BIOL1001

CAPE Biology Unit 1

Reproduction In Humans

Done By:
Sherrie-Ann Wilson-Brown
Syllabus Objectives
• Describe the structure and function of the male and
female reproductive systems
• Explain gametogenesis and the role of hormones in this
process
• Discuss how the structure of the ovum and the sperm
facilitate their functional roles in the fertilization process
• Describe the basic process of fertilization
• Describe implantation as it relates to reproduction
Syllabus Objectives
• Discuss the importance of hormones in the menstrual
cycle
• Discuss how knowledge of human reproductive anatomy
and physiology has been applied to the development of
contraceptive methods
• Explain the structure and functions of the placenta
• Discuss the functions of the amnion
• Discuss the possible effects of maternal behaviour on
foetal development.
Humans can only reproduce sexually

Human reproduction involves:

1. Gametogenesis
2. Fertilisation
3. Pregnancy and birth
 The Urogenital System

The urogenital system – the reproductive organs

along with the closely associated urinary system
(kidneys and bladder).
Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System

There are two

testes suspended in
the scrotal sac
(scrotum) behind
the penis.
The testes
produce the male
sex hormone
testosterone and
the male sex cells
(sperm).
• The testes consist of highly coiled tubes (called
the seminiferous tubules) surrounded by
connective tissue.

• Sperm are formed in these seminiferous tubules.

• Leydig (interstitial) cells produce hormones

including testosterone and are scattered between
the tubules.

• Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the

body temperatures of most mammals.

• So, the testes are held outside the abdominal

cavity in the scrotum, where the temperature is
lower than in the abdominal cavity.
After the sperms are
made in the testes they
move to the epididymis
where they are stored
until maturity.
The epididymis is a
coiled tube on top of each
testis, which leads from
the testes into the vas
deferens or sperm duct.
The vas deferens is a
long thin tube that
transport the sperms
away from the
epididymis to where
the seminal vesicles
and prostate gland are
located.
• The seminal vesicles are
small glands that produce
a thick sticky fluid.

• The two seminal vesicles

contribute about 60% of
the total volume of semen.

• The prostate gland

produce a thin milky fluid.
•The bulbourethral
glands secrete a
clear mucus
before ejaculation
that neutralizes
acidic urine
remaining in the
urethra.
The fluids made by the prostate
gland and the seminal vesicles keep
the sperms alive by providing
nourishment as well as the medium
in which they will swim when they
exit the body. This liquid is called
semen.
What is
semen?
When the sperms are mixed
with the two fluids from the
prostate gland and the seminal
vesicles, semen is formed.
The sperms are
stored in the
seminal vesicles
until ejaculation.
During ejaculation,
the semen travels
through the penis
by the urethra to
exit the body.
The urethra is
also the channel
through which
urine leaves the
body.
The penis is basically made
of erectile tissue. This
contains spaces which
become filled with blood
during a sexual excitement,
causing the penis to
become hard and stiff. This
is called an erection.
Spermatogenesis
 Gametogenesis
•Gametogenesis is the production of gametes.

•This takes place in the testes and ovaries.

•Here, diploid cells divide by meiosis to

produce haploid cells.
 Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogenesis – the process by which sperms
are produced.

• Sperm production begins in a boy at about age 11

and continues through his life.

• Males make about 100 – 200 million sperms daily.

Spermatogenesis occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the
testes.

The process begins in the

germinal epithelium.

The diploid spermatogonia

(singular: spermatogonium)
divide by mitosis to form more
diploid cells.
Some of the new cells will
grow into new spermatogonia

Others will grow into

primary spermatocytes

Primary spermatocytes divide

by meiosis.
The 2 haploid cells formed by the 1st meiotic division are
called secondary spermatocytes
They undergo the 2nd meiotic division a few days later.
Each secondary spermatocyte
divides to form 2 haploid
spermatids

The spermatids then differentiate

to form spermatozoa or sperm
cells

The heads of the spermatozoa

are attached to the walls of the
tubule

The tails hang into the lumen

Large Sertoli or nurse cells
protects the dividing cells

Sertoli or nurse cells :

1. Nourish developing cells
2. Protect developing cells
3. Control and regulate
spermatogenesis
Page 775
37
The Structure of a Spermatozoon
❖The sperm is the male reproductive sex cell.

❖They are smaller than secondary oocytes.

❖A single sperm resembles a tadpole.

❖ It is about 60 𝜇m long.
❖The sperm has 3 main
parts:
▪A head
▪A middle piece
▪A tail

(In come cases, the neck

is labelled to make 4
structures.)
❖The head is about 4µm in size.

❖It contains the genetic information in its nucleus (in

the chromosomes) that can be passed to the offspring
from the father.

❖Has completed Meiosis II.

❖It contains the haploid number of chromosomes.

❖The chromosomes are highly condensed DNA
material, with histones -reduce mass).

❖The nucleus is the only part of the

spermatozoon that enters the egg.
❖At the tip of the head is a sac of hydrolytic enzymes
called the acrosome.

❖The enzyme breaks down the membranes of the

female sex cell (ovum) during fertilsation.

❖The membranes digested includes the granulosa

cells and zona pellucida.

❖This enables the sperm to penetrate the female

egg/gamete.
❖The neck connects the head to the middle piece and tail.

❖ Contains centriole which forms the sperm flagellum/tail.

❖The centriole is also

important for the
development of
the embryo after
fertilization.
❖The middle piece contains many mitochondria used for ATP
production.

❖The are spirally arranged around the axial filament.

❖The mitochondria carry out respiration to provide large amounts

of ATP.

❖ The ATP provides the energy for the wavelike

movement/propulsion of the sperm.
❖The tail helps in propelling the sperm cell forward
to meet the egg.

❖It allows the sperm to swim quickly (in a fluid

medium) using a wave-like/corkscrew motion.

❖The movement of the tail is powered by the ATP

produced by the mitochondria in the middle section
of the sperm.
❖Microtubules in the tail use ATP as energy source.

❖It is the movement of these tubules that allows the

spermatozoon to swim.

Microtubule
• The microtubules are arranged in a 9 + 2 formation.
How are spermatozoa Structurally
specialized for their function
✓Presence of flagellum/microtubules: It propels sperm as they
swim during their journey to the egg/secondary oocyte/ for
movement.

✓Tadpole shape/streamlined/flattened head/cylindrical body/

elongated tail: increases mobility/swimming.

✓Small/approximately 0.06 mm/reduced organelles – increases

mobility/swimming.
✓Contains mitochondria (in the middle) – carries out aerobic respiration to provide large
amounts of energy to tail for swimming long distances/wavelike propulsion of tail
through fluid.

✓Contains axial filament which runs from neck to tail and is responsible for
movement/wavelike beating of tail for movement.

✓Haploid nucleus— carries genetic material of male parent which when fused to ovum
restores the chromosome number.

✓Contains specialised lysosome/acrosome –to store enzymes to digest pathway through

secondary oocyte.

✓Plasma membrane of head – can fuse with microvilli of secondary oocyte so that
nucleus can enter.
Female Reproductive System
 Female Reproductive System
❖The female reproductive system is inside
the body, above the pelvic bone of the hip.
❖The female
gametes are
made in the
two ovaries.
• The ovaries, lie in the abdominal cavity.

• Each ovary contains many follicles, which are egg

chambers consisting of a partially developed egg, called an
oocyte, surrounded by support cells.

• Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum (egg) by

the process of oogenesis.
❖Leading away from the
ovaries are the oviducts,
sometimes called the
fallopian tubes.
❖The oviducts do
not connect
directly to the
ovaries but have a
funnel shaped
opening just a short
distance away.
❖The oviduct takes eggs
(ova) from the ovary to
the uterus.

❖The oviduct contains

cilia and fluid that helps
to move ova down.
❖ The oviduct also
carries sperm towards
the eggs during sexual
intercourse.

❖ It facilitates fertilisation
in the upper part.
❖ The two oviducts leads to
the womb or uterus.
Endometrium – allows
fertilised egg to form a
placental attachment to
❖ The uterus has very thick
Myometrium – smooth
muscles which contract mother
during birth

walls, made of muscles.

❖ Uterus made of two parts:

1. Myometrium
2. Endometrium
❖It is quite small
(only about the size
of a clenched fist)
but it can stretch a
great deal when a
woman is pregnant.
❖At the base of the
uterus is a small opening,
guarded by muscles. This
is the neck of the womb
called the cervix.

❖It contains a ring of

muscles that separates
the uterus from the
vagina.
❖The cervix leads to
the vagina, which
opens to the outside.

❖The vagina receives

the penis during
intercourse
❖The vagina acts as a passage
for three things:
1. passage for baby at birth
(birth canal)
2. passage for menstruation
3. passage for receiving the
penis during sexual
intercourse.
❖In front of the vagina
runs the tube that opens
from the bladder called
the urethra.
❖The rectum runs
behind the vagina.

❖The rectum opens

to the outside via
the anus.
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69
Oogenesis
 Oogenesis
Oogenesis – the process by which ova are
produced.

The first stage of the process occurs in the ovary.

In females, oogenesis begins while
in the embryo stage of
development in the uterus.

Germinal epithelial cells in the

developing uterus of the embryo
divide to form diploid oogonia.

A few weeks after, the oogonia

begin to divide by meiosis – but
only up to ‘Prophase I’.
Primary oocytes are formed.
Many of the primary oocytes
disappears.

At birth, a baby’s ovaries usually

contain about 400,000 primary
oocytes.

At puberty, some of the primary

oocytes continues to divide up to
the end of the 1st meiotic division.

2 haploid cells are formed

One of the two cells formed will
be bigger that the other

The bigger cell is the secondary

oocyte

The smaller cell is the polar body

The polar body has no further

role in reproduction.

The secondary oocyte continues

to divide up to ‘metaphase II’
Every month, one secondary oocyte is released during
ovulation.

There, during ovulation, it’s a secondary oocyte that is

released and not an ovum.

An ovum is formed only after fertilsation as it is at this

point that the process of meiosis is completed.
 Ovary

Primary
oocyte
within
follicle

In embryo
Growing
follicle
Primordial germ cell

Mitotic divisions

Oogenesis
2n Oogonium

Mitotic divisions

Primary oocyte Mature follicle

2n (present at birth), arrested
in prophase of meiosis I
Ruptured
follicle
Completion of meiosis I and onset
of meiosis II
First
polar n
body n Secondary oocyte,
arrested at metaphase of meiosis II

Ovulated
secondary oocyte
Ovulation, sperm entry

Completion of meiosis II
Second Corpus luteum
polar n
body

Fertilized egg
n

Degenerating
corpus luteum
Oocytes develop inside follicles in the ovary until they are
released during ovulation

Follicles are also produced by the germinal epithelium

Follicle walls contain many types of cells

One type is the granulosa cells

Granulosa cells:
1. Surround and protect oocytes
2. Secrete hormones
 Features of the Secondary Oocyte

• The secondary oocytes are spherical cells surrounded by zona

pellucida or follicle cells.
• They are larger than sperm cells (about 120-140 µm in width).
• They have limited motility
• They store nutrients
• Each secondary oocyte can be penetrated by a single sperm
cell.
• Secondary oocytes provide the set of maternal
chromosomes (genetic material).
• Each has a haploid number of chromosomes (23
chromosomes).
• They have not completed meiosis II.
• They have many mitochondria to provide energy for
development and metabolism.
• They cell membranes have microvilli and proteins that bind
to proteins on sperm cells - to absorb nutrients.
 Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis
• Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis:
1. In oogenesis, one egg forms from each cycle of meiosis; in
spermatogenesis four sperm form from each cycle of meiosis.
Cytokinesis is unequal, with almost all the cytoplasm monopolized
by a single daughter cell, the secondary oocyte
2. Oogenesis ceases later in life in females; spermatogenesis
continues throughout the adult life of males.
3. Oogenesis has long interruptions; spermatogenesis produces
sperm from precursor cells in a continuous sequence.
Hormonal Control
of Mammalian
Reproduction
• Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the
hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and gonads.

• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by

the hypothalamus and directs the release of FSH and LH
from the anterior pituitary.

• FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the

production of sex hormones.
• The sex hormones are androgens (including
testosterone), oestrogens, and progesterone.

• Sex hormones regulate:

• The development of primary sex characteristics during
embryogenesis
• The development of secondary sex characteristics at
puberty
• Sexual behavior and sex drive.
The Role Of Sex Hormones In Males
Hormones Site of Production Target Organ Action
Stimulates Sertoli
Follicle stimulating Anterior pituitary
Testes cells to develop
hormone (FSH) gland
sperm cells

Stimulates
Lutenising hormone Anterior pituitary Testes interstitial interstitial cells to
(LH) gland cells secrete
testosterone

Regulates
spermatogenesis
Testes interstitial Testes and
Oestrogen and sperm
cells epididymis
maturation in
epididymis

Helps regulate
Seminiferous sperm production;
Progesterone Testes
tubules increases sperm
motility
 Hormonal Control of the Male
Reproductive System

• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells.

• Sertoli cells are located within the seminiferous tubules.
• They nourish developing sperm and.
• LH regulates Leydig cells.
• Leydig cells secrete testosterone and other androgen
hormones, which promote spermatogenesis.
Sex hormone secretion and sperm production are both controlled
by hypothalamic and pituitary hormones.
Stimuli from other
areas in the brain
Hypothalamus

GnRH from the

hypothalamus reg-
ulates FSH and LH Anterior
release from the pituitary
anterior pituitary.
Negative
feedback
FSH acts on the
Sertoli cells of the LH stimulates the
seminiferous Leydig cells to make
tubules, promoting testosterone, which
spermatogenesis. in turn stimulates
Leydig cells sperm production.
make
testosterone
Sertoli cells Primary and
secondary sex
characteristics
Figure 46.14
Spermatogenesis Testis
•Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH,
FSH, and LH through negative feedback
mechanisms.

•Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which

reduces FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary.
Hormonal Hypothalamus
–

Control in GnRH

Males –
Anterior pituitary
–

Negative feedback
Negative feedback
FSH LH

Sertoli cells Leydig cells

Inhibin Spermatogenesis Testosterone

Testis
 The Reproductive Cycles of
Females
• In females, the secretion of hormones and the
reproductive events they regulate are cyclic.

• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium (uterine lining),

thickens with blood vessels in preparation for embryo
implantation.

• If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the

endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation.
The Menstrual
Cycle
❖The menstrual cycle starts
in a girl when she reaches
adolescence and indicates
that she is now capable of
reproducing.
 The Menstrual Cycle Overview
• Menstrual cycle averages 28 days, varies from 20 to 45 days.
• Hormones of the hypothalamus regulate the pituitary gland.
• Pituitary hormones regulate the ovaries.
• Ovaries secrete hormones that regulate the uterus.
• Basic hierarchy of hormonal control:
• hypothalamus→ pituitary → ovaries → uterus
• Ovaries exert feedback control over hypothalamus and
pituitary.
•The female reproductive cycle involves two
organs, the uterus an ovaries.

•Changes in the uterus (uterine lining) with blood

vessels define the uterine cycle.

•Changes in the ovaries / follicle / egg chamber

define the ovarian cycle.
 The Ovarian Cycle
• Follicular Phase (1st two weeks of cycle):
• The release of GnRH stimulates the pituitary gland to release FSH and
LH.
• FSH promotes the development of a follicle.
• Follicle then secretes oestrogen.

• Oestrogen stimulates repair and growth of endometrium.

• It also stimulates growth and development of primary and secondary
sexual characteristics of the female.
• The follicular phase ends at ovulation, and the secondary oocyte is
released.
• Luteal Phase (3rd & 4th weeks of cycle):
• Following ovulation, LH promotes development of the corpus
luteum from the follicular tissue left behind.
• Corpus luteum then secretes progesterone.
• Progesterone prepares the body for pregnancy by causing the
uterine lining to thicken.
• If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum disintegrates.
• The ovarian steroid hormones decrease .
Ovulation Video
 The Uterine Cycle
• Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with the
ovarian cycle:

• Thickening of the endometrium during the proliferative phase

coordinates with the follicular phase.

• Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase coordinates

with the luteal phase.

• Shedding of the endometrium during the menstrual flow

phase coordinates with the growth of new ovarian follicles.
 Uterine Cycle
• Sex hormones produced in ovarian cycle affect endometrium
Days 1-5:
• Endometrium disintegrates
• Menses pass out vagina during menstruation
Days 6-13:
• Endometrium thickens
• Ovulation usually occurs on 14th day
Days 15-28:
• Endometrium doubles in thickness
• Cycle begins with 2 weeks of the follicular phase:
• Menstruation occurs during first 3 to 5 days of cycle.
• Uterus replaces lost tissue by mitosis and cohort of follicles grow.
• Ovulation around day 14 –remainder the of follicle becomes corpus
luteum.

• Next 2 weeks, the luteal phase:

• Corpus luteum stimulates endometrial secretion and thickening.
• If pregnancy does not occur, endometrium breaks down in the last 2
days.
• Menstruation begins and the cycle starts over.
Endometrial Changes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Secretion

Endometrial
gland

Stratum
functionalis

Spiral artery

Stratum
basalis

Myometrium

(a) Proliferative phase (b) Secretory phase (c) Menstrual phase

Female Hormone Levels During the
Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
The Role Of Sex Hormones In Females
Hormones Site of Production Target Organ Action

Follicle stimulating Anterior pituitary

Ovary Stimulates oogenesis
hormone (FSH) gland

Stimulates release of
Lutenising hormone Anterior pituitary
Ovary follicle secondary oocyte at
(LH) gland
ovulation

Stimulates repair and growth

of endometrium; stimulates
Oestrogen Follicle in ovary Uterus growth and development of
primary and secondary
sexual characteristics

Corpus luteum in
Progesterone Uterus Maintains endometrium
ovary
 What is
Menopause?
❖Menopause is a change of life when the
menstrual cycle and period stop.

❖After menopause, a woman is no longer

able to reproduce.

❖This usually happens somewhere at the

age of 45 and 55 years.
Sexual Intercourse
and Fertilisation
❖ Sexual intercourse (copulation) is the beginning of
human reproduction.

❖ This process involves the insertion of the male’s

penis into the vaginal passage of the female.

❖ When the man is sexually excited, blood is pumped

into spaces inside the penis, so that it becomes stiff
and hard. This is called an erection.
 Where are the
spaces inside the
penis that become
filled with blood
during an erection
found?
The spaces inside the penis that become filled
with blood during an erection is found in the
erectile tissue.
❖In the female, sexual arousal causes mucus
to be secreted from the walls of the vagina.

❖This makes it easier for the erected penis

to be inserted into the vagina.
 Ejaculation
❖ The expelling of semen from the penis is called
ejaculation.

❖ This deposits the sperm at the top of the vagina,

near the cervix.

❖ The human male ejaculates about 4cm3 of semen,

which may contain as much as 500 million sperms.
❖These sperm then swim (using their tail) up
along the lining of the uterus into the
fallopian tube.

❖Many sperm will not make it to the fallopian

tube but because of the large number of
sperms deposited, there is a good chance
that some will reach the egg.
Fertilisation
 Erection
• During copulation, sexual arousal causes impulses to be sent from the
brain to the penis.
• The parasympathetic nerve cells carry impulses to an artery and its
arterioles in the penis.
• These blood vessels begin to dilate (relax and open up).
• Blood rushes in through the arteries to fill the erectile tissues.
• The blood then gets trapped under high pressure in the erectile
tissues, making the penis expand and creating an erection.
• Erection is reversed when muscles in the penis contract, stopping the
inflow of blood and opening outflow channels.
 Ejaculation
• Ejaculation is a reflex action controlled by the central nervous system.

• It is triggered when the sexual act reaches a critical level of excitement.

• The vas deferens contract to squeeze the sperm toward the base of
the penis.

• The prostate gland and seminal vesicles release secretions to make

semen.

• At this stage, the ejaculation is unstoppable.

• Muscles at the base of penis then contract rhythmically and force the
semen out of the penis via the urethra.

• This is called ejaculation.

• A single ejaculation contains 400 million sperm.

• They are deposited at the top of the vagina.

• Initially, sperm can only swim weakly and are incapable of fertilizing
an ovum.

• To be able to swim strongly and fertilize an ovum, the sperm cells

undergo the process of capacitation.
 Capacitation

• Capacitation refers to the changes that sperm undergo in

the female reproductive tract that enables them to
penetrate and fertilize an ovum.

• It is a functional maturation of the spermatozoon and

requires contact with female secretions in order to occur.
 Changes Occurring During
Capacitation
1. Hyperactivity of the sperm as enzymes in the uterus hydrolyze
plasma proteins in the seminal fluid.

- The hydrolysis of the plasma proteins causes the gel-like

ejaculated semen to become watery.
- This process is crucial for the sperm to gain their motility and
successfully swim to the fertilization site in oviducts in animals.
- It causes the increased whipping movements of the sperm tail and
larger sideways swinging movements of the head take place.
2. The removal of a layer of glycoproteins (blocking agents)
from around the sperm.

- Causes the activation of receptor sites on the sperm’s cell

membrane.

- Which opens sperm-egg recognition sites,

-E.g. allowing for zona pellucida recognition

3. Sperm cell membrane sheds cholesterol making the membrane more
unstable.
- This increases plasma membrane fluidity, facilitating the entry of
calcium ions into the sperm.

4. Destabilization of the acrosomal membrane by increasing calcium

inflow into the sperm cytosol.
- Makes it easier for the acrosome to bind with the cell membrane.
- The acrosome can now fuse with outer membranes of the ovum to
achieve fertilization.
 The Journey to the Oocyte

• The sperm are first deposited in the vagina.

• They then pass up this cavity and through the cervix into the uterus.

• They swim up the uterus, through the junction between the uterus and
oviduct to the usual area of fertilization in the oviduct.

• Only about 0.025% of the sperm will complete the journey.

• Only one will fertilize the oocyte, if present in the oviduct.

 In The Vagina
• The environment in the vagina is usually acidic (about pH 4.2) which
inhibits semen motility.

• About a minute of deposition in the vagina, the semen becomes thicker

and less liquid (Coagulation).

• The presence of semen in the vagina, increases the vaginal pH to a basic

7.2.

• This increases sperm motility.

• After about 20 minutes, the semen again liquefies and stimulates some
sperm to swim more rapidly.
 At The Cervix
• The cervical canal is lined by a complicated series of narrow folds and
crypts.

• It is blocked by a sticky mass of cervical mucus and tiny cervical fibers.

• During ovulation, oestrogen causes the mucus to become more liquid

and makes gaps wider.

• The cervical fibers vibrate in rhythmic beat like the frequency of normal
sperm.
• This may allow the normal sperm to move through the cervix.

• Sperm with abnormal or absent tail beats are detained.

• Sperms that enter cervical crypts may die, get lost or remain as a
reservoir of sperm that may enter the uterus.
 In The Uterus
• Upon leaving the cervix, the sperm travel up the uterus to the
fallopian tube.

• The uterus fluid is watery but there is only a small amount.

• Sperm capacitation occurs in the uterus.

• The swimming rate of sperm (3mm/min) alone cannot account for the
climb up uterine lumen.

• The muscle contraction and movement of cilia in the female

reproductive tract facilitate sperm transport.

• Uterus-oviduct junction allows the gradual entrance of sperm in the

oviduct.

• About half of the sperm enter the wrong oviduct and only a few
hundred make it to the general proximity of the waiting egg.
 How sperms overcome the structural and
adverse conditions to fertilize the egg

1. The pH of the vagina is low and tends to kill sperms.

✓They can move as a mass through the cervix because the semen
coagulates immediately after ejaculation.

2. The sperms must travel a far distance to the ovarian end of the
oviduct.

✓They are aided by the contractions of the cervix, uterus and oviduct.
3. The cervix is usually closed and coated in thick cervical mucus.

✓During the fertile period, the cervical mucus forms channels for the
mass of sperms to swim through.

4. Sperms must go through a process called capacitation.

✓In the uterus, sperms mature to be able to swim faster and fertilize the
oocyte.

5. Acrosomal enzymes digest a pathway through the follicle cells to the

surface membrane of the oocyte.
 Fertilisation

❖One sperm will enter the egg. Only the head of the sperm
goes in; the tail is left outside.

❖The nucleus of the sperm fused with the nucleus of the egg.
This is called fertilisation.
❖As soon as the successful sperm enters the egg, the egg
membrane becomes impenetrable, so that no other sperm can
not get in.

❖The unsuccessful sperm will all die.

❖The nucleus of the ovum and the nucleus of the sperm each
contained genetic information from each parent.
❖Contact of the sperm with oocyte’s cell surface membrane
stimulates the oocyte to complete meiosis II.

❖A second polar body is formed.

❖The polar body will act as a ‘dustbin’ for one set of chromatids.

❖ The nucleus of the sperm can now fuse with the nucleus of the
ovum.

❖Therefore, the fertilised egg will have half its information from the
mother and half from the father.
Ovum Before Fertilization
Pregnancy
❖As soon as the ovum is fertilised by a sperm in
the oviduct, a zygote is formed.

❖Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of

carrying one or more embryos in the uterus.
What is a
Zygote?
❖A zygote is a fertilised ovum.
❖The zygote then divides in two by mitosis.

❖ Each new cell then divides into two and the process
continues to form a small ball of cells called a blastocyst.

❖The blastocyst secretes a glycoprotein hormone called

human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG).

❖This hormone is the first sign that fertilization has

occurred.
 Effects of hCG During Pregnancy
• hCG promotes progesterone and oestrogen production by corpus luteal.

• Signals the endometrium about forthcoming implantation.

• Promotes the development of new blood vessels in uterine walls.

• Causes the blockage of any immune or macrophage action by mother on

foreign invading placental cells.

• Causes uterine growth parallel to fetal growth.

• Suppresses any myometrial contractions during the course of pregnancy.

 Transport of Blastocyst
• The blastocyst goes through its cleavage stages while it is migrating along the
fallopian tube.

• Its transport is aided by the movement of the cilia of the tubal epithelium and the
contractions of its muscular layer.

• The blastocyst it reaches the uterine cavity about 3-4 days after fertilisation.

• Around the end of the 3rd-4th day, the blastocyst bursts out of the enveloping
zona pellucida.

• This called hatching.

• Blastocyst being naked, the trophoblast interacts directly with
endometrium.
• Trophoblasts are cells that form the outer layer of a blastocyst, which
provides nutrients to the embryo, and then develop into a large part of the
placenta.
• The trophoblasts secrete enzymes that partially digest cells in the
endometrium.
• The blastocyst completely sinks into the endometrium by end of first
week. This is called implantation.
• Later trophoblast produces more hCG which supports corpus luteum.
• The hCG prevents menstruation.
• It takes several hours for the embryo to reach the uterus.
• The uterus has a thin, spongy lining, and the embryo sinks
into it. This is called implantation.
• During its first 2 to 4 weeks of development, the embryo
obtains nutrients directly from the yolk sac.
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst mingles with
the endometrium.
• Fingerlike projections begin to form between the embryo
and the uterus wall. This forms the placenta.
 Structure of the Yolk Sac
• The blastocyst is considered an embryo at the point when the amniotic
sac develops (about the start of week #5 of pregnancy).

• As the embryo develops in the uterus, it is surrounded by a number of

extra-embryonic membranes.

• The yolk sac is an early extra-embryonic membrane.

• It lies outside the embryo.

• It is connected by a yolk stalk to the midgut with which it forms a

continuous connection.
Functions of the Yolk Sac
• The yolk sac provides nutrition and gas exchange between the mother
and the developing embryo before the placenta is formed.
• It is also the main organ of embryonic blood cell production via blood
islands near the yolk sac.
• Other functions of the yolk sac include:
✓the production of stem cells and primitive macrophages
✓production of germ cells
✓metabolic regulation
✓synthesis of proteins such as albumin, alpha-fetoprotein, and apolipoproteins.
✓The yolk sac also contributes to the formation of the umbilical cord.
• The yolk stalk normally degenerates around week 8.
• The placenta is soft and dark red and have villi which fit
closely into the uterus wall.

• It originates from both maternal and embryonic tissues.

• Inside the placenta is where nutrients and waste products

are exchanged between the mother and the baby without
the mixing of blood.
 Structure of the Placenta
• The trophoblast cells produce many tiny projections into the
endometrium called chorionic villi.
• These chorionic villi contain blood
capillaries.

• As the embryo grows, the

endometrium also develops.

• Spaces called sinuses develop

around the villi.

• These sinuses become filled with

the mother’s blood.
• Oxygenated blood is brought to the sinuses through the mother’s arteries
and taken back to her heart in the veins.

• On the foetus’s side, deoxygenated blood flows from the foetus through
two umbilical arteries to capillaries in the villi.

• The foetus’s blood is brought very close to the mother’s blood in the
sinuses, ensuring there is no direct contact between them.

• O2 from the mother’s heamoglobin diffuses across the thin barriers and
combines with the foetus’s heamoglobin in the placenta.

• The oxygenated blood then flows to the foetus via the umbilical vein.
Placental circulation
Maternal Maternal
arteries veins
Placenta

Maternal
portion
of placenta
Umbilical
cord
Chorionic villus,
containing fetal
capillaries Fetal
portion of
Maternal blood placenta
pools (chorion)

Uterus Umbilical
Fetal arteriole arteries
Fetal venule
Umbilical cord Umbilical
vein
Functions of the Placenta
• The placenta:

✓Forms a barrier between mother and embryo (blood is not

exchanged).

✓Barrier against the transfer of many types of infections to the fetus.

✓Delivers nutrients and oxygen from the mother’s blood to the

fetus.

✓Excretory function by removing CO2 and other waste from

embryonic blood to the maternal circulation.
• Immunological functions as it allows the transmission of maternal antibodies,
giving the fetus natural passive immunity to various diseases.

• Storage of carbohydrate, proteins, calcium, and iron are stored in the placenta
for ready access to meet fetal needs.

✓Becomes an endocrine organ (produces hormones) and takes over for

the corpus luteum.
✓Estrogen
✓Progesterone
✓HCG
✓Other hormones that maintain pregnancy
❖The development of the placenta is caused
by continuing high levels of progesterone.

❖ If the progesterone levels fell after

implantation this would result in a
miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) as the
lining of the uterus would begin to break
down.
• The first trimester is the main period of
organogenesis = development of the body organs.

• All the major structures are present by 8 weeks,

and the embryo is called a fetus.

• By this time, the placenta has fully formed.

 Structure of the Umbilical Cord

❖The placenta is joined to the embryo by the umbilical cord.

❖The umbilical cord carries the baby’s blood to and from the
placenta.

❖Inside the placenta, capillaries containing the baby’s blood

come very close to the mother’s blood which is circulating
around them in the sinuses in the placenta.
❖Oxygen and food materials in
the mother’s blood diffuse across
the placenta into the embryo’s
blood and are then carried along
the umbilical cord to the embryo.

❖Carbon dioxide and waste

materials diffuse the other way
and are carried to the mother’s
blood.
 Maternal Maternal
arteries veins
Placenta

Maternal
portion
of placenta
Umbilical
cord
Chorionic villus,
containing fetal
capillaries Fetal
portion of
Maternal blood placenta
pools (chorion)

Uterus Umbilical
Fetal arteriole arteries
Fetal venule
Umbilical cord Umbilical
vein
 Structure of the Amnion
The amnion is an extra-embryonic membrane that surrounds an
amniote embryo.
The membrane is not part of the embryo itself but derives from
tissues that emerged from the embryo.
The amnion is made from two germ layers: the mesoderm and
the ectoderm.
The ectoderm forms the inner portion of the amnion, and a thin
mesoderm layer connects the amnion to the chorion.
 Functions of the
Amnion/Amniotic Fluid
• The amnion secretes and contains amniotic fluid.
• The amniotic fluid fills the amniotic sac around the developing foetus.
• Functions of the amniotic fluid:
• Protecting the fetus: The fluid cushions the baby from outside pressures, acting
as a shock absorber.
• Temperature control: The fluid insulates the baby, keeping it warm and
maintaining a regular temperature.
• Infection control: The amniotic fluid contains antibodies.
• Lung and digestive system development: By breathing and swallowing the amniotic
fluid, the baby practices using the muscles of these systems as they grow.

• Umbilical cord support: Fluid in the uterus prevents the umbilical cord from being
compressed. This cord transports food and oxygen from the placenta to the
growing foetus.

• Muscle and bone development: As the baby floats inside the amniotic sac, it has
the freedom to move about, giving muscles and bones the opportunity to develop
properly.

• Lubrication: Amniotic fluid prevents parts of the body such as the fingers and toes
from growing together; webbing can occur if amniotic fluid levels are low.
 Structure of the Chorion
• The chorion is a double-layered membrane formed by the trophoblast and
the extra-embryonic mesoderm.

• The chorion and the amnion together form the amniotic sac.

• The chorion eventually gives rise to the fetal part of the placenta.

• It forms villi which develop in the fetal side of the placenta.

Structure Of The Allantois
• The allantois is a sac-like sac-like outgrowth from
the embryonic gut.

• Within three weeks after implantation, it fuses with

the chorionic villi in the uterine wall.

• The fused structure forms the umbilical cord.

 Birth
❖It takes approximately 9 months after
fertilization for a human baby to develop
completely.

❖This is called the gestation period.

❖Near the time for birth, the baby usually
‘drops’ or settle lower in the pelvis, close to
the cervix.
❖There is a mucus plug which blocks the
opening of the cervix during pregnancy to
prevent bacteria from entering the uterus.
❖Before birth, this plug is discharged as the cervix
widen to let the baby through.

❖The actual birth is accommodated by sharp and

sudden contractions of the muscular uterine walls.

❖At this point the mother is said to be in labour.

❖The contractions of the uterus are brought
about by the hormone oxytocin, which is
released from the pituitary gland.

❖Usually in the early stages the amnion

ruptures releasing the amniotic fluid to flow
through the vagina.
❖The contractions of the walls of the uterus
push the baby down into the vagina (birth
canal).

❖As it moves, the baby rotates through the

birth canal in order to make it easier for the
widest parts, the head and shoulders, to pass
through.
❖At the beginning of birth the baby is usually
positioned with its head down against the
dilating cervix and its body facing the
mother’s side.

❖The turning movements of the head and

body allow the baby to exit the birth canal
without complications.
❖A small proportion of babies are born feet
first, which can cause problems during birth.
 After Birth

❖After the baby is born it has no need for the

umbilical cord which is clamped (close to the
baby’s abdomen) and cut.
❖Soon after the birth of the baby, the uterus
contracts again and the placenta and the
remains of the umbilical cord are expelled via
the vagina.

❖This is known as the afterbirth.

❖After a few days, the remains of the
umbilical cord attached to the baby will wither
and drop off.

❖The scar remaining is called the navel.

❖If there is the chance of problems occurring
during labour that might damage the mother or
baby, the doctor might decide to deliver the
baby by doing an operation called a Caesarean
section.
❖This operation involves anaesthetising the
mother and making a cut through the lower
abdomen and the wall of the uterus of the
mother and removing the baby.
 Pre-natal Care
❖Pre-natal care is the care taken of mother and
baby before the birth.

❖It is important that the expected mother takes

care of her health, particularly during the first
three to four months of pregnancy, as this will
significantly affect the developing of her child.
❖The expectant mother needs to:

✓eat a healthy diet,

✓exercise regularly,
✓avoid using dangerous
substances, such as tobacco,
alcohol, and other dugs.
 Diet and the Expectant Mother

❖It is important that the expectant mother has

a healthy diet prior to and during pregnancy
because most of the feotus’ major organs are
developed within the first few weeks of
pregnancy.
What is a
diet?
❖The mother’s diet should contain a healthy
balance of protein, carbohydrate and fat.
 Why are
proteins,
carbohydrates
and fats
necessary?
❖Protein is necessary for the development of
the cells and muscles in the growing embryo
and it provides reserves that are needed
during labour and the birth of the child.
Name some
sources of
protein:
❖Proteins are found in meats, egg, fish, peas
and beans, cheese and milk.
❖Carbohydrates eaten by the mother provide
energy for her and for the developing feotus.

❖They also allow proteins to be used for

tissue growth.
 Name some
sources of
Carbohydrate:
❖Carbohydrates are found in bread, potatoes,
yams, rice and pasta
❖Fat is a required for the development of the
baby’s brain and cells.
❖Fat also provides a long-term energy reserve
which is used for growth of offspring.
 Name some
sources of fat:
❖Fats are found in eggs, nuts, oils, butter,
margarine and red meat.

What do you think will

happen if the mother eats
too much of these foods?
❖Too much of any of these foods will cause
the mother to put on extra weight, which will
not be healthy for her or the baby.
❖In addition, the expectant mother needs
some minerals and vitamins in greater
quantities than usual.

❖Calcium, phosphate and vitamin D are

essential for strong bones and teeth in the
baby.
❖If the mother does not have enough calcium
during pregnancy, then the calcium will be
absorbed from teeth and bones to supply the baby.

❖This will make her bones and teeth very brittle.

Name some
sources of
calcium:
❖Calcium can be obtained from foods such as
milk, yogurt, sardines and broccoli.
❖If the mother does not have enough calcium
during pregnancy, then the calcium will be
absorbed from teeth and bones to supply the baby.

❖This will make her bones and teeth very brittle.

❖Vitamin C assists in the formation of
healthy gums, teeth, and bones in the baby.
❖Vitamin C also plays an important role in
absorption of iron.
❖Iron is required for the formation of the
placenta and red blood cells.
❖Folic acid is needed for the complete
development of the baby’s spine during the first
three months of pregnancy.

❖It also helps in the formation of blood cells and

heamoglobin.
❖Sources of folic acid:

1. Green leafy vegetables

2. Dried peas and beans
3. Cereal
4. Citrus fruits
5. Bananas
6. tomatoes
Exercise and the Expectant Mother

❖Along with the essential nutrients required

for a healthy pregnancy, the mother should
exercise to stay fit.

❖Walking, swimming and low-impact

aerobics are all effective.
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Genetics: Patterns of Inheritance

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