Certificate No.

AJA19-0226

HA

COURSE DESCRIPTION

HUMAN
This course REPRODUCTION
will take a comprehensive look at this interesting and
relevant process by examining the role of hormones, development and
genetic sex, the process of puberty, and the production of offspring. This
For FINALS
course will concentrate on human sexual reproduction.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

CLO1. Describe the cell cycle, and how sexual reproduction passes
chromosomes from parents to offspring.
CLO2. Discuss common methods of birth control and infertility
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Basic Terminologies:

Fertilization – the fusion of egg cell and sperm cell

Oocyte - a cell in an ovary which may undergo meiotic division to form an ovum.

Spermatozoa - is a motile sperm cell, or moving form of the haploid cell that is the male
gamete. A spermatozoon joins an ovum to form a zygote.

Copulation – sexual intercourse.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Human reproduction typically involves sexual intercourse between a man and a

woman. During sexual intercourse, the interaction between the male and female
reproductive systems results in fertilization of the woman's ovum by the man's sperm.
These are specialized reproductive cells called gametes, created in a process
called meiosis. While normal cells contains 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs, gamete cells
only contain 23 chromosomes, and it is when these two cells merge into one zygote cell
that genetic recombination occurs and the new zygote contains 23 chromosomes from
each parent, giving them 23 pairs. A typical 9-month gestation period is followed
by childbirth. The fertilization of the ovum may be achieved by artificial
insemination methods, which do not involve sexual intercourse.
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm, usually occurring in
the ampulla of the fallopian tube. The result of this union is the production of
a zygote cell, or fertilized egg, initiating prenatal development.

The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum. The most common
sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation, follows with ovulation, and finishes
with fertilization. Various exceptions to this sequence are possible, including artificial
insemination, in vitro fertilization, external ejaculation without copulation, or copulation
shortly after ovulation. 

THE PROCESS OF HUMAN FERTILIZATION

Fertilization occurs in the ampulla, the section of the oviduct (fallopian tube) that
curves around the ovary.

1. Sperm Preparation. Capacitated sperm (refers to the physiological

changes spermatozoa must undergo in order to have the ability to penetrate and
fertilize an egg) are attracted to progesterone, which is secreted from the
cumulus cells surrounding the oocyte. Progesterone binds to the CatSper (Cation
Sperm) receptor on the sperm membrane and increases intracellular calcium
levels, causing hyperactive motility. The sperm will continue to swim towards
higher concentrations of progesterone, effectively guiding it to the oocyte.

2. In the Corona Radiata. The sperm binds through the corona radiata, a layer of
follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte. Fertilization occurs when the
nucleus of both a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell, known as zygote.
The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism.

3. Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane. Where the spermatozoan is

about to pierce, the yolk (ooplasm) is drawn out into a conical elevation, termed
the cone of attraction or reception cone. Once the spermatozoon has entered,
the peripheral portion of the yolk changes into a membrane, the perivitelline
membrane, which prevents the passage of additional spermatozoa.

4. In the Zona Pellucida. After binding to the corona radiata the sperm reaches
the zona pellucida, which is an extra-cellular matrix of glycoproteins. A special
complementary molecule on the surface of the sperm head binds to a ZP3
glycoprotein in the zona pellucida. This binding triggers the acrosome to burst,
releasing enzymes that help the sperm get through the zona pellucida.

5. Cortical Reaction. Once the sperm cells find their way past the zona pellucida,
the cortical reaction occurs. Cortical granules inside the secondary oocyte fuse
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
with the plasma membrane of the cell, causing enzymes inside these granules to
be expelled by exocytosis to the zona pellucida.

6. The Fusion. After the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte (also called
ovocyte), the tail and the outer coating of the sperm disintegrate and the cortical
reaction takes place, preventing other sperm from fertilizing the same egg. The
oocyte now undergoes its second meiotic division producing the haploid ovum
and releasing a polar body. The sperm nucleus then fuses with the ovum,
enabling fusion of their genetic material. The fusion of cell membranes of the
secondary oocyte and sperm takes place.

7. Transformations. In preparation for the fusion of their genetic material both the
oocyte and the sperm undergo transformations as a reaction to the fusion of cell
membranes. The oocyte completes its second meiotic division. This results in a
mature ovum. The nucleus of the oocyte is called a pronucleus in this process, to
distinguish it from the nuclei that are the result of fertilization.

8. Replication. The pronuclei migrate toward the center of the oocyte, rapidly
replicating their DNA as they do so to prepare the zygote for its
first mitotic division (usually 23 chromosomes from spermatozoon and 23
chromosomes from egg cell fuse, half of spermatozoons carry X chromosome
and the other half Y chromosome). Each of the two daughter cells resulting from
that mitosis has one replica of each chromatid that was replicated in the previous
stage. Thus, they are genetically identical.
9. Zygote Formation. A zygote is the single cell formed when an egg and a sperm
cell fuse; the fusion is known as fertilization.

In human, the first two weeks of development is called pre – embryonic period. It
starts with fertilization, the fusion of the egg and the sperm. It could be considered the
beginning of life, popularly called the pregnancy.
After fertilization, the zygote undergoes a series of rapid divisions called cleavage.
Into Around 3 hours after fertilization, the zygote starts to divide into two cells now called
blastomeres. After 72 more hours, there is a rapid increase in the number of cells that
results in a ball of around 12 – 16 cells called morula. On the fourth day, the morula
enters the uterus and fuse with the central cavity called the blastocoel. At this stage, the
embryo is called the blastocyst. The implantation of the blastocyst usually occurs along
the posterior part of the uterine wall, starting the end of the first week and completed on
the second week of pregnancy. From the 4th week to the 8th week, the three germ layers
that were formed namely the ectoderm, mesoderm, and the endoderm gives rise to
different organs; the process known as organogenesis takes place. The shape of the
embryo greatly changes. The fetal period starts from the third month to birth. There is a
rapid growth and development of body parts including the maturation of tissues.
The derivatives of the three germ layers are summarized in the table:

ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM

Brain and spinal cord Vertebral column Tympanic and auditory tube
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
Pituitary gland Somatic and Parathyroid gland, tonsils, and
splanchnic thymus
mesoderm
Peripheral nervous system Dermis of the Respiratory system
skin
Sensory epithelium of the ear, Muscles, bones, Digestive tube of gut
nose, and eye and connective
tissues
Epidermis and its derivatives Liver and pancreas
Kidneys, gonads,
and their ducts or
Enamel and the teeth accessory glands Urinary bladder
Mammary gland Urethra
THE HUMAN EMBRYONIC STAGES

CHAPTER 2: WHAT IS HORMONE?

Hormones are substances in an organism that carry a signal to generate various

effects at the cellular level. Specifically, hormones are:
 Chemical messengers
 Secreted by endocrine glands or tissues into blood
 Travel everywhere blood goes
 Affect only target cells, cells with receptors
 May affect very distant organs or cells

How do hormones work?

 Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands directly into bloodstream

 Hormones travel to all parts of body

 Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on target tissue

 Response occurs

How do hormones cause change in the human body?

 Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing or decreasing cell’s normal
processes
 Change permeability of cell membrane by opening or closing ion channels
 Synthesis of proteins
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

Types of Hormones
Water soluble:
 - includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
 - most common
 - Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin, etc.

Lipid hormones:
 - includes steroids and eicosanoids
 - Ex. LH, FSH, androgens

Regulation of Hormones
Blood levels of chemicals:
 Ex. Blood glucose levels (insulin)
Other hormones:
 Ex. TSH signals thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone
Nervous system:
 Ex. Epinephrine and fight or flight response
Negative Feedback:
 tells body when homeostasis is reached.

THE HORMONES, THEIR TISSUE OF ORIGIN, AND EFFECTS IN THE BODY

HORMONE ENDOCRINE TISSUE OF EFFECT IN THE BODY

ORIGIN
Antioxidant: causes
Melatonin Pineal Gland drowsiness. It primarily
controls the circadian/ bio-
rhythm of the body.
Less active form of the thyroid
hormone. Increases basal
Thyroxine Thyroid Gland metabolic rate and sensitivity
catechalamines. Affects
protein synthesis.
Potent from of the thyroid
hormone. Increase basal
Triiodothyronine Thyroid gland metabolic rate and sensitivity
to catechalamines. Affects
protein synthesis.
Controls mood, appetite, and
sleep. It is a neurotransmitter
Serotonin Central nervous system; hormone that helps nerves
gastro intestinal tract communicate with one other.
It acts in distant cells.
Stimulates glucose
production. Stimulates
Epinephrine Adrenal medulla breakdown of fats and
promotes the formation of
ketone bodies. Net effects is
an increase in plasma
glucose, free fatty acids, and
ketone bodies.
It acts on target cells at point
of release. Stimulates glucose
production. Stimulates
breakdown of fats and
Norepinephrine Sympathetic ganglion promotes the formation of
ketone bodies. Net effect is
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
an increase in plasma
glucose, free fatty acids, and
ketone bodies.

It promotes growth inducing

precursor cells in bone and
other tissues to develop. It
stimulates protein synthesis it
Growth hormone Anterior pituitary gland also increases reabsorption of
major ions suc h as calcium,
phosphate, and sodium ions.
It stimulates glucogenesis.
Promotes the development of
Prolactin Anterior pituitary gland mammary glands and milk
synthesis
It increases plasma calcium
ion levels by stimulating bone
resorption and increasing
renal tubular reabsorption of
calcium ions. It also promotes
the synthesis of the potent
Vitamin D form. It decreases
Parathyroid hormone Parathyroid gland plasma phosphate
concentration by decreasing
its renal reabsorption.
Regulates sodium and water
concentration. It increases
Aldosterone Glomelurosa layer of the sodium reabsorption and
adrenal cortex potassium secretion in the
late distal tubule and
collecting tubules.
It decreases bone resorption
by decreasing the activity of
osteoclasts (bone-
demeneralizing cells). It is a
Calcitonin Parafollicular cells of the physiologic antagonist of
thyroid gland PTH. Hypercalcemia is the
major stimulus for its
secretion.
Promotes glucogenesis,
increases blood glucose
concentration. Increases
conversion of amino acids to
glucose. Increases plasma
and liver proteins.
Corsitol Fasciculata layer of the
It also promotes fatty acid
adrenal cortex
oxidation. Maintains
contractility of skeletal and
cardiac muscles. Increases
bone resorption. Inhibits
collagen synthesis which can
cause thinning of the vascular
walls.
Maintains RBC production.
Sustains normal pubic and
Sex steroids Reticularis layer of the axillary hair in women in
adrenal cortex males, it is an important
source of estrogen activity
after menopause.
It functions for nutrient
storage by promoting uptake
of glucose into the cells. It
promotes storage of fatty
Insulin Beta cells of the islets of acids, glucose, and amino
Langerhans acids. It lowers down blood
sugar levels during
hyperglycemic periods such
as after a meal.
It promotes gluconeogenesis.
It inhibits glycolysis. It favors
laypolysis and promotes
protein breakdown. It
Glucagon Alpha cells of the islets of increases blood glucose

langerhans
D cells of the islets of
Somatostatin Langerhans, gastrointestinal
system, hypothalamus
Testosterone Cells of the Leydig in the
testis
Gonadotropin relasing Neuroendocrine cells of the
hormone hypothalamus
Leutenizing Hormone Anterior pituitary gland
Follicle stimulating hormone Anterior pituitary gland
Theca interna of the ovarian
Estrogen follicle in an non-pregnant
female; placenta in a
pregnant female
Progesterone Corpus luteum in a non
pregnant female. Placenta in
a pregnant female
Secreted by the corpus
Relaxin luteum in females and by the
prostate gland in males
Embryo in early pregnancy,
Human chorionic and placenta in alter time
gonadotropin until its levels reach a low
level during the rest of the
pregnancy
Certificate No. AJA19-0226
levels in times of
hypoglycemia,
It inhibits absorption of
glucose and triglycerides
across the intestinal wall. It
delays the rate of assimilation
of the nutrients from the
gastrointestinal tract. It
inhibits the secretion of insulin
and glucagon.
Develops and maintains
secondary male sexual
characteristics. Allows for the
maintenance of
gametogenesis together with
follicle stimulating hormone.
Triggers the release of both
LH and FSH from the anterior
pituitary gland
In males, it stimulates the
Leydig cells to secrete
testosterone. In the females,
it stimulates the release of the
mature graafian follicle into
the fallopian tube and initiates
the conversion of the residual
follicle into a corpus luteum
that secretes progesterone
eventually.
Stimulates the synthesis of
estrogen. Acts upon
granulose cells (females) and
sertoli cells (males).
Facilitates the maturation of
germ cells.
Promotes growth and
proliferation of the spiral
arteries in the uterus.
Thickens the vaginal lining
epithelium. Increases the
quantity of the mucous and
pH of the cervical secretions.
Promotes the growth and
activity of the fallopian tubes.
Promotes linear growth.
Promotes the growth of the
ovarian follicle.
Promotes the conversion of a
proliferative endometrium to a
secretory one. Decreases
uterine smooth muscle
contractility. Scanty
secretions in the cervix is
noted which makes it
relatively impermaeable to
spermatozoa. Acinar and
lobular brest development
during the luteal phase.
Increases body temperature.
Relaxes the perineal muscles
during pregnancy and dilates
the uterine cervix of pregnant
females. It helps maintain
sperm motility in men.
Helps maintain progesterone
production during early
pregnancy which is important
for continuation of pregnancy.
Levels in the uterine are
measured in pregnancy test
kits. Contributes to the
morning sickness.
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
Male Hormones
 At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of FSH and LH into
the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and stimulates the
Sertoli cells to begin facilitating spermatogenesis using negative feedback.
 Testosterone, the hormone responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics
that develop in the male during adolescence, stimulates spermatogenesis. These
secondary sex characteristics include a deepening of the voice, the growth of
facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and the beginnings of the sex drive.

Female Hormones

 As with the male, the anterior pituitary hormones cause the release of the
hormones FSH and LH. In addition, estrogens and progesterone are released
from the developing follicles.
 Estrogen is the reproductive hormone in females that assists in endometrial
regrowth, ovulation, and calcium absorption; it is also responsible for the
secondary sexual characteristics of females. These include breast development,
flaring of the hips, and a shorter period necessary for bone maturation.
 Progesterone assists in endometrial re-growth and inhibition of FSH and LH
release.
 FSH stimulates development of egg cells, called ova, which develop in structures
called follicles.
 Follicle cells produce the hormone inhibin, which inhibits FSH production. LH
also plays a role in the development of ova, induction of ovulation, and
stimulation of estradiol and progesterone production by the ovaries.
 Estradiol and progesterone are steroid hormones that prepare the body for
pregnancy.
 Estradiol produces secondary sex characteristics in females, while both estradiol
and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle.

CHAPTER 3: MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the

species. Other systems in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, work
continuously to maintain stability for the survival of the individual. An individual may live
a long, healthy, and happy life without producing offspring, but if the species is to
continue, at least some individuals must produce offspring.

Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:

 To produce egg and sperm cells

 To transport and sustain these cells

 To nurture the developing offspring

 To produce hormones

The Male Reproductive System

 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
The male reproductive system, like that of the female, consists of those organs
whose function is to produce a new individual, i.e., to accomplish reproduction.
This system consists of a pair of testes and a network of excretory ducts
(epididymis, ductus deferens (vas deferens), and ejaculatory ducts), seminal vesicles,
the prostate, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis.

Gamete is a specialized sex cell carrying 23 chromosomes – one half the

number in the body cells.
Function of the male reproductive system is to produce sperm and transfer them
to the female reproductive tract. The most important male androgen is testosterone.

A. Scrotum
 Testes are located in a skin – covered, highly pigmented, muscular sack called
the scrotum.
 The scrotum consists of skin and subcutaneous tissue. A vertical septum, or
partition, of subcutaneous tissue in the center divides it into two parts, each
containing one testis.
 Smooth muscle fibers, called the dartos muscle, in the subcutaneous tissue
contract to give the scrotum its wrinkled appearance.
 The cremaster muscle, consists of skeletal muscle fibers and controls the
position of the scrotum and testes. When it is cold or a man is sexually aroused,
this muscle contracts to pull the testes closer to the body for warmth.
 Testes are kept at 3°C below core body temperature. This lower temperature is
necessary for the production of viable sperm.

B. Testes
 Testes (singular = testis) are the male gonads
 Produces both sperm and androgens, such as testosterone
 Sperm develop in structures called seminiferous tubules (site of
spermatogenesis)
 Descent of the testis happens at 7 months intrauterine life.
 Each testis is an oval structure about 5 cm long and 3 cm in diameter. A tough,
white fibrous connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea, surrounds each
testis and extends inward to form septa that partition the organ into lobules.
 There are about 250 lobules in each testis. Each lobule contains 1 to 4 highly
coiled seminiferous tubules that converge to form a single straight tubule, which
leads into the rete testis. Short efferent ducts exit the testes. Interstitial cells,
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
which produce male sex hormones, are located between the seminiferous
tubules within a lobule.

C. Steroli Cells
 Are responsible for sperm cell transportation

D. Spermatogenesis
 It takes approximately 64 days for sperm cell maturation
 Production of sperm cell
 A total of 46 chromosomes is produced
 XX for female offspring and XY for male offspring

E. The Duct System

 Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts to reach the outside of the body. After
they leave the testes, the sperm passes through the epididymis, ductus
deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra.

Epididymis

 Site for sperm cell maturation

 Sperm leave the testes through a series of efferent ducts that enter the
epididymis.
 Each epididymis is a long (about 6 meters) tube that is tightly coiled to form a
comma-shaped organ located along the superior and posterior margins of the
testes.

Ductus Deferens

 The ductus deferens, also called vas deferens, is a fibromuscular tube that is

continuous ( or contiguous) with the epididymis.
 Sperm are stored in the proximal portion of the ductus deferens, near the
epididymis, and peristaltic movements propel the sperm through the tube.
 Site for male sterilization called vasectomy

Ejaculatory Duct

 Each ductus deferens, at the ampulla, joins the duct from the adjacent

seminal vesicle (one of the accessory glands) to form a short ejaculatory duct.
Each ejaculatory duct passes through the prostate gland and empties into the
urethra.

F. Seminal Vesicles
 The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder.
 Are glands that contribute approximately 60% of the semen volume
 The fluid from the seminal vesicles is viscous and contains fructose, which
provides an energy source for the sperm; prostaglandins, which contribute to the
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
mobility and viability of the sperm; and proteins that cause slight coagulation
reactions in the semen after ejaculation.

G. Prostate Gland
 About the size of a walnut
 The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the
urinary bladder.
 Excretes an alkaline, milky fluid to the passing seminal fluid – now called the
semen – that is critical to first coagulate and then decoagulate the semen
following ejaculation.

H. Bolbourethral glands (Cowpers’ Gland)

 Are small, about the size of a pea, and located near the base of the penis.
 Release a thick, salty fluid that lubricates the end of the urethra and the vagina,
and helps to clean urine residues from the penile urethra
 It is possible for bolbourethral fluid to pick up sperm already present in the
urethra, and therefore it may be able to cause pregnancy.

I. Seminal Fluid
 Seminal fluid, or semen, is a slightly alkaline mixture of sperm cells and
secretions from the accessory glands.
 The volume of semen in a single ejaculation may vary from 1.5 to 6.0 ml. There
are usually between 50 to 150 million sperm per milliliter of semen. Sperm counts
below 10 to 20 million per milliliter usually present fertility problems. Although
only one sperm actually penetrates and fertilizes the ovum, it takes several
million sperm in an ejaculation to ensure that fertilization will take place.

J. Penis
 Is the male organ of copulation (sexual intercourse). It is flaccid for non sexual
actions, such as urination, and turgid and rod-like with sexual arousal.

The parts of the penis are as follows:

 Glans penis – most sensistive portion

 The skin from the shaft extends down over the glans and forms a collar called the
prepuce (or foreskin).
 Phimoses – unretractable prepuce, tightening of the foreskin of the penis that
may close the opening of the penis. A surgical procedure can be done called
circumcision.

Male Sexual Response and Hormonal Control

 The male sexual response includes erection and orgasm accompanied by

ejaculation of semen. Orgasm is followed by a variable time period during which
it is not possible to achieve another erection.
 Three hormones are the principle regulators of the male reproductive
system: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates spermatogenesis;
luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of testosterone;
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
and testosterone stimulates the development of male secondary sex
characteristics and spermatogenesis.

The Female Reproductive System

The organs of the female reproductive system produce and sustain the female

sex cells (egg cells or ova), transport these cells to a site where they may be fertilized by
sperm, provide a favorable environment for the developing fetus, move the fetus to the
outside at the end of the development period, and produce the female sex hormones.

The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, Fallopian

tubes, uterus, vagina, accessory glands, and external genital organs.

Ovaries

 Each ovary is a solid, ovoid structure about the size and shape of an almond,
about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick. The ovaries are located in
shallow depressions, called ovarian fossae, one on each side of the uterus, in
the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. They are held loosely in place
by peritoneal ligaments.
 Ovaries produce female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone as
well as ova (commonly called eggs), the female gametes. Major function is for
ovulation or production and release of mature egg cell.

Fallopian tubes (Oviducts/ Salphynx)

 Fallopian tubes are pair of muscular tubes that extend from the left and right
superior corners of the uterus to the edge of the ovaries.
 End in a funnel shaped structure called infundibulum, which is covered with small
finger – like projections called fimbriae.
 Has three sections which are the isthmus, ampulla, and infundibulum.
 Ampulla (widest portion) is the most common site of fertilization and ectopic
pregnancy.
 Isthmus is the narrowest portion and the most common site of female sterilization
which is known as the BTL (Bilateral Tubal Ligation).
 Fimbriae swipe over the outside of the ovaries to pick up released ova and carry
them into the infundibulum for transport to the uterus.

Vagina
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
 The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of the uterus) to the
outside of the body.
 Also known as the birth canal
 Lactobacillus, also called Doderlein’s bacillus is responsible for the acidic
environment of the vagina by production of lactic acid makes its environment
acidic, which inhibits the growth of some harmful bacteria.

Uterus (Womb)

 The uterus is a hollow, pear shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus.
The uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens
into the vagina and the main body of the uterus, called the corpus.
 Upper uterine segment is formed by fundus and corpus which are active during
labor and delivery.
 Lower uterine segment is formed by both the isthmus and the cervix which are
passive during labor and delivery where it undergoes effacement and dilatation
(effacement is thinning and shortening of the cervix while dilatation is widening of
the cervical os represented by “cm”)

External Genitalia

The external genitalia are the accessory structures of the female reproductive

system that are external to the vagina. They are also referred to as
the vulva or pudendum. The external genitalia include the labia majora, mons pubis,
labia minora, clitoris, and glands within the vestibule.

1. Labia Majora
 The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs.
Literally translated as “large lips”, are relatively large and fleshy and are
comparable to the scrotum in males.
2. Labia Minora
 Literally translated as “small lips”. The labia minora can be very small or upto 2
inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the opening to
the bartholins glands.
3. Clitoris
 Is the landmark for female catheterization
 Is an erectile tissue homologous to glans penis in men
 The clitoris is covered by a fold skin called the prepuce, which is similar to the
foreskin at the end of the penis.
4. Mons Pubis
 The mons pubis is a pad of fatty tissue that covers the pubic bone. It's sometimes
referred to as the mons, or the mons veneris in females. While both sexes have
a mons pubis, it's more prominent in females.
5. Bartholin’s Gland
 These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and produce fluid (mucus)
secretion. The most common site for female genital infections.

Female Sexual Response & Hormone Control

 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
 The female sexual response includes arousal and orgasm, but there is no
ejaculation.
 A woman may become pregnant without having an orgasm.
 Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen,
and progesterone have major roles in regulating the functions of the female
reproductive system.
 At puberty, when the ovaries and uterus are mature enough to respond to
hormonal stimulation, certain stimuli cause the hypothalamus to start
secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This hormone enters the blood and
goes to the anterior pituitary gland where it stimulates the secretion of follicle-
stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. These hormones, in turn, affect the
ovaries and uterus and the monthly cycles begin. A woman's reproductive cycles
last from menarche to menopause.

ASSESSMENT
Which of the following statements about hormone regulation of the female reproductive
cycle is false?

1. LH and FSH are produced in the pituitary, and estradiol and progesterone are
produced in the ovaries.
2. Estradiol and progesterone secreted from the corpus luteum cause the
endometrium to thicken.
3. Both progesterone and estradiol are produced by the follicles.
4. Secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus is inhibited by low levels of estradiol but
stimulated by high levels of estradiol.
5. Which of the following statements about the menstrual cycle is false?
6. Progesterone levels rise during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle and the
secretory phase of the uterine cycle.
7. Menstruation occurs just after LH and FSH levels peak.
8. Menstruation occurs after progesterone levels drop.
9. Estrogen levels rise before ovulation, while progesterone levels rise after.
10. Which hormone causes Leydig cells to make testosterone?
a. FSH
b. LH
c. inhibin
d. estrogen
11. Which hormone causes FSH and LH to be released?
a. testosterone
b. estrogen
c. GnRH
d. progesterone
12. Which hormone signals ovulation?
a. FSH
b. LH
c. inhibin
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
d. estrogen
13. Which hormone causes the re-growth of the endometrial lining of the uterus?
a. testosterone
b. estrogen
c. GnRH
d. progesterone

Multiple choice: Choose the best answer.

1. All of the following body parts are part of the MALE reproductive system EXCEPT:
A) ovary
B) epididymis
C) testis
D) penis
2. Throughout a woman's life, menopause occurs when
A) The ovaries and uterus are mature enough
B) A woman's reproductive cycles stop
C) A women is in her 40’s
D) Puberty begins
3. Mammary glands function
A) produce milk
B) support the breast
C) Produce hormones
D) Helps produce egg cells
4. The ____________ is an erectile organ, similar to the male penis, that responds to sexual
stimulation
A) Clitoris
B) Urethra
C) Uterus
D) Vagina
5. Reproductive cells are also called ____________________.
A) ovaries
B) embryos
C) gametes
D) zygotes
6. Males get rid of their urine waste through a tube called _____________________.
A) epididymis
B) urethra
C) puberty
D) testis
7. Whereas the urethra in the female reproductive system is only used for the disposal of
urine, in the male, the urethra is used to both dispose of urine and as a point of exit for
_______________.
A) blood
B) epididymis
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
C) sweat
D) sperm
8. In meiosis, _______ gametes result from the original cell.
A) 16
B) 23
C) 46
D) 4
9. Sperm production begins in the
a. seminiferous tubules
b. epididymis
c. vas deferens
d. ejaculatory duct
10. The production of testosterone in the interstitial cells is stimulated by
a. inhibin
b. luteinizing hormone
c. follicle-stimulating hormone
d. progesterone
11. The external genitalia of the female are collectively called the
a. labia
b. vulva
c. clitoris
d. mons pubis
12. The hormone that works with estrogen to prepare the endometrium for implantation of a
fertilized egg is
a. LH
b. FSH
c. ADH
d. progesterone
13. The structure between the uterus and the vagina is the
a. uterine tube
b. cervix
c. vulva
d. hymen
14. The hormone that stimulates uterine contractions is
a. oxytocin
b. estrogen
c. granular cell carcinoma
d. progesterone

15. Which of the following structures protects and regulates the temperature of the
testes?
a) Seminiferous tubules
b) Urethra
c) Tunica albuginea
d) Scrotum
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226

1. Did anything surprise you about the organs of the male reproductive
system? Female reproductive system?
2. Females have internal sex-organs. What are the major organs that make
up the Female reproductive system?
3. Males and Females are often said to be “opposite,” but physically
speaking this isn’t entirely true. In what ways are the male and female
reproductive systems similar?
4. How do they depend on each other to create a new individual?
5. Why would it be important for a person to know about the Human
Reproduction?
6. How is the structure of each organ important to the job that it does?
7. What would happen to an individual if one of the parts were missing?
(choose different parts to probe about) ?
8. Males have both internal and external sex-organs. What are the major
organs that make up the male reproductive system?

REFERENCES:

Daniel, L., Ortleb, E. & Biggs, A. (1994). Life Science. Glencoe. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill,
California.

Evangelista V, Evangelista L, Evangelista LA. Worktext in General Zoology (Frog and

Human Bodies Comared). C&E Publishing, Inc;2013

Kaskel, A., Hummer P.J. & Daniel, L. (1988). Biology: An everyday experience. Ohio,
USA: Merill Publishing Company. Columbus.

Lewis, R. (1998). Life. (3rd ed.) USA: WCB McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Mader, S. (2001). Biology. (7th ed.) USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies , Inc.

Oren-Benaroya, R.; Orvieto, R.; Gakamsky, A.; Pinchasov, M.; Eisenbach, M. (8 July
2008). "The sperm chemoattractant secreted from human cumulus cells is
progesterone". Human Reproduction. 23 (10): 2339–
2345. doi:10.1093/humrep/den265. PMID 18621752.

Philip T. Seeley’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 2 nd edition. The Mc-Graw Hill
Companies, Inc; 2009.

Pillliterre A. Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and
Childrearing Family: 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010.
 Certificate No. AJA19-0226
Publicover, Steve; Barratt, Christopher (16 March 2011). "Progesterone's gateway into
sperm". Nature. 471 (7338): 313–314. doi:10.1038/471313a. PMID 21412330.
National Cancer Center. (N.D.). Picture of the Male Reproductive System. Retrieved

from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_repdt_male.jpg Nemours

Retrieved June 20, 2020 from http://images.google.com.ph/image

https://training.seer.cancer.gov/modules_site_spec.html

http://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-healthtopics/reproductive-health/

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/24-4-hormonal-control-of-human-reproduction/
#navigation