Apeejay School, Salt Lake,

Kolkata

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

HUMAN EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

Session: 2021-22
Submitted by:
Sandipan Biswas
XII-B (Science)
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CBSE Roll No.- 12674420

Certificate

This is to certify that this "Biology

Investigatory Project" on the topic "Human
Embryonic Development" has been successfully
completed by Sandipan Biswas of class XII - B
under the guidance of Mrs. Arunima Gupta) in
particular fulfilment of the curriculum of
Central Board of Secondary Education {CBSE}
leading to the award of annual examination of
the year 2020-21.

Teacher-In-Charge
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Acknowledgments
I have given efforts in completing this project. However, it
would not have been possible without the kind support
and help of many individuals. I would like to thank my
principal Mrs. Anindita Banerjee and my school for
providing me with the facilities required to do my project.
I am highly indebted to my Biology teacher, Mrs. Arunima
Gupta, for her invaluable time and guidance which has
sustained my efforts in all the stages of this project. I
would also like to thank my parents for their continuous
support, encouragement and valuable views. My thanks
and appreciation also go to my fellow classmates in
developing the project and to the people who have
willingly helped me out with their abilities.
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OBJECTIVE

To study fertilization, human embryonic

development, it's stages, (morula, blastula),
implantation, gastrulation, neurulation, germ
layers, foetal membranes, a brief about
pregnancy, placenta, development of organ &
organ system, important developmental
changes during Gestation,
parturition, factors influencing development
of foetus & developmental disorders.
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OVERVIEW

The embryo is an early developmental stage of animals. In humans the embryo begins
to develop about four days after an egg is fertilized. Appearing initially as a tiny mass
of cells, it eventually gives rise to the foetus.In the first days of the embryo’s existence,
it journeys along the fallopian tube. About one week after conception, it reaches the
uterus, which is prepared to receive it with a network of blood vessels and glands.
By this time, the embryo has become a fluid-filled sphere of nearly 100 cells. Some of
the cells become fingerlike projections that anchor the embryo to the uterus to draw
nourishment and oxygen and to rid the embryo of wastes. The anchoring cells secrete
a hormone that will prevent the disintegration of the lining; there will be no menstrual
period.Three weeks after fertilization, though still smaller than a grain of rice, the
embryo has a primitive heart. Through the following weeks its tissues and organs will
develop. In four weeks it looks like this…

After five weeks, about the size of a pea…

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six weeks…

seven weeks…

At two months it is called a foetus…

When the embryo attaches to the uterus, a complex structure of vessels and cells
forms, which is called the placenta. A network of the embryo's blood vessels closely
intermingles next to the mother's blood supply. While the blood of the embryo and that
of the mother don't actually mix, materials such as oxygen, nutrients, and waste
products can pass between mother and embryo. If their blood were to mix, the embryo
would be rejected by the mother’s immune system. This happens because the embryo
essentially is a foreign organism —it shares only half of its genetic constitution with
the mother.From the placenta emerges the umbilical cord, which leads to the abdomen
of the foetus. When the cord is removed at birth, the belly button is created. During
pregnancy the placenta and umbilical cord serve as pathways for everything the foetus
needs to grow.By the third month all the organs of the foetus are essentially in place,
and the foetus enters a period of intense growth. During the fourth month, the foetus
doubles in size. Its muscles twitch. By the fifth month, it is about 8 inches, nearly 21
centimeters long.(It kicks occasionally!) Its heart rate averages about 140 beats per
minute, twice the speed of an adult's! After nine months, it is fully developed and birth
occurs.
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A fully grown foetus (37-40 weeks)

FERTILIZATION

Definition- The fusion of a haploid male gamete (sperm) and a haploid female gamete (ovum) to
form a diploid zygote is called fertilization.
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The idea of fertilization was known to Leeuwenhoek in 1683.
Site of Fertilization- In human beings, fertilization takes place mostly in the ampulla of the
oviduct (fallopian tube).
Arrival of Sperms- Male discharges semen into the female's vagina close to the cervix during
coitus (copulation). This is called insemination. A single ejaculation of semen may contain
200-300 million sperms.
Movement of Sperms- From the vagina the sperms travel up the uterus but only a few
thousand find their way into the openings of the Fallopian tubes. Primarily, contractions of the
uterus and Fallopian tubes assist in sperm movement but later on they move by their own
motility. Sperms swim in the fluid medium at the rate of 1.5 to 3 mm per minute to reach the
site. The leucocytes of vaginal epithelium engulf millions of sperms.
Arrival of Secondary Oocyte- In human beings, the secondary oocyte is released from the
mature Graafian follicle of an ovary (ovulation). The oocyte is received by the nearby Fallopian
funnel and sent into the Fallopian tube by movements of fimbriae and their cilia. The secondary
oocyte can be fertilized only within 24 hours after its release from the ovary. The secondary
oocyte is surrounded by numerous sperms but only one sperm succeeds in fertilizing the oocyte.
Since the second meiotic division is in progress, the sperm enters the secondary oocyte. Second
meiotic division is completed by the entry of the sperm into the secondary oocyte. After this
secondary oocyte is called ovum (egg).
Capacitation of Sperms- The sperms in the female's genital tract are made capable of fertilizing
the egg by secretions of the female genital tract. These secretions of the female
genital tract removes coating substances deposited on the surface of the sperms particularly
those on the acrosome. Thus, the receptor sites on the acrosome are exposed and sperm
becomes active to penetrate the egg. This phenomenon of sperm activation in mammals is
known as capacitation. It takes about 5 to 6 hours for capacitation.
The secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands) in
the semen contain nutrients which activate the sperms. The secretions of these glands also
neutralise the acidity in the vagina. Alkaline medium makes the sperms more active.
Physical and Chemical Events of Fertilization-
(1) Acrosomal Reaction- After ovulation, the secondary oocyte reaches the Fallopian tube
(oviduct). The capacitated sperms undergo an acrosomal reaction and release various chemicals
contained in the acrosome. These chemicals are collectively called sperm lysins. Important
sperm lysins are (i) hyaluronidase that acts on the ground substances of follicle cells, (ii) corona
penetrating enzyme that dissolves corona radiata and (iii) zona lysine or acrosin that helps to
digest the zona pellucida.

Optimum pH, Ca++, Mg++ ions concentration and temperature are essential for acrosomal
reaction. Ca++ plays a major role in acrosomal reaction. In the absence of Ca++, fertilization does
not occur.

Due to acrosomal reaction, the plasma membrane of the sperm fuses with the plasma membrane
of the secondary oocyte so that the sperm contents enter the oocyte. Binding of the sperm to the
secondary oocyte induces depolarization of the oocyte plasma membrane. Depolarization
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prevents polyspermy (entry of more than one sperm into the oocyte). It ensures monospermy
(entry of one sperm into the oocyte).
(2) Cortical Reaction- Just after the fusion of sperm and plasma membranes of an oocyte, the
secondary oocyte shows a cortical reaction. The cortical granules are present beneath the
plasma membrane of the secondary oocyte. These granules fuse with the plasma membrane of
the oocyte and release their contents including cortical enzymes between the plasma membrane
and the zona pellucida. These enzymes harden the zona pellucida which also prevents the entry
of additional sperms (polyspermy).

(3) Sperm Entry- At the point of contact with the sperms, the secondary oocyte forms a
projection termed the cone of reception or fertilization cone which receives the sperm. The
proximal centriole of the sperm divides and forms two centrioles to generate the mitotic spindle
formation for cell division. The mammalian secondary oocyte (egg) does not have centrioles of
its own.

(iv) Karyogamy (Amphimixis)- Sperm entry stimulates the secondary oocyte to complete the
suspended second meiotic division. This produces a haploid mature ovum and a second polar
body. The head of the sperm which contains the nucleus separates from the middle piece and
the tail and becomes the male pronucleus. The second polar body and the sperm tail
degenerate. The nucleus of the ovum is now called the female pronucleus. The male and female
pronuclei move towards each other. Their nuclear membranes disintegrate. Mixing up of the
chromosomes of a sperm and an ovum is known as karyogamy or amphimixis. The fertilized
ovum (egg) is now called zygote. The zygote is a diploid unicellular cell that has 46
chromosomes in humans. The mother is now said to be pregnant.
(v) Activation of Egg- Sperm entry stimulates metabolism in the zygote. As a result, the rates of
cellular respiration and protein synthesis increase greatly. Besides activating the egg another
role of sperm is to carry DNA to the egg.

Significance of Fertilization
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(i) It restores the diploid number of chromosomes, characteristic of the species viz., 46 in human
beings.
(ii) Fertilization initiates cleavage.
(iii) It introduces the centrioles which are lacking in the mature egg.
(iv) Fertilization results in determination of sex in the embryo.
(v) It combines the characters of two parents. This introduces variations.
(vi) Fertilization membrane developed after the entry of the sperm prevents the entry of other
sperm into the ovum.

What is Embryonic Development ?

Human embryonic development, or human embryogenesis, refers to the development and
formation of the human embryo*. It is characterised by the processes of cell division and cellular
differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development. After an egg is
fertilized, and has fused with sperm to form a zygote, an embryo begins to develop. The process
in which an organism develops from a single-celled zygote to a multicellular organism is
complex and well-regulated. The early stages of embryonic development are also crucial for
ensuring the fitness of the organism.Embryogenesis, the first eight weeks of development after
fertilization, is an incredibly complicated process.
NOTE
*Embryo. Embryo is an organism in the early stages of development. In human beings, the
developing organism from conception until approximately the end of the eight week (second
month) is called an embryo.

Foetus. Foetus is the unborn young one of a viviparous animal after it has taken form in the
uterus. In human beings, an embryo is called a foetus from the end of the eight week till birth.

CLEAVAGE AND BLASTULA STAGE

Definition. Cleavage is a rapid mitotic division of the zygote which converts the single celled
zygote into a multicellular structure called blastula (blastocyst).
Process. About thirty hours after fertilization, the newly formed zygote divides into two cells,
the blastomeres, in the upper portion of the Fallopian tube. This is the first cleavage.The next
division occurs within forty hours after fertilization. The third division occurs about three days
after fertilization. During these early cleavages, the young embryo is slowly moving down the
Fallopian tube towards the uterus.At the end of fourth day, the embryo reaches the uterus. It has
8-16 blastomeres and this solid mass of cells is known as morula (little mulberry) as it looks like
a mulberry. When the blastomeres divide completely, the cleavage is called holoblastic.
Significance of Cleavage. Cleavage brings about :
(i) the distribution of the cytoplasm of the zygote, amongst the blastomeres
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(ii) increased mobility of the protoplasm, which facilitates morphogenetic movements necessary
for cell differentiation, germ layer formation and the formation of tissue and organs
(iii) the restoration of the cell size and the nucleo cytoplasmic ratio characteristic of the species
(iv) unicellular zygote is converted into multicellular embryo

Blastocyst Formation. At the next stage of development, which produces an embryo with about
sixty four cells, a cavity is formed within the cell mass. This cavity is called blastocyst cavity
(Blastocoel) and the embryo is termed the blastocyst which is composed of an outer envelope of
cells, the trophoblast or trophectoderm and inner cell mass (= embryoblast). The side of the
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blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the embryonic or animal pole while
the opposite side is the abembryonic pole. The trophoblast encircles the blastocoel and the
inner cell mass. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo. It means the inner cell mass
gives rise to the embryo. The cells of trophoblast (Gr. trophe- nourishment) help to provide
nutrition to the embryo. The cells of the trophoblast layer form the extra embryonic membranes
namely chorion and amnion and part of the placenta. The cells of the trophoblast which are in
contact with the inner cell mass are called cells of Rauber.
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IMPLANTATION
Implantation is the attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall. It occurs after 7 days of
fertilization. About 8 days after fertilization, the trophoblast develops into two layers in the
region of contact between the blastocyst and endometrium. These layers are :
(i) syncytiotrophoblast that contains non-distinct cell boundaries and
(ii) cytotrophoblast between the inner cell mass and syncytiotrophoblast that is composed of
distinct cells.
The portion of the blastocyst where the inner cell mass is located lies against the endometrium
of the uterus. The blastocyst sinks into a pit formed in the endometrium and gets completely
buried in the endometrium. The embedded blastocyst forms villi to get nourishment.
The cells of the inner cell mass differentiate into two layers. (a) a layer of small, cuboidal cells
known as the hypoblast layer; and (b) a layer of high columnar cells, the epiblast layer. Both the
hypoblast and epiblast form a flat disc called the embryonic disc.
Role of Zona Pellucida. Occasionally the blastocyst implants close to the internal os. The
function of the zona pellucida is to prevent the implantation of the blastocyst at an abnormal
site. It does not expose the sticky and phagocytic cells of the trophoblast till the blastocyst
reaches the proper implantation site. As the blastocyst is formed, zona pellucida becomes
thinner and finally disappears.
Role of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG). The trophoblastic cells secrete human
chorionic gonadotropin hormone which has properties similar to those of luteinizing hormone
(LH) of the pituitary gland. It takes over the job of pituitary LH during pregnancy. The hCG
maintains the corpus luteum and stimulates it to secrete progesterone. The latter maintains the
endometrium of the uterus and causes it to grow throughout pregnancy. This also prevents
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menstruation. Progesterone also causes increased secretion of mucus in the cervix of the uterus
that forms a protective plug during pregnancy.The implantation leads to the pregnancy. If hCG
is present in a woman's urine it indicates her pregnancy.
Decidua (L. deciduus = falling off) If implantation occurs, a portion of the endometrium of the
uterus becomes modified and is called the decidua. The decidua is shed when the foetus is
delivered .There are three kinds of decidua: decidua basalis, decidua capsularis, decidua
parietalis.

GASTRULATION
Definition. Transformation of the blastocyst into the gastrula with primary germ layers by
rearrangement of the cells is called gastrulation. (Gr. gaster- belly). Gastrulation involves cell
movements that help to attain new shape and morphology of the embryo. These cell movements
are called morphogenetic movements. In all the triploblastic animals, three germ layers namely
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, are formed by the morphogenetic movements.
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Process. In humans, the germ layers are formed so quickly that it is difficult to determine the
exact sequence of events.
Formation of the Embryonic Disc. We have seen that early blastocyst consists of inner cell
mass and trophoblast. The inner cell mass contains cells called stem cells which have the
potency to give rise to all tissues and organs. The cells of the inner cell mass differentiate into
two layers around 8 days after fertilization, a hypoblast and epiblast. The hypoblast (primitive
endoderm) is a layer of smaller cuboidal cells and epiblast (primitive ectoderm) is a layer of
larger columnar cells. The cells of the hypoblast and epiblast together form a two layered
embryonic disc.
Formation of Amniotic Cavity. A space appears between epiblast and trophoblast, called the
amniotic cavity filled with amniotic fluid. The roof of this cavity is formed by amniogenic cells
derived from the trophoblast, while its floor is formed by the epiblast.
Formation of Extra-embryonic Coelom. The cells of the trophoblast give rise to the mass of
cells called the extra embryonic mesoderm. This mesoderm is called extra embryonic because it
lies outside the embryonic disc. It does not give rise to any tissue of the embryo itself. The
extraembryonic mesoderm is differentiated into outer somatopleuric extra-embryonic
mesoderm and inner splanchnopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm. Both these layers enclose
the extraembryonic coelom.
Formation of Chorion and Amnion. At this stage, two very important embryonic membranes,
the chorion and amnion, are formed. The chorion is formed by the somatopleuric extra
embryonic mesoderm inside and the trophoblast outside. The amnion is formed by the
amniogenic cells inside and somatopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm outside. As mentioned
earlier the amniogenic cells are derived from the trophoblast. Later on chorion becomes the
main embryonic part of the placenta. The chorion also produces human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) an important hormone of pregnancy. Amnion surrounds the embryo
creating the amniotic cavity that is filled with amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid serves as a
shock absorber for the foetus, regulates foetal body temperature and prevents desiccation.
Formation of Yolk Sac. Flattened cells arising from the hypoblast spread and line inside the
blastocoel. These are endodermal cells lining the primary yolk sac. With the appearance of the
extraembryonic mesoderm and later of the extraembryonic coelom, the yolk sac (embryonic
membrane) becomes much smaller than before and is now called the secondary yolk sac. This
change in size is due to change in the nature of the lining cells. These cells are no longer
flattened but become cubical. The secondary yolk sac consists of outer splanchnopleuric extra
embryonic mesoderm and inner endodermal cells.
The yolk sac is a source of blood cells. It also functions as a shock absorber and helps prevent
desiccation of the embryo.
Formation of Primitive Streak. Gastrulation involves the rearrangement and migration of cells
from the epiblast. A primitive streak which is a faint groove on the dorsal surface of the
epiblast is formed. It elongates from the posterior to the entire part of the embryo. The
primitive streak clearly establishes the head and the tail ends of the embryo as well as its right
and left sides.
Formation of Germ Layers/Embryonic Layers. After the formation of the primitive streak, cells
of the epiblast move inward below the primitive streak and detach from the epiblast. This
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inverting movement is called invagination. (i) Once the cells have invaginated, some of them
separate from the hypoblast forming the endoderm. Endoderm develops first during embryonic
development.(ii) Other cells remain between the epiblast and the newly formed endoderm forms
the mesoderm. (iii) Cells remaining in the epiblast form ectoderm.
Thus three germ layers, namely endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm are formed which give rise
to all the tissues and organs of the body.
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Neurulation

Following gastrulation, the ectoderm gives rise to epithelial and neural tissue, and the gastrula
is now referred to as the neurula. The neural plate that has formed as a thickened plate from the
ectoderm, continues to broaden and its ends start to fold upwards as neural folds. Neurulation
refers to this folding process whereby the neural plate is transformed into the neural tube, and
this takes place during the fourth week. They fold along a shallow neural groove which has
formed as a dividing median line in the neural plate. This deepens as the folds continue to gain
height, when they will meet and close together at the neural crest. The cells that migrate
through the most cranial part of the primitive line form the paraxial mesoderm, which will give
rise to the somitomeres that in the process of somitogenesis will differentiate into somites that
will form the sclerotomes, the syndetomes, the myotomes and the dermatomes to form cartilage
and bone, tendons, dermis (skin), and muscle. The intermediate mesoderm gives rise to the
urogenital tract and consists of cells that migrate from the middle region of the primitive line.
Other cells migrate through the caudal part of the primitive line and form the lateral mesoderm,
and those cells migrating by the most caudal part contribute to the extraembryonic mesoderm.

The embryonic disc begins flat and round, but eventually elongates to have a wider cephalic part
and narrow-shaped caudal end. At the beginning, the primitive line extends in cephalic
direction and 18 days after fertilization returns caudally until it disappears. In the cephalic
portion, the germ layer shows specific differentiation at the beginning of the 4th week, while in
the caudal portion it occurs at the end of the 4th week. Cranial and caudal neuropores become
progressively smaller until they close completely (by day 26) forming the neural tube.
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Fate of Three Germ Layers
Each germ layer gives rise to the specific tissues, organs and organ-systems. The germ layers
have similar fate in various animals.
Derivatives of Ectoderm.
(1) Epidermis of skin, hair, arrector pili muscles, nails sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil)
glands and chromatophores (pigment cells) of skin
(2) Enamel of teeth, salivary glands, mucous membrane of lips, cheeks, gums, part of the floor of
the mouth and part of palate, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses. Lower part of anal canal.
(3) Nervous system including all neurons, neuroglia (except microglia), and Schwann cells.
Piamater and arachnoid mater.
(4) Conjunctiva, cornea, lens of eye, muscles of iris, vitreous humour, retina, lacrimal gland.
(5) External ear, outer layer of tympanic membrane, membranous labyrinth (internal ear).
(6) Pituitary gland, pineal gland and medulla of adrenal glands.
(7) Mammary glands, outer surface of labia minora and whole of labia majora.
(8) Terminal part of male urethra.
Derivatives of Mesoderm.
(1) Muscles except iris muscles.
(2) Connective tissues including loose areolar tissue, ligaments, tendons and the dermis of skin.
(3) Specialised connective tissues like adipose tissue, reticular tissue, cartilage and bone.
(4) Dentin of teeth.
(5) Heart, all blood vessels , lymphatics, blood cells, spleen.
(6) Kidneys, ureters, trigone of urinary bladder.
(7) Coelomic epithelium (mesothelium of pleural, pericardial and perito neal cavities).
(8) Duramater, microglia.
(9) Sclera, choroid, ciliary body and iris.
(10) Basis of tympanic membrane.
(11) Cortex of adrenal glands.
(12) Mesenteries
(13) Notochord.
(14) Reproductive system except prostate. The amnion of mammalian embryo is derived from
ectoderm and mesoderm.

Derivatives of Endoderm.
(1) Epithelium of mouth, part of palate, tongue, tonsils, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small
and large intestines including upper part of anal canal (not lower part of anal canal).
(2) Epithelium of the Eustachian tube, middle ear, inner layer of tympanic membrane.
(3) Epithelium of the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
(4) Epithelium of gallbladder, liver, pancreas including islets of Langerhans, gastric and
intestinal glands.
(5) Epithelium of the urinary bladder except trigone.
(6) Epithelium of the lower part of vagina, vestibule and inner surface of labia minora.
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(7) Epithelium of the prostate (except inner glandular zone). bulbourethral glands, greater
vestibular and lesser vestibular glands.
(8) Epithelium of thyroid, parathyroid and thymus glands.
Extra-Embryonic or Foetal Membranes
The growing embryo/foetus develops four membranes called the extra embryonic or foetal membranes.
These include chorion, aminon, allantois and yolk sac.
(i) Chorion. It is made up of trophoblast outside and somatopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm inside. It
completely surrounds the embryo and protects it. It also takes part in the formation of placenta.
(ii) Amnion. It is composed of trophoblast inside and somatopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm outside. The
space between the embryo and the amnion is called the amniotic cavity which is filled with a clear, watery fluid
secreted by both the embryo and the membrane. The amniotic fluid prevents desiccation of the embryo and acts
as a protective cushion that absorbs shocks.
(iii) Allantois. The allantois is composed of endoderm inside and splanchnopleuric ex traembryonic mesoderm
outside. It is a sac-like structure which arises from the gut of the embryo near the yolk sac. In human the
allantois is small and nonfunctional except for furnishing blood vessels to the placenta.
(iv) Yolk sac. The primary yolk sac consists of endoderm inside and splanchnopleuric extraembryonic
mesoderm outside. The yolk sac is nonfunctional in human beings except that it functions as the site of early
blood cell formation.

PREGNANCY
Pregnancy is the time from conception to birth. In human beings it is approximately 9 months 7
days. Placenta plays an important role in pregnancy.
PLACENTA
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Placenta is the intimate connection between the foetus and uterine wall of the mother to exchange the
materials. The outer surface of the chorion in humans develops a number of finger like
projections, known as chorionic villi, which grow into the tissue of the uterus. These villi,
penetrate the tissues of the uterine wall in which they are embedded, make up the organ known
as the placenta by means of which the developing embryo obtains nutrients and oxygen and gets
rid of carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Because the chorion takes part in the formation of
placenta, the human placenta is called the chorionic placenta. It consists of foetal part, the
chorion and a maternal part the decidua basalis. The foetal part of placenta grows to invade the
uterine mucosa with its chorionic villi. The degree of intimacy is so strong that the blood vessels
of the chorionic villi are bathed in the mother's blood. This is due to erosion of the uterine
mucosa, including its epithelium, connective tissue and the endothelial lining. This type of
placenta, which is based on the intimacy between foetal and maternal parts of the placenta, is
referred to as hemochorial placenta. The placenta is connected to embryo through an umbilical
cord which helps in the transport of sub stances to and from the embryo. On the basis of the
distribution of villi on chorion, human placenta is called metadiscoidal placenta.
Functions of Placenta
1. Nutrition. All the nutritive elements from the maternal blood pass into the foetus through the
placenta.
2. Respiration. Oxygen passes from the maternal blood to the foetal blood through the placenta,
and carbon dioxide passes in the reverse direction.
3. Excretion. The foetal excretory products diffuse into the maternal blood through placenta
and are excreted by the mother.
4. Storage. Placenta stores glycogen, fat, etc.
5. As a Barrier. Placenta serves san efficient barrier and allows those materials to pass into the
foetal blood that are necessary. Teratogens are certain agents (viruses or chemicals) or drugs
that cause abnormal development in developing embryo/foetus. The most well known synthetic
teratogen drug is thalidomide. This drug causes multiple defects in the growing embryo.
6. Endocrine functions. Placenta releases some hormones such as oestrogen, progesogens,
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen-hPL, etc. In the later phase
of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by corpus luteum of the ovary. Thus
hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced only during pregnancy. The hPL stimulates and maintains
the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone until the end of pregnancy. The hCS stimulates the
growth of the mammary glands during pregnancy. Relaxin facilitates parturition (act of birth) by
softening the connective tissue of the pubic symphysis.In addition, the levels of hormones like
oestrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc. are increased in the maternal blood
during pregnancy. Increased production of these hormones is necessary for supporting the
foetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintenance of pregnancy.
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Development of organs and organ systems

Organogenesis is the development of the organs that begins during the third to eighth week, and
continues until birth. Sometimes full development, as in the lungs, continues after birth.
Different organs take part in the development of the many organ systems of the body.
Blood
Haematopoietic stem cells that give rise to all the blood cells develop from the mesoderm. The
development of blood formation takes place in clusters of blood cells, known as blood islands, in
the yolk sac. Blood islands develop outside the embryo, on the umbilical vesicle, allantois,
connecting stalk, and chorion, from mesodermal hemangioblasts.
In the centre of a blood island, hemangioblasts form the haematopoietic stem cells that are the
precursor to all types of blood cell. In the periphery of a blood island the hemangioblasts
differentiate into angioblasts the precursors to the blood vessels.
Heart and circulatory system

Important Developmental Changes in Human Embryo During

Gestation

Pregnancy is arbitrarily divided into three-month periods called trimesters.

The First Trimester.
In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo's heart is formed.The first sign of a
growing foetus may be noticed by listening to the heart sound carefully through the stethoscope.
By the end of the 12 weeks (first trimester) most of the major organ systems are formed, for
example, the limbs and external genital organs are well developed.
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The Second Trimester.

The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed
during the fifth month. By the end of about 24 weeks (end of second trimester). The body is
covered with fine hair. The upper and lower eyelids separate and eyelashes are formed.

The Third Trimester.

The third trimester extends from the seventh month till birth. The foetus has developed
sufficient circulatory and respiratory systems. Baby has a good chance of survival if born
prematurely. The baby moves vigorously and responds to touch and loud noises, usually lying
head down. By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is
ready for delivery.
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PARTURITION
Parturition (L. Parturio- to be in labour Child Birth)
Meaning. The duration of pregnancy in human beings is about 9 months + 7 days which is
called gestation period (time from conception to birth). At the end of the pregnancy vigorous
contraction of the uterus causes delivery or expulsion of the foetus. This act of expelling the full
term young one from the mother's uterus at the end of gestation period is called parturition.
Multiple births. Normally a human female gives birth to one child at a time. However at times
two or more babies are born. Such babies are called twins or multiple births. Twins can develop
in two ways- Monozygotic or identical twins- arise from a single egg. Dizygotic or fraternal
twins- two eggs fertilised by two different sperms.

Factors Influencing Development of Foetus

Poverty
Poverty has been linked to poor prenatal care and has been an influence on prenatal
development. Women in poverty are more likely to have children at a younger age, which results
in low birth weight. Many of these expecting mothers have little education and are therefore less
aware of the risks of smoking, drinking alcohol, and drug use – other factors that influence the
growth rate of a fetus.
Mother's age
Women between the ages of 16 and 35 have a healthier environment for a fetus than women
under 16 or over 35. Women between this age gap are more likely to have fewer complications.
Women over 35 are more inclined to have a longer labor period, which could potentially result in
death of the mother or fetus. Women under 16 and over 35 have a higher risk of preterm labor
(premature baby), and this risk increases for women in poverty, women who take drugs, and
women who smoke. Young mothers are more likely to engage in high risk behaviors, such as
using alcohol, drugs, or smoking, resulting in negative consequences for the fetus. Premature
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babies from young mothers are more likely to have neurological defects that will influence their
coping capabilities – irritability, trouble sleeping, constant crying for example. There is an
increased risk of Down syndrome for infants born to those aged over 40 years. Young teenaged
mothers (younger than 16) and mothers over 35 are more exposed to the risks of miscarriages,
premature births, and birth defects.

Drug use
Maternal drug use occurs when drugs ingested by the pregnant woman are metabolized in the
placenta and then transmitted to the fetus. Resent research display that there is a correlation
between fine motor skills and prenatal risk factors such as the use of psychoactive substances
and signs of abortion during pregnancy. As well as perinatal risk factors such as gestation time,
duration of delivery, birth weight and postnatal risk factors such as constant falls.
Alcohol
Maternal alcohol use leads to disruptions of the fetus's brain development, interferes with the
fetus's cell development and organization, and affects the maturation of the central nervous
system. Even small amounts of alcohol use can cause lower height, weight and head size at birth
and higher aggressiveness and lower intelligence during childhood. Fetal alcohol spectrum
disorder is a developmental disorder that is a consequence of heavy alcohol intake by the mother
during pregnancy. Children with FASD have a variety of distinctive facial features, heart
problems, and cognitive problems such as developmental disabilities, attention difficulties, and
memory deficits.
Tobacco use
Tobacco smoking during pregnancy exposes the fetus to nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide.
Nicotine results in less blood flow to the fetus because it constricts the blood vessels. Carbon
monoxide reduces the oxygen flow to the fetus. The reduction of blood and oxygen flow may
result in miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight, and premature births. Exposure to secondhand
smoke leads to higher risks of low birth weight and childhood cancer.
Infections
If a mother is infected with a disease, the placenta cannot always filter out the pathogens.
Viruses such as rubella, chicken pox, mumps, herpes, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
are associated with an increased risk of miscarriage, low birth weight, prematurity, physical
malformations, and intellectual disabilities. HIV can lead to acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS). Untreated HIV carries a risk of between 10 and 20 percent of being passed on
to the fetus. Bacterial or parasitic diseases may also be passed on to the fetus, and include
chlamydia, syphilis, tuberculosis, malaria, and commonly toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis can be
acquired through eating infected undercooked meat or contaminated food, and by drinking
contaminated water. The risk of fetal infection is lowest during early pregnancy, and highest
during the third trimester. However, in early pregnancy the outcome is worse, and can be fatal.

Maternal nutrition
Adequate nutrition is needed for a healthy fetus. Mothers who gain less than 20 pounds during
pregnancy are at increased risk for having a preterm or low birth weight infant. Iron and iodine
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are especially important during prenatal development. Mothers who are deficient in iron are at
risk for having a preterm or low birth weight infant. Iodine deficiencies increase the risk of
miscarriage, stillbirth, and fetal brain abnormalities Adequate prenatal care gives an improved
result in the newborn.
Low birth weight
Low birth weight increases an infant's risk of long-term growth and cognitive and language
deficits. It also results in a shortened gestational period and can lead to prenatal complications.
Stress
Stress during pregnancy can impact the development of the embryo. Reilly (2017) states that
stress can come from many forms of life events such as community, family, financial issues, and
natural causes. While a woman is pregnant, stress from outside sources can take a toll on the
growth in the womb that may affect the child's learning and relationships when born. For
instance, they may have behavioral problems and might be antisocial. The stress that the mother
experiences affects the fetus and the fetus' growth which can include the fetus' nervous system
(Reilly, 2017). Stress can also lead to low birth weight. Even after avoiding other factors like
alcohol, drugs, and being healthy, stress can have its impacts whether families know it or not.
Many women who deal with maternal stress do not seek treatment. Similar to stress, Reilly
stated that in recent studies, researchers have found that pregnant women who show depressive
symptoms are not as attached and bonded to their child while it is in the womb (2017).
Environmental toxins
Exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy lead to higher rates of miscarriage, sterility, and
birth defects. Toxins include fetal exposure to lead, mercury, and ethanol or hazardous
environments. Prenatal exposure to mercury may lead to physical deformation, difficulty in
chewing and swallowing, and poor motoric coordination. Exposure to high levels of lead
prenatally is related to prematurity, low birth weight, brain damage, and a variety of physical
defects. Exposure to persistent air pollution from traffic and smog may lead to reduced infant
head size, low birth weight, increased infant death rates, impaired lung and immune system
development.

DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
1. Amnionitis (amnion + Gr suffix itis inflammation). Inflammation of amnion, usually resulting
from premature rupture of the amnion and often associated with neonatal infection.
2. Abortion. It is giving birth to an embryo or foetus prior to the stage of viability at about 20
weeks of gestation (the foetus weighs less than 500 gm). It may occur from natural causes or
induced.
3. Teratogeny (Gr. terato. = monster-abnormally misshaped animal or plant or person or thing,
suffix gen = producing). Production of malformed infants is called teratogeny. It is due to the use
of drugs or other agents such as tobacco and alcohol by pregnant mothers. These teratogens
cause abnormal development.
4. Neural tube defect. NTDs occur when the neural tube does not close properly. The neural
tube forms the early brain and spine.
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5. Dandy walker malformation. An abnormal development of the posterior fossa (a space in the
baby's skull) and cerebellum (a section of the brain). This birth defect can cause a variety of
problems.
6. Limb defects. These happen when the fetal amnion (the inner lining of the amniotic sack)
wraps around parts of the fetus (like a finger or foot).
7. Duodenal atresia. An obstruction in the small intestine. It can cause polyhydramnios (extra
fluid around the baby in pregnancy), which can increase the risk of preterm birth. It is
sometimes associated with other genetic syndromes.

Bibliography
● Trueman Elementary Biology Class 12
● NCERT Biology Class 12
● Google
● Khan Academy
● Wikipedia
● Unacademy
● Web Md
● Britannica
● WHO
● Clevelandclinic
● Mayoclinic
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