REPRODUCTORY SYSTEM

• Human reproductive system, organ system by which human

reproduce and bear live offspring.
• Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning
properly, the essential features of human reproduction are
(1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive
cycle,
(2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells,
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb,
(4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo developed from the
fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus,
(5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during
the entire period of gestation,
(6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and
(7) suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the
maternal organs to virtually their original state.
 Male Reproductory System
Reproductive organs include:
1. Primary sex organs
2. Accessory sex organs.
Primary Sex Organs
• Testes are the primary sex organs or gonads in males.
Accessory Sex Organs
• Accessory sex organs in males are:
1. Seminal vesicles
2. Prostate gland
3. Urethra
4. Penis.
External and Internal Genitalia
• Reproductive organs are generally classified into two groups,
namely external genitalia (genital organs) and internal
genitalia.
• External genital organs in males are scrotum, penis and
urethra.
• Remaining sex organs constitute the internal genitalia.
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF TESTES
• Testes are the primary sex organs or gonads in males.
• There are two testes in almost all the species. In human
beings, both the testes are ovoid or walnut-shaped bodies
that are located and suspended in a sac-like structure called
scrotum.
• Each testis weighs about 15 to 19 g and measures about 5 × 3
cm. Testis is made up of about 900 coiled tubules known as
seminiferous tubules, which produce sperms.
• Seminiferous tubules continue as the vas efferens, which form
the epididymis. It is continued as vas deferens.
• Vas deferens is also called ductus deferens, spermatic
deferens or sperm duct.
• From epididymis in scrotum, the vas deferens extends on its
one side upwards into abdominal cavity via inguinal canal.
• Terminal portion of vas deferens is called ampulla. Ampulla of
vas deferens joins ducts of seminal vesicle of same side, to
form ejaculatory duct. Thus, there are two ejaculatory ducts
each of which receives sperm from vas deferens and
secretions of seminal vesicle on its own side.
• Both the ejaculatory ducts empty into a single urethra
COVERINGS OF TESTIS
Each testis is enclosed by three coverings.
1. Tunica Vasculosa
• Tunica vasculosa is the innermost covering. It is made up of
connective tissue and it is rich in blood vessels

2. Tunica Albuginea
• Tunica albuginea is the middle covering. It is a dense fibrous
capsule

3. Tunica Vaginalis
• Tunica vaginalis is the outermost closed cleft like covering,
formed by mesothelial cells. It is formed by visceral and
parietal layers, which glide on one another
and allow free movement of testes
Figure. Male reproductive system
PARENCHYMA OF TESTIS
1.Lobules of Testis
• Tunica albuginea on the posterior surface of testis is thickened
to form the mediastinum testis. From this, the connective
tissue septa called septula testis radiate into testis and bind
with t
2.Seminiferous Tubules
• Each lobule contains 1 to 4 coiled tubules known as the
seminiferous tubules, which are surrounded and supported by
interlobular connective tissue.unica albuginea at various
points
3.Rete Testis
• Rete testis is a network of thin-walled channels present in mediastinum. All
the seminiferous tubules open into the rete testis.
4.Vas Efferens
• From rete testis, 8 to 15 tubules called vas efferens arise. Vas efferens join
together and form the head of epididymis and then converge to form the
duct of epididymis.
5.Epididymis
• Duct of epididymis is an enormously convoluted tubule, with a length of
about 4 meter. It begins at head, where it receives vas efferens.
6.Vas Deferens
• At the caudal pole of testis, epididymis turns sharply upon itself and
continues as vas deferens, without any definite demarcation.
7.Interstitial Cells of Leydig
• Interstitial cells of Leydig are the hormone secreting cells of testis, lying in
between the seminiferous tubules.
Fig. Pathway for the passage of sperms
Structure of testes
FUNCTIONS OF TESTES
Testes performs two functions:
1. Gametogenic function: Spermatogenesis
2. Endocrine function: Secretion of hormones.

1.„ GAMETOGENIC FUNCTIONS OF TESTES – SPERMATOGENESIS

• Spermatogenesis is the process by which the male gametes called
spermatozoa (sperms) are formed from the primitive
spermatogenic cells (spermatogonia) in the testis . It takes 74
days for the formation of sperm from a primitive germ cell.
• Throughout the process of spermatogenesis, the spermatogenic
cells have cytoplasmic attachment with Sertoli cells.
• Sertoli cells supply all the necessary materials for
spermatogenesis through the cytoplasmic attachment.
STAGES OF SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis occurs in four stages:
• 1. Stage of proliferation
• 2. Stage of growth
• 3. Stage of maturation
• 4. Stage of transformation
1. Stage of Proliferation
• Each spermatogonium contains diploid number (23 pairs) of
chromosomes. One member of each pair is from maternal
origin and the other one from paternal origin. The 23 pairs
include 22 pairs of autosomal chromo somes and one pair of
sex chromosomes.
• Sex chromosomes are one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome.
• During the proliferative stage, spermatogonia divide by
mitosis, without any change in chromosomal number. In man,
there are usually seven generations of spermatogonia. The
last generation enters the stage of growth as primary
spermatocyte.
• During this stage, the spermatogonia migrate along with
Sertoli cells towards the lumen of seminiferous tubule.
2. Stage of Growth
• In this stage, the primary spermatocyte grows into a large cell

3. Stage of Maturation
• After reaching the full size, each primary spermatocyte
quickly undergoes meiotic or maturation division

4. Stage of Transformation
• There is no further division. Spermatids are transformed into
matured spermatozoa (sperms), by means of
spermeogenesis and released by spermination
Spermeogenesis
• Spermeogenesis is the process by which spermatids become
matured spermatozoa.
• Changes taking place during spermeogenesis:
i. Condensation of nuclear material
ii. Formation of acrosome, mitochondrial spiral filament and tail
structures
iii. Removal of extraneous (extra volume of nonessential) cytoplasm.

Spermination
• Spermination is the process by which the matured sperms are
released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of seminiferous tubules
 ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF TESTES
„ HORMONES SECRETED BY TESTES
• Testes secrete male sex hormones, which are collectively called the
androgens.
• Androgens secreted by testes are:
1. Testosterone
2. Dihydrotestosterone
3. Androstenedione.
• Among these three androgens, testosterone is secreted in large
quantities. However, dihydrotestosterone is more active.
Source of Secretion of Androgens
• Androgens are secreted in large quantities by testes and in small
quantity by adrenal cortex.
Testes
• In testes, androgens are secreted by the interstitial cells of Leydig,
which form 20% of mass of adult testis.
TESTOSTERONE SECRETION IN DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE
• Testosterone secretion starts at 7th week of fetal life by fetal
genital ridge. Fetal testes begin to secrete testosterone at
about 2nd to 4th month of fetal life.
• In fetal life, testosterone secretion from testes is stimulated
by
human chorionic gonadotropins, secreted by placenta. But in
childhood, practically no testosterone is secreted
approximately until 10 to 12 years of age.
• Afterwards, the testosterone secretion starts and it increases
rapidly at the onset of puberty and lasts through most of the
remaining part of life.
• The secretion starts decreasing after 40 years and becomes
almost zero by the age of 90 years
FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
• In general, testosterone is responsible for the distinguishing
characters of masculine body.
• It also plays an important role in fetal lifeFunctions of
Testosterone in Fetal Life
• Testosterone performs three functions in fetus:
1. Sex differentiation in fetus
2. Development of accessory sex organs
3. Descent of the testes.
Functions of Testosterone in Adult Life
Testosterone has two important functions in adult:
1. Effect on sex organs
2. Effect on secondary sexual characters.

1. Effect on sex organs

• Testosterone increases the size of penis, scrotum and the testes after
puberty. All these organs are enlarged at least 8 folds between the onset
of puberty and the age of 20 years, under the influence of testosterone.
• Testosterone is also necessary for spermatogenesis.

2. Effect on secondary sexual characters

• Secondary sexual characters are the physical and behavioral characteristics
that distinguish the male from female.
• These characters appear at the time of puberty in humans.
• Testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual
External Structures of male reproductory system
•  These external structures include the penis, scrotum, and
testicles.
1.Penis: 
• This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse.
• It has three parts:
a. the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen;
b. the body, or shaft; and
c. the glans, which is the cone-shaped part at the end of the
penis.
• The glans, also called the head of the penis, is covered with a
loose layer of skin called foreskin.
• This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure
called circumcision.
• The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine,
is at the tip of the penis.
• The glans of the penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve
endings.
• The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three
circular shaped chambers. These chambers are made up of special,
sponge-like tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that
fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused.
• As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows
for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose
and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection.
• Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled
(ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual
climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked
from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
2. Scrotum: 
• This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and
below the penis.
• It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many
nerves and blood vessels.
• The scrotum acts as a "climate control system" for the testes.
• For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a
temperature slightly cooler than body temperature.
• Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract
and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or
farther away from the body to cool the temperature.
3.Testicles (testes): 
• These are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in
the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the
spermatic cord.
• Most men have two testes.
• The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the
primary male sex hormone, and for generating sperm.
• Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called
seminiferous tubules.
• These tubes are responsible for producing sperm cells.
Female Reproductive System
• The female reproductive system is designed to carry out
several functions.
• It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction,
called the ova or oocytes.
• The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of
fertilization. 
• Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally
occurs in the fallopian tubes.
• The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls
of the uterus, beginning the initial stages of pregnancy.
• If fertilization and/or implantation does not take place, the
system is designed to menstruate (the monthly shedding of
the uterine lining).
• In addition, the female reproductive system produces
female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.
• The female reproductive system (or female genital system) is
made up of the internal and external sex organs that function
in reproduction of new offspring.
Fig ; female reproductive system (internal organ)
 Internal reproductive organs (Female)
• The female internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus,
Fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
1.Vagina
• The vagina is a fibromuscular (made up of fibrous and muscular
tissue) canal leading from the outside of the body to
the cervix of the uterus or womb.
• It is also referred to as the birth canal in the context
of pregnancy.
• The vagina accommodates the male penis during sexual
intercourse.
•  Semen containing spermatozoa is ejaculated from the male
at orgasm, into the vagina potentially enabling fertilization of
the egg cell(ovum) to take place.
2.Cervix
• The cervix is the neck of the uterus, the lower, narrow portion
where it joins with the upper part of the vagina.
• It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the
upper anterior vaginal wall.
• Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies
above the vagina beyond view. The vagina has a thick layer
outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during
delivery
3.Uterus
• The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ.
• The uterus provides mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste
removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to 8) and fetus (from week 9 until
the delivery).
• In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus are important in
pushing out the fetus at the time of birth.
• The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of
the uterus and limits its range of movement.
• The uterosacral ligaments keep the body from moving inferiorly and anteriorly.
• The round ligaments restrict posterior movement of the uterus.
• The cardinal ligaments also prevent the inferior movement of the uterus.
• The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ.
• Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into
the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop
exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops
into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of
the uterus, a female begins menstruation.
4.Fallopian tube
• The Fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the ovaries into
the uterus
• . On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture,
allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube.
• There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements
of cilia on the inner lining of the tubes.
• This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the
Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in
the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which signals the
beginning of pregnancy.
5.Ovaries
• The ovaries are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the
pelvic cavity.
• These organs are responsible for the production of the egg cells (ova) and
the secretion of hormones.
• The process by which the egg cell (ovum) is released is called ovulation.
• The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to the length of
a menstrual cycle.
• After ovulation, the egg cell is captured by the Fallopian tube, after
traveling down the Fallopian tube to the uterus, occasionally being
fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm.
• During fertilization the egg cell plays a role; it releases certain molecules
that are essential to guiding the sperm and allows the surface of the egg
to attach to the sperm's surface.
• The egg can then absorb the sperm and fertilization can then begin. The
Fallopian tubes are lined with small hairs (cilia) to help the egg cell travel
 External female reproductive Organs
• The main external structures of the female reproductive system include:
1. Labia majora: 
The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive
organs.
Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are relatively large
and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males.
The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After puberty,
the labia majora are covered with hair.

2. Labia minora:
Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small or
up to 2 inches wide.
They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to
the vagina(the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside
of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to
the outside of the body).
3. Bartholin's glands: 
These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and
produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.

4. Clitoris: 
The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive
protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males.
The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce,
which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis.
Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and
can become erect
Menstrual Cycle
 DEFINITION
• Menstrual cycle is defined as cyclic events that take place in a
rhythmic fashion during the reproductive period of a woman’s life.
• Menstrual cycle starts at the age of 12 to 15 years, which marks the
onset of puberty.
• The commencement of menstrual cycle is called menarche.
• Menstrual cycle ceases at the age of 45 to 50 years.
• Permanent cessation of menstrual cycle in old age is called
menopause.
DURATION OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• Duration of menstrual cycle is usually 28 days.
• But, under physiological conditions, it may vary between 20 and 40
days
CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• During each menstrual cycle, series of changes occur in ovary
and accessory sex organs.
• These changes are divided into 4 groups:
1. Ovarian changes
2. Uterine changes
3. Vaginal changes
4. Changes in cervix.
• All these changes take place simultaneously.
• Females of reproductive age experience cycles of hormonal
activity that repeat at about one-month intervals. With every
cycle, a woman's body prepares for a potential pregnancy,
whether or not that is the woman's intention. The
term menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of the
uterine lining. (Menstrumeans "monthly.'')
• The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs
in phases: the follicular phase, the ovulatory phase
(ovulation), and the luteal phase.
• There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or
regulate the activity of cells or organs) involved in the
menstrual cycle:
follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen,
and progesterone.
1.Follicular Phase of the Menstrual Cycle
• This phase starts on the first day of your period. During the follicular
phase of the menstrual cycle, the following events occur:
• Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH), are released from the brain and travel in the blood to
the ovaries.
• The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15 to 20 eggs in the
ovaries, each in its own "shell," called a follicle.
• These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase in the
production of the female hormone estrogen.
• As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the production of
follicle-stimulating hormone. This careful balance of hormones allows
the body to limit the number of follicles that mature.
• As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes
dominant and continues to mature. This dominant follicle suppresses
all of the other follicles in the group. As a result, they stop growing and
die. The dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.
2.Ovulatory Phase of the Menstrual Cycle
• The ovulatory phase, or ovulation, starts about 14 days after the
follicular phase started. The ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the
menstrual cycle, with the next menstrual period starting about two
weeks later. During this phase, the following events occur:
• The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a surge in the
amount of luteinizing hormone that is produced by the brain.
• This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary.
• As the egg is released (a process called ovulation), it is captured by
finger-like projections on the end of the fallopian tubes (fimbriae).
The fimbriae sweep the egg into the tube.
• Also during this phase, there is an increase in the amount and
thickness of mucus produced by the cervix (lower part of the uterus).
If a woman were to have intercourse during this time, the thick
mucus captures the man's sperm, nourishes it, and helps it to move
towards the egg for fertilization.
3.Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle
• The luteal phase of the menstrual cycle begins right after ovulation and
involves the following processes:
• Once it releases its egg, the empty follicle develops into a new structure
called the corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone. Progesterone
prepares the uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.
• If intercourse has taken place and a man's sperm has fertilized the egg
(a process called conception), the fertilized egg (embryo) will travel
through the fallopian tube to implant in the uterus. The woman is now
considered pregnant.
• If the egg is not fertilized, it passes through the uterus. Not needed to
support a pregnancy, the lining of the uterus breaks down and sheds,
and the next menstrual period begins.
• How Many Eggs Does a Woman Have?
• The vast majority of the eggs within the ovaries steadily die,
until they are depleted at menopause. At birth, there are
approximately 1 million to 2 million eggs; by the time of
puberty, only about 300,000 remain. Of these, only about 500
will be ovulated during a woman's reproductive lifetime. Any
remaining eggs gradually die out at menopause
ENDROCRINOLOGY
• All the physiological activities of the body are regulated by
two major systems:
1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system.
• These two systems interact with one another and regulate the
body functions
• Endocrine system functions by secreting some chemical
substances called hormones
• What is endocrinology?
• Intercellular Chemical Communication
• Endocrinology is about communication systems &
information transfer.
„ CELL-TO-CELL SIGNALING
• Cell to cell signaling refers to the transfer of information from
one cell to another. It is also called cell signaling or intercellular
communication. The cells of the body communicate with each
other through some chemical substances called chemical
messengers.
CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
• Chemical messengers are the substances involved in cell
signaling. These messengers are mainly secreted from endocrine
glands. Some chemical messengers are secreted by nerve
endings and the cells of several other tissues also.
• All these chemical messengers carry the message (signal) from
the signaling cells (controlling cells) to the target cells. The
messenger substances may be the hormones or hormone like
substances.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Endocrine glands are the glands which synthesize and release the
classical hormones into the blood.
• Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because the
hormones secreted by them are released directly into blood
without any duct. Endocrine glands are distinct from exocrine
glands which release their secretions through ducts.
• Endocrine glands play an important role in homeostasis and
control of various other activities in the body through their
hormones.
• Hormones are transported by blood to target organs or tissues in
different parts of the body, where the actions are executed.
Fig; Major glands of human body
 Table: Hormones secreted by major endocrine glands
1. Anterior pituitary 1. Growth hormone (GH)
2. Thyroidstimulating
hormone (TSH)
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
6. Prolactin
2. Posterior pituitary 1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
2. Oxytocin
3. Thyroid gland 1. Thyroxine (T4)
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Calcitonin
4. Parathyroid gland Parathormone

5. Pancreas – 1. Insulin
Islets of Langerhans 2. Glucagon
3. Somatostatin
4. Pancreatic polypeptide
6. Adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids
1. Aldosterone
2. 11deoxycorticosterone
Glucocorticoids
1. Cortisol
2. Corticosterone
Sex hormones
1. Androgens
2. Estrogen
3. Progesterone
7. Adrenal medulla 1. Catecholamines
2. Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
3. Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
4. Dopamine
 Hormone
• Hormones are chemical messengers, synthesized by
endocrine glands.
• Based on chemical nature, hormones are classified into three
types:
1. Steroid hormones
2. Protein hormones
3. Derivatives of the amino acid called tyrosine.

1.STEROID HORMONES
• Steroid hormones are the hormones synthesized from
cholesterol or its derivatives. Steroid hormones are secreted
by adrenal cortex, gonads and placenta
2.PROTEIN HORMONES
• Protein hormones are large or small peptides. Protein
hormones are secreted by pituitary gland, parathyroid glands,
pancreas and placenta (‘P’s).

3. TYROSINE DERIVATIVES
• Two types of hormones, namely thyroid hormones and
adrenal medullary hormones are derived from the amino acid
tyrosine.
HORMONAL ACTION
• Hormone does not act directly on target cells. First it combines with
receptor present on the target cells and forms a hormone-receptor
complex.
• This hormonereceptor complex induces various changes or reactions in
the target cells.

„ HORMONE RECEPTORS
• Hormone receptors are the large proteins present in the target cells.
• Each cell has thousands of receptors.
• Important characteristic feature of the receptors is that, each receptor
is specific for one single hormone, i.e. each receptor can combine with
only one hormone.
• Thus, a hormone can act on a target cell, only if the target cell has the
receptor for that particular hormone.
Pituitary Gland
„ INTRODUCTION
• Pituitary gland or hypophysis is a small endocrine gland with a diameter
of 1 cm and weight of 0.5 to 1 g.
• It is situated in a depression called ‘sella turcica’, present in the sphenoid
bone at the base of skull.
• It is connected with the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk or
hypophyseal stalk.

„ DIVISIONS OF PITUITARY GLAND

• Pituitary gland is divided into two divisions:
1. Anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis
2. Posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis.
• Both the divisions are situated close to each other. Still both are entirely
different in their development, structure and function.
• Between the two divisions, there is a small and relatively avascular
structure called pars intermedia.
• Actually, it forms a part of anterior pituitary.
ANTERIOR PITUITARY OR ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
• Anterior pituitary is also known as the master gland because
it regulates many other endocrine glands through its
hormones.
„PARTS
• Anterior pituitary consists of three parts:
1. Pars distalis
2. Pars tuberalis
3. Pars intermedia
HISTOLOGY
• Anterior pituitary has two types of cells, which have different
staining properties:
1. Chromophobe cells
2. Chromophil cells.

1.Chromophobe Cells
• Chromophobe cells do not possess granules and stain poorly.
These cells form 50% of total cells in anterior pituitary.
Chromophobe cells are not secretory in nature, but are the
precursors of chromophil cells.
2.Chromophil Cells
• Chromophil cells contain large number of granules and are
darkly stained.
 FIGURE: Parts of pituitary gland
Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
REGULATION OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETION
• Hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary by secreting the
releasing and inhibitory hormones (factors), which are called
neurohormones.
• These hormones from hypothalamus are transported anterior
pituitary through hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal vessels.
• Some special nerve cells present in various parts
hypothalamus send their nerve fibers (axons) to median
eminence and tuber cinereum.
• These nerve cells synthesize the hormones and release them
into median eminence and tuber cinereum. From here, the
hormones are transported by blood via hypothalamo-
hypophyseal portal vessels to anterior pituitary
Releasing and Inhibitory Hormones Secreted by Hypothalamus
1. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH):
Stimulates the release of growth hormone
2. Growth hormone-releasing polypeptide (GHRP):
Stimulates the release of GHRH and growth hormone
3. Growth hormone-inhibitory hormone (GHIH) or somatostatin: Inhibits the
growth hormone release
4. Thyrotropic-releasing hormone (TRH): Stimulates the release of thyroid
stimulating hormone
5. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): Stimulates the release of
adrenocorticotropin
6. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Stimulates the release of
gonadotropins, FSH and LH
7. Prolactin-inhibitory hormone (PIH): Inhibits prolactin secretion. It is believed
that PIH is dopamine
HORMONES SECRETED BY ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Six hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary:
1. Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropic hormone(STH)
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropic hormone
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH) in females or interstitialcell-stimulating hormone
(ICSH) in males
6. Prolactin.

Tropic Hormones
• First five hormones of anterior pituitary stimulate the other endocrine glands.
Growth hormone also stimulates the secretory activity of liver and other tissues.
Therefore, these five hormones are called tropic hormones.
• Prolactin is concerned with milk secretion.
Gonadotropic Hormones
• Follicle-stimulating hormone and the luteinizing hormone are together called
gonadotropic hormones or gonadotropins because of their action on gonads.
1.GROWTH HORMONE
• Source of Secretion
• Growth hormone is secreted by somatotropes which are the acidophilic cells of
anterior pituitary
• Transport
• Growth hormone is transported in blood by GH-binding proteins (GHBPs)
• Actions of Growth Hormone
• GH is responsible for the general growth of the body.
• Hypersecretion of GH causes enormous growth of the body, leading to gigantism.

• Deficiency of GH in children
• causes stunted growth, leading to dwarfism.
• GH is responsible for the growth of almost all tissues of the body, which are capable
of growing.
• It increases the size and number of cells by mitotic division.
• GH also causes specific differentiation of certain types of cells like bone cells and
muscle cells
• GH also acts on the metabolism of all the three major types of foodstuffs in the body,
viz. proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
OTHER HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• TSH is necessary for the growth and secretory activity of the
thyroid gland. It has many actions on the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
• ACTH is necessary for the structural integrity and the
secretory activity of adrenal cortex.
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone is a glycoprotein made up of one
α-subunit and a β-subunit. The α-subunit has 92 amino acids
and β-subunit has 118 amino acids. The half-life of FSH is
about 3 to 4 hours.
Actions of FSH
• In males, FSH acts along with testosterone and accelerates the
process of spermeogenesis.
In females FSH:
1. Causes the development of graafian follicle from primordial
follicle
2. Stimulates the theca cells of graafian follicle and causes
secretion of estrogen
3. Promotes the aromatase activity in granulosa cells, resulting
in conversion of androgens into estrogen

2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

• LH is a glycoprotein made up of one α-subunit and one β-
subunit. The α-subunit has 92 amino acids and β-subunit has
141 amino acids.
• The half-life of LH is about 60 minutes.

.
Actions of LH
• In males, LH is known as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)
because it stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig in testes. This
hormone is essential for the secretion of testosterone from Leydig
cells .
In females, LH:
• 1. Causes maturation of vesicular follicle into graafian follicle along
with follicle-stimulating hormone
• 2. Induces synthesis of androgens from theca cells of growing follicle
• 3. Is responsible for ovulation
• 4. Is necessary for the formation of corpus luteum
• 5. Activates the secretory functions of corpus luteum
POSTERIOR PITUITARY OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
„ HORMONES OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• Posterior pituitary hormones are:
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
2. Oxytocin.
Source of Secretion of Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Actually, the posterior pituitary does not secrete any hormone. ADH and
oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus. From hypothalamus, these
two hormones are transported to the posterior pituitary through the
nerve fibers of hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract , by means of axonic flow.
Proteins involved in transport of these hormones are called neurophysins.
• In the posterior pituitary, these hormones are stored at the nerve endings.
Whenever, the impulses from hypothalamus reach the posterior pituitary,
these hormones are released from the nerve endings into the circulation.
Hence, these two hormones are called neurohormones.
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS OF PITUITARY GLAND

A.HYPERACTIVITY OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY

1. Gigantism
• Gigantism is the pituitary disorder characterized by excess
growth of the body. The subjects look like the giants with
average height of about 7 to 8 feet.
Causes
• Gigantism is due to hypersecretion of GH in childhood or in
pre-adult life before the fusion of epiphysis of bone
with shaft. Hypersecretion of GH is because of tumor of
acidophil cells in the anterior pituitary.
Signs and symptoms
i. General overgrowth of the person leads to the development of a huge
stature, with a height of more than 7 or 8 feet. The limbs are
disproportionately long
ii. Giants are hyperglycemic and they develop glycosuria and pituitary
diabetes. Hyperglycemia causes constant stimulation of β-cells of islets
of Langerhans in the pancreas and release of insulin. However, the
overactivity of β-cells of Langerhans in pancreas leads to degeneration
of these cells and deficiency of insulin and ultimately, diabetes mellitus
is developed
iii. Tumor of the pituitary gland itself causes constant headache
iv. Pituitary tumor also causes visual disturbances.It compresses the
lateral fibers of optic chiasma, leading to bitemporal hemianopia
2. Acromegaly
• Acromegaly is the disorder characterized by the enlargement,
thickening and broadening of bones, particularly in the
extremities of the body.
Causes
• Acromegaly is due to hypersecretion of GH in adults after the
fusion of epiphysis with shaft of the bone.
• Hypersecretion of GH is because of tumor of acidophil cells in
the anterior pituitary.

Signs and symptoms

i. Acromegalic or gorilla face: Face with rough features such as
protrusion of supraorbital ridges, broadening of nose,
thickening of lips, thickening and wrinkles formation on
forehead and prognathism (protrusion of lower jaw
ii. Enlargement of hands and feet
iii. Kyphosis (extreme curvature of upper back –thoracic spine)
iv. Thickening of scalp. Scalp is also thrown into folds or wrinkles
like bulldog scalp
v. Overgrowth of body hair
vi. Enlargement of visceral organs such as lungs, thymus, heart,
liver and spleen
vii. Hyperactivity of thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal glands
viii. Hyperglycemia and glucosuria, resulting in diabetes mellitus
ix. Hypertension
x. Headache
xi. Visual disturbance (bitemporal hemianopia).
HYPOACTIVITY OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY

1. Dwarfism
• Dwarfism is a pituitary disorder in children, characterized by the stunted
growth.
Causes
• Reduction in GH secretion in infancy or early childhood causes dwarfism. It
occurs because of the following reasons:
i. Tumor of chromophobes: It is a non-functioning tumor, which compresses
and destroys the normal cells secreting GH. It is the most common cause for
hyposecretion of GH, leading to dwarfism
ii. Deficiency of GH-releasing hormone secreted by hypothalamus
iii. Deficiency of somatomedin C
iv. Atrophy or degeneration of acidophilic cells in the anterior pituitary
iv. Panhypopituitarism: In this condition, there is reduction in the secretion of
all the hormones of anterior pituitary gland. This type of dwarfism is
associated with other symptoms due to the deficiency of other anterior
pituitary hormones.
Signs and symptoms
i. Primary symptom of hypopituitarism in children is the stunted
skeletal growth. The maximum height of anterior pituitary
dwarf at the adult age is only about 3 feet
ii. But the proportions of different parts of the body are almost
normal. Only the head becomes slightly larger in relation to
the body
iii. Pituitary dwarfs do not show any deformity and their mental
activity is normal with no mental retardation
iv. Reproductive function is not affected, if there is only GH
deficiency. However, during panhypopituitarism, the dwarfs
do not obtain puberty due to the deficiency of gonadotropic
hormones
HYPOACTIVITY OF POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Diabetes Insipidus
• Diabetes insipidus is a posterior pituitary disorder characterized by excess
excretion of water through urine.
Causes
• This disorder develops due to the deficiency of ADH, which occurs in the
following conditions:
i. Lesion (injury) or degeneration of supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of
hypothalamus
ii. Lesion in hypothalamo-hypophyseal tractiii. Atrophy of posterior pituitary
iv. Inability of renal tubules to give response to ADH hormone. Such
condition is called nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.
Signs and symptoms
i. Polyuria: Excretion of large quantity of dilute urine, with increased
frequency of voiding is called polyuria. Daily output of urine varies
between 4 to 12 liter. In the absence of ADH, the epithelial cells of distal
convoluted tubule in the nephron and the collecting duct of the kidney
become impermeable to water.
So, water is not reabsorbed from the renal tubule and collecting
duct, leading to loss of water through urine.
ii. Polydipsia: Intake of excess water is called polydipsia. Because
of polyuria, lot of water is lost from the body. It stimulates the
thirst center in hypothalamus, resulting in intake of large
quantity of water.
iii. Dehydration: In some cases, the thirst center in the
hypothalamus is also affected by the lesion. Water intake
decreases in these patients and loss of water through urine is
not compensated. So, dehydration develops which may lead
to death.
THYROID GLAND
• Thyroid is an endocrine gland situated at the root of the neck
on either side of the trachea.
• It has two lobes, which are connected in the middle by an
isthmus.
• It weighs about 20 to 40 g in adults.
• Thyroid is larger in females than in males. The structure and
the function of the thyroid gland change in different stages of
the sexual cycle in females.
• Its function increases slightly during pregnancy and lactation
and decreases during menopause.
HISTOLOGY OF THYROID GLAND
• Thyroid gland is composed of large number of closed
follicles.
These follicles are lined with cuboidal epithelial cells, which are
called the follicular cells.
Follicularn cavity is filled with a colloidal substance known as
thyroglobulin, which is secreted by the follicular cells.
• Follicular cells also secrete tetraiodothyronine (T4 or thyroxine)
and tri-iodothyronine (T3).
• In between the follicles, the parafollicular cells are present.
• These cells secrete calcitonin.
Fig:Thyroid gland
HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND
• Thyroid gland secretes three hormones:
1. Tetraiodothyronine or T4 (thyroxine)
2. Tri-iodothyronine or T3
3. Calcitonin.
• T4 is otherwise known as thyroxine and it forms about 90% of
the total secretion, whereas T3 is only 9%to 10%.
SYNTHESIS OF THYROID HORMONES
• Synthesis of thyroid hormones takes place in thyroglobulin,
present in follicular cavity. Iodine and tyrosine are essential for
the formation of thyroid hormones.
• Iodine is consumed through diet. It is converted into iodide and
absorbed from GI tract. Tyrosine is also consumed through diet
and is absorbed from the GI tract.
• For the synthesis of normal quantities of thyroid hormones,
approximately 1 mg of iodine is required per week or about 50
mg per year.
• To prevent iodine deficiency, common table salt is iodized with
one part of sodium iodide to every 100,000 parts of sodium
chloride.