the rear lobe. The anterior lobe
produces the following hormones, growth hormone which stimulates growth of bone and tissue,
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones,
adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal gland to produce several related steroid
hormones, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) produce hormones that
control sexual function and production of the sex steroids, estrogen and progesterone in females or
testosterone in males and prolactin produce hormone that stimulates milk production in females where
the production of these hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus.The posterior lobe produces
hormone which are not regulated by the hypothalamus which are antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
that controls water loss by the kidneys and oxytocin that contracts the uterus during childbirth and
stimulates milk production. The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in
the brain and carried to the pituitary gland through nerves. They are stored in the pituitary gland.

The human gas-exchanging organ, the lung, is located in the thorax, where its delicate tissues are
protected by the bony and muscular thoracic cage. The lung provides the tissues of the human body
with a continuous flow of oxygen and clears the blood of the gaseous waste product, carbon dioxide.
Atmospheric air is pumped in and out regularly through a system of pipes, called conducting airways,
which join the gas-exchange region with the outside of the body. The airways can be divided into upper
and lower airway systems. The transition between the two systems is located where the pathways of
the respiratory and digestive systems cross, just at the top of the larynx.The larynx is an organ of
complex structure that serves a dual function as an air channel to the lungs and as an access controller,
and as a phonation organ. Sound is created by pressing air through a sagittal gap that is formed by the
glottis, the vocal cord. This allows the vocal cords to vibrate, as well as the air column above them. The
pharynx is part of both the digestive and respiratory systems. For the digestive system, its muscular
walls function in the process of swallowing, and it serves as a pathway for the movement of food from
the mouth to the esophagus.

The trachea sits below the larynx, a tube about 10 to 12 cm (3.9” to 4.7”) long and 2 cm (0.8") wide.
The wall is stiffened by 16 to 20 typical horseshoe-shaped, broken bands of cartilage extending towards
the back and enclosed in a thick connective tissue. The dorsal wall includes a thick coating of smooth
transverse muscle fibres, which fills the cartilage divide. Typical respiratory epithelium forms the
underside of the trachea. There are mucous glands in the mucosal layer.

The thorax is shaped by thoracic spine, rib cage, and sternum. The thorax is a fairly rigid structure
that has the function of providing a stable foundation for muscles to control the craniocervical area and
shoulder girdle, protecting internal organs and establishing a mechanical breathing bellow. The sternum,
or breastbone, is a long, flat, osseous plate forming the rib cage's most anterior part. The main function
of the sternum is to protect the heart, lungs, and blood vessels against physical damage. The sternum is
made of the manubrium, the gladiolus, and the xiphoid process. The diaphragm is a small skeletal
muscle that lies at chest base and separates the lungs from the abdomen. As you inhale it stretches and
flatters. That creates a vacuum effect driving oxygen into the lungs. The diaphragm loosens as you
exhale, and the gas is forced out of the lungs. Lastly, the lungs' main role is to bring in air from the
atmosphere and pass oxygen into the bloodstream. From there, it circulates to the rest of the body.
Help is required from structures outside of the lungs in order to breathe properly.

Basically, there are 12 organ systems in a mammal which are the respiratory system, the circulatory
system, the nervous system, the digestive system, the endocrine system, the reproductive system, the
lymphatic system, the muscular system, the immune system, the skeleton system, the urinary system
and also the integumentary system. Each one of the systems carries their own specific function.The
respiratory system helps animal to gather oxygen from air and excrete carbon dioxide that would be
fatal if left to accumulate in the body. The heart, blood vessels and blood are part of the circulatory
system. Your circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to every neuron, tissue and organ in your
body. It also holds in your entire body immune cells, electrolytes, hormones and other essential
substances. The circulatory system interacts directly with the lymph system which causes many to
consider these two systems as one. The digestive system is made up of a group of organs forming a
closed tube-like structure called the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or the food canal.

The GI tract is divided up into upper GI tract and lower GI tract for convenience. The GI tract's
organs include the anus, the esophagus, the liver, the small intestine and the large intestine. There are
also several accessory organs that secrete various enzymes into the GI tract. These include the salivary
glands, the pancreas and the liver. It is responsible for processing ingested food and liquids. The
endocrine system is the network of glands, each of which secretes into the bloodstream a form of
hormone for controlling the body. The endocrine organs are relatively small although they are powerful.
Human endocrine glands are essentially identical to dog and cat endocrine glands, both in structure and
function. The endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas,
adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. The reproductive organs of mammals produce the gametes (sperm
and egg cells), help them fertilize and then support the developing embryo. The lymphatic system
consists of the lymphatic vessels that pass along with the blood vessels, and the lymph nodes that
contain immune cells.

The lymphatic system contributes to your heart a clear fluid from your tissues and organs, called'
lymph.' Lymph is created through the release of a tiny amount of fluid from your blood vessels into the
tissues surrounding you. Also, the lymph stream carries fats ingested from your stomach and moves
immune cells in your body from one location to another. The muscular system includes the muscles of
the body which lacks smooth and heart muscles which are included in other organ systems.

The immune system is a complex network of organs which contain cells which recognize and kill
foreign substances in the body. The nervous system consists of muscles, ribs, cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments. Your skeleton supports the internal organs with structural support and protection. The
nervous system is active in balance and locomotion, in conjunction with your muscle tissue. The skeleton
also acts as an essential source for calcium, phosphate, magnesium and other nutrients in a wide range
of physiological processes. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, also
known as the renal system or urinary tract. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate body
waste, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control electrolyte and metabolite levels and regulate
pH in the blood. Lastly, the system of integumentation involves the skin, hair, subcutaneous fat and
nails. The integumentary system offers environmental protection, provides characteristics of form and
individual recognition and assists in temperature and water regulation. Your skin is the producing site of
vitamin D. The integument, or skin, also serves as an anchor for sensory receptors (part of the nervous
system) to detect pain, cold, warmth and pressure.
Procedure:
3.1 Reproductive System
3.1.1 human model and slides of reproductive system
Firstly, the human reproductive system identified, drew and labelled according to the
structures given. Next, the sperm in prepared slides observed using a light microscope. Then, the
structures of sperm using 40X magnifications drew and labelled.

3.1.2 cell division

Firstly, the prepared slides observed using a light microscope. All stages of mitosis in the cell
of Allium sp.root.tip observed. The events of each stages drew and explained. Next, the
spermatogenic cells in testis of mouse identified, drew and observation explained.

3.2 endocrine and nervous system

Firstly, a light microscope used to observe the prepared slides at 40X magnification. All the
slides drew and labelled. Then, the observation had been discussed.

3.3 respiratory system

3.3.1 model of human respiratory system
Firstly, a mouse had be given to each group. Started by observing its morphology. (the sex
of the mouse determined. For male, a sac like scrotum and single body opening and visible,
while for female it has three body openings). The mouse ventral side up placed on the dissecting
tray and pinned to the board through its feet. The skin in lower middle of the ventral surface of
the animal was lifted by using a large forcep. The mouse been cut. The closed, rounded end of
the scissors inserted into the opening and the scissors pushed forward and upwards. Then, the
procedure repeated in the other direction.
Next, the skin of one side picked up of the cut, the closed blunt end of the scissor inserted
and moved it to separate the skin from the body wall. The steps repeated for the other side. Then,
the skin cut and pinned out firmly. The abdominal wall cut through along the mid ventral line.
Be careful not to cut deeply or this might destroy the organs. The tip of the scissors kept pointed
upwards. The diaphragm, which is thin layer of a muscle that separated the thoracic cavity from
abnormal cavity was located. The sternum cut to reveal organs underneath for observing the
thoracic organ. The spongy lungs that surround the heart observed. The trachea (it has
cartilaginous rings), a large air tube which lied anterior to the lungs located. The trachea
branches into bronchi that lead into lungs noticed. The thymus gland, a large, irregular mass of
glandular tissues over the heart identified. It plays a role in the immune system.
Then, the hard-white larynx and anterior to the trachea located. The structures of
pharynx, Larynx, trachea, thorax, sternum, diaphragm and lungs drew and labelled. Lastly, all
the dissecting equipment and dissecting tray washed.

.
Data and Result
Discussion
Reproductive system of female is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the female
egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to
transport the ova to the site of fertilization. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the
walls of the uterus, beginning the initial stages of pregnancy. If fertilization and or implantation
does not take place, the system is designed to menstruate the monthly shedding of the uterine
lining. In addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain
the reproductive cycle. The function of the external female reproductive structures the genitals is
twofold to enable sperm to enter the body and to protect the internal genital organs from
infectious organisms.
The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix the lower part of uterus to the outside of the body. It
also is known as the birth canal. The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a
developing fetus. The uterus is divided into two parts the cervix, which is the lower part that
opens into the vagina and the main body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily
expand to hold a developing baby. A canal through the cervix allows sperm to enter and
menstrual blood to exit. The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side
of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones. Next, fallopian tubes is narrow tubes that
attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as pathways for the ova (egg cells) to travel
from the ovaries to the uterus. Fertilization of an egg by a sperm normally occurs in the fallopian
tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants to the uterine lining.
The male has reproductive organs or genitals, that are both inside and outside the pelvis. In a guy
who has reached sexual maturity, the two oval-shaped testicles, or testes make and store millions
of tiny sperm cells. The testicles are also part of the endocrine system because they make
hormones, including testosterone. Testosterone is a major part of puberty in guys. As a guy
makes his way through puberty, his testicles produce more and more of it. Testosterone is the
hormone that causes boys to develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body and facial hair. It
also stimulates the production of sperm.
Alongside the testicles are the epididymis and the vas deferens, which transport sperm. The
epididymis and the testicles hang in a pouch-like structure outside the pelvis called the scrotum.
This bag of skin helps to regulate the temperature of testicles, which need to be kept cooler than
body temperature to produce sperm. The scrotum changes size to maintain the right temperature.
When the body is cold, the scrotum shrinks and becomes tighter to hold in body heat. When it is
warm, it gets larger and floppier to get rid of extra heat. This happens without a guy ever having
to think about it. The brain and the nervous system give the scrotum the cue to change size.
The accessory glands, including the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland, provide fluids that
lubricate the duct system and nourish the sperm. The urethra is the channel that carries the sperm
in fluid called semen to the outside of the body through the penis. The urethra is also part of the
urinary system because it is also the channel through which pee passes as it leaves the bladder
and exits the body.
The penis is actually made up of two parts the shaft and the glans. The shaft is the main part of
the penis and the glans is the tip sometimes called the head. At the end of the glans is a small slit
or opening, which is where semen and pee exit the body through the urethra. The inside of the
penis is made of a spongy tissue that can expand and contract.
All boys are born with a foreskin, a fold of skin at the end of the penis covering the glans. Some
boys are circumcised, which means that a doctor or clergy member cuts away the foreskin.
Circumcision is usually done during a baby boy's first few days of life. It's not medically
necessary, but parents who choose to have their sons circumcised often do so based on religious
beliefs, concerns about hygiene, or cultural or social reasons. Guys who have circumcised
penises and those who don't are no different. All penises work and feel the same, regardless of
whether the foreskin has been removed.
Morphology refers to the shape of your sperm, or what it looks like under a microscope.
Specifically, it looks at the shape of the sperm head and the size of the sperm. The head shape is
important because it affects the sperm’s ability to dissolve the outer surface of an egg and
fertilize it.

Mitosis is a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that occurs when a parent cell divides to
produce two identical daughter cells. During cell division, mitosis refers specifically to the separation of
the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus. Mitosis is conventionally divided into five stages
known as prophase, metaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. While mitosis is taking place, there
is no cell growth and all of the cellular energy is focused on cell division.

During prophase, the replicated pairs of chromosomes condense and compact themselves. The pairs of
chromosomes that have been replicated are called sister chromatids, and they remain joined at a central
point called the centromere. A large structure called the mitotic spindle also forms from long proteins
called microtubules on each side, or pole, of the cell.

During metaphase, the nuclear envelope that encloses the nucleus breaks down, and the nucleus is no
longer separated from the cytoplasm. Protein formations called kinetochores form around the centromere.
The mitotic spindle extends from the poles and attaches to the kinetochores. During metaphase, the
microtubules pull the sister chromatids back and forth until they align in a plane, called the equatorial
plane, along the center of the cell.

During anaphase, the sister chromatids are separated simultaneously at their centromeres. The separated
chromosomes are then pulled by the spindle to opposite poles of the cell. Anaphase ensures that each
daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes.
Finally, during telophase, a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to separate the
nuclear DNA from the cytoplasm. The chromosomes begin to uncoil, which makes them diffuse and less
compact. Along with telophase, the cell undergoes a separate process called cytokinesis that divides the
cytoplasm of the parental cell into two daughter cells.

Just as the organs in an organ system work together to accomplish their task, so the different
organ systems also cooperate to keep the body running. First, the function of cardiovascular
system is to transports oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to the cells and transports wastes,
carbon dioxide, and other substances away from the cells. It can also help stabilize body
temperature and pH. Then for lymphatic system, it defends against infection and disease and
transfers lymph between tissues and the blood stream. Digestive system helps processing foods
and absorbs nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water. The function of endocrine sytem is to
provide communication within the body via hormones and directs long-term change in other
organ systems to maintain homeostasis.
Next, integumentary system will provide protection from injury and fluid loss and provides
physical defences against infection by microorganisms; involved in temperature control.
Muscular system provides movement, support, and heat production. The function of nervous
system is collecting, transferring, and processing information and directs short-term change in
other organ systems. Reproductive system produces gametes—sex cells—and sex hormones;
ultimately produces offspring. Skeletal system supports and protects soft tissues of the body;
provides movement at joints; produces blood cells; and stores minerals. Then, urinary system
removes excess water, salts, and waste products from the blood and body and controls pH.
Immune system defends against microbial pathogens disease causing agents and other diseases.

The respiratory system of mouse consists of trachea, sternum, diaphragm and lungs. Trachea
is a tube that extends from the next to the chest. It is white line with cartilage. The opening of the
trachea is the glottis and the enlargement at the anterior end of the trachea is the larynx (voice
box) which contains the voice chord. Lungs is a pair of organs that can be found in all vertebrate.
The structure of the lungs is include the bronchial tree which is the air tube branching off from
the bronchi into smaller and smaller air tubes, each pulmonary alveolus. Sternum is a long flat
bone located in the centre part of the chest. It connects the ribs via cartilage and forms the front
of the rib cage, thus helping to protect the heart, lungs and major blood vessels from injury.
Diaphragms separates the thoracic cavity, containing the heart and the lungs, form the abdominal
cavity and performs an important function in respirations of a mouse. This is because when the
diaphragms contracts, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases, creating a negative pressure
and cause the air to enter the lungs.
 The circulatory system of a mouse consists of heart, artery and veins. The functions of vein
is to carry used blood (deoxygenated blood) back to the heart and lungs. While the functions of
artery is to carry the oxygenated blood to the muscles and organs that need it. The function of the
heart of a mouse is to pump blood to the whole body through the blood vessels of the circulatory
system. Heart is a four chambered muscular pump that lies in the thoracic cavity within the
pericardium. The right side supplies the pulmonary circulation and the left side the systemic
venous blood (deoxygenated blood) from the cranial vena cava, caudal vena cava, azygos vein
and the coronary sinus.

Urinary system consists of penis, ureter, urethra, urinary bladder and kidney. The primary
function of penis in the urinary system of a mouse are for urination, copulation and sperms
transfer. The function of the ureter is to actively propel and guide urine from the renal pelvis to
the bladder through peristaltic movements. While the function of urethra is to carry urine from
the bladder to the urethral orifice and it also carry sperm through the penis and out of the body.
Urinary bladder of rodents is hollow, muscular, distensible organ that serves as a reservoir for
storage and period release of urine. Lastly, kidney is the primary organs of excretory system. The
shaped of kidney is bean shaped structures and located at the back of the abdominal cavity on
either side of the spine of a mouse

Conclusion
In can be concluded that a rat has a similar anatomy to the human body through the
observations done. The organs observed plays a crucial role in the human body, one of which;
the reproductive system, it produces sex gametes and sex hormones which functions in the
maturation of reproductive system and the development of sexual characteristics. Other than that,
the endocrine system works continuously to maintain the hormone level in an individual for the
body to function normally. Moving on, the respiratory system, it is responsible for the inhalation
of oxygen and the exhalation of carbon dioxide. These organs are very imperative for the body to
function normally

References
.Khaniza Hasliza Abdul Khalil , 2019, Foundation Biology II; Workbook and Lab Manual,78-81
brian67, Brian W.S. technical information scientist, March 2017

https://www.womenshealth.northwestern.edu/sites/womenshealth/files/ckfinder/userfiles/files/JaxLab
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Daviidd88, David M., Endocrinology of the Male Reproductive System and Spermatogenesis, August
2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279031/