St.

Paul University Philippines

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan 3500

BASIC EDUCATION UNIT

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
LEARNING PLAN 5: PLANT AND ANIMAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND
NUTRITION
INTRODUCTION:
Development is the process by which a multicellular organism, beginning with a single
cell, goes through a series of changes, taking on the successive forms that characterize its life
cycle. After the egg is fertilized it is called a zygote, and in the earliest stages of development a
plant or animal is called an embryo. Progress through a series of embryonic stages precedes
emergences of the new, independent organisms. Many organisms continue to develop throughout
their lives, with development ceasing only at death.
OBJECTIVES:
This learning plan is designed for you to:
1. describe the plant’s growth, development, and nutrition; and
2. describe the animal’s growth, development, and nutrition
LESSON PROPER/DISCUSSION:
ANIMAL GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND NUTRITION
The Purpose and Stages of Development
Your body consist of over 30 trillion cells, but you began as a single cell: a fertilized egg,
or zygote. How did you become the large, organized multicellular individual that you are today?
Development!
As an animal embryo develops, its cells divide, grow, and migrate in specific patterns to make a
more and more elaborate body.  To function correctly, that body needs well-defined axes (such
as head vs. tail). It also needs a specific collection of many-celled organs and other structures,
positioned in the right spots along the axes and connected with one another in the right ways.
How are all these complexes processed accomplished and coordinated? They occur via four
essential stages in early animal development:
 Fertilization
 The process of a single sperm cell combining with single egg cell to form a
zygote.
 Cleavage
 Rapid, multiple rounds of mitotic cell division where the overall size of the
embryo does not increase. The developing embryo is called a blastula following
completion of cleavage.
 Gastrulation
 The dramatic rearrangement (movement) of cells in the blastula to create the
embryonic tissue layers. These tissue layers will go on to produce the tissues and
organs of the adult animal.
 Organogenesis
 The process of organ and tissue formation via cell division and differentiation.

The last two stages, gastrulation, and organogenesis, together contribute to morphogenesis: the
biological processes that result in an organism’s shape and body organization.

Development Step 1: Fertilization

 Fertilization is the process in which a single haploid sperm fuses with a single haploid
egg to form a zygote. The sperm and egg cells each possess specific features that make this
process possible:
The egg is the largest cell produced in most animal species. A human egg cell is
approximately 16 times larger than a human sperm cell. The eggs of different species contain
varying amounts of yolk, nutrients to support growth of the developing embryo. The egg is
surrounded by a jelly layer, composed of glycoproteins, that releases species-specific
chemoattractant that guide sperm to the egg. In mammals, this layer is called the zona pellucida.
In placental mammals, a layer of follicular cells surrounds the zona pellucida. The zona
pellucida/jelly layer is separated from the egg by a membrane called the vitalline envelope,
which is outside of the cell’s plasma membrane. Just underneath the egg’s plasma membrane
are cortical granules, vesicles containing enzymes that will degrade the proteins that hold the
vitalline envelope around the plasma membrane when fertilization occurs (figure 1).
ell.
The sperm is one of the smallest cells produced in most animal species. The sperm
consists of head containing tightly packed DNA, a flagellar tail for swimming, and many
mitochondria to provide power for sperm movement. The plasma membrane of the sperm
contains proteins called bindin, which are species-specific proteins that recognize and bind to
receptors on the egg plasma membrane. In addition to the nucleus, the sperm head also contains
an organelle called the acrosome, which contains digestive enzymes that will degrade the jelly
layer/zona pellucida to allow the sperm to reach the egg plasma membrane (figure 2).

Figure 2. Sperm Cell

To ensure that the offspring has only one complete diploid set of chromosomes, only one
sperm can fuse with one egg. Fusion of more than one sperm with an egg, or polyspermy, is
genetically incompatible with life and results in zygote death. There are two mechanisms that
prevent polyspermy: the “fast block” to polyspermy and the “slow block” polyspermy. These and
the other steps of fertilization are described here:
1. Sperm is attracted to and contacts the jelly layer/zona pellucida.
2. The interactions between receptors on the sperm cell and glycoproteins on the egg
cell initiate the acrosome reaction. Digestive enzymes are released from the
acrosome, and they destroy the jelly layer/zona pellucida thus creating a pathway for
the sperm to approach the egg.
3. The sperm reaches the egg plasma membrane and the sperm and egg plasma
membranes fuse. This interaction is mediated by the sperm bindin proteins, which
binds to bindin receptor proteins on the egg plasma membrane. This interaction is
species-specific, with slightly different versions of the bindin protein and the bindin
receptor proteins in every different species.
4. Fusion of the sperm and egg membranes initiates electrical depolarization of the
entire egg plasma
 membrane, temporarily (for 10-20 seconds) preventing any other sperm from fusing
with the egg plasma membrane. This membrane depolarization, mediated by an influx
of sodium ions, is the fast block to polyspermy.
5. The membrane depolarization initiates a cross the wave of calcium released across
the plasma membrane.
6. The calcium wave initiates the cortical reaction in the egg: the cortical
granules fuse with the egg plasma membrane, releasing digestive enzymes that
degrade the bindin receptor proteins that serve as sperm docking sites, and the
proteins that hold the vitalline layer against the plasma membrane.
7. The cortical reaction results in lifting away of the vitalline layer away from the egg
plasma membrane, to create the fertilization envelope. The fertilization envelope is a
barrier that prevents additional sperm from reaching the egg, and is the slow block to
polyspermy.
8. These events culminate in egg activation, causing the egg to recognize that
fertilization has occurred and resulting in initiation of development.

Development Step 2: Cleavage and Blastula Stage

After fertilization successfully activates the egg,

the egg begins a series of rapid cell divisions
called cleavage (figure 4). Cell division occurs every 18-
24 hours, but cleavage cell divisions can occur as
frequently as every 10 minutes. During cleavage, the cells
divide without an increase in size; the large single-celled
zygote divides into smaller and smaller cells
called blastomeres. After the cleavage has produced over
100 blastomeres, the embryo is called a blastula. The
blastula is usually a spherical layer of blastomeres that are
the first embryonic tissue, the blastoderm. The
blastoderm surrounds a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity,
called the blastocoel (coelum = body cavity). The
blastocoel is essential for the next step of
development, gastrulation.

The stages of development that we’ve discussed so

far are very similar across most animal lineages. But mater
stages of cleavage are a little different in mammals: the Figure 4. Cleavage
mammalian blastula is called a blastocyst, and, unlike the
blastulas of other animal lineages, the blastocyst has an inner cell mass, and an outer cell layer
called the trophoblast. The inner cell mass will go on to form the embryo, and the trophoblast
will go on to form embryonic portion of placenta. Cleavage in a placental mammal is illustrated
in figure 5.
 Figure 5. Pre-embryonic cleavages make us of the abundant
cytoplasm of the conceptus as the cells rapidly divide without
changing the total volume.

Organogenesis (Neurulation and Formation of Appendages)

Formation of specialized three-dimensional organs such as the nervous system and limbs
takes place at a longer time compared to blastulation and grastulation. This process occurs in
humans for three to six weeks within which the fetus is susceptible to environmental damages
brought by chemicals and other agents. Interestingly, the nervous system this year is the first to
develop in vertebrate embryo. at this stage the embryo is called a neurula. it's fun it's way bigger
than that ectodermal cells he came to shift from cuboidal to columnar cells at the midline of an
embryo. This buckles in Word together with rising of either of the groove. Neural Crest cells
from the neural folds undergo a transition from ectodermal to mesenchymal cells. These cells
have the ability to migrate to different regions to give rise to sensory nerve cells, parts of the
autonomic nervous system and connective tissues. The fold meets to form a tube that will
become part of the central nervous system. This formation occurs from the anterior to the
posterior end of the neurula. Bulging at the anterior end of the embryo forms the brain and the
remaining structure becomes the spinal cord bear you. Similar mechanism is observed for the
formation of other organs such as the eyes, lungs, and pancreas.
Limb formation than first appears as a small blood on the side of the embryo. Compose
of ectoderm at the tip and the mesoderm at the core, the limb bud then lengthens from the
division of mesodermal cells aggregating at the cartilage plate, which will become rudiment of
limb bones. Muscles form around the cartilage, which are also derived from the mesodermal
cells, however, these cells originate from the developing neural tube. The process of limb
formation with digits depends on the group of organisms being studied. Amphibians employ
local proliferation of mesodermal cells whereas birds and mammals mold the digits by apoptosis
of mesodermal cells.
Animal Nutrition
Animals obtain their nutrition from the consumption of other organisms. In the course of
evolution, animals have formed ways to obtain, process, and digest food as heterotrophs.
Generally, animals need carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins as basic organic compounds and
supply of vitamins, minerals, and water as additional nutrient requirements. Carbohydrates serve
as energy stores in which the energy to form ATP, is derived. Essential fatty acids and amino
acids are obtained either from gut symbionts or direct food sources. Vitamins, similar in plants,
are organic compounds that are only needed in minute amounts but essential for metabolic
functions. Minerals are also needed for ion-exchange, body component, and ATP production.
Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules required for
maintain cellular functions, such as assembling new molecules, cells and tissues. The conversion
of the food consumed to the nutrient required is a multi-step process involving digestion and
absorption. The process of mechanical digestion is relatively simple. It involves the physical
breakdown of food but does not alter its chemical makeup. Chemical digestion, on the other
hand, is a complex process that reduces food into its chemical building blocks which are then
absorbed to nourish the cells of the body.

The Human Digestive System

What is the digestive system?
Your digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your liver,
pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs that are connected to each
other from your mouth to your anus. The organs that make up your GI tract, in the order that they
are connected, include your mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
Parts of the Digestive System

The main organs that make up the digestive system are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. Helping them along the way are the pancreas, gall
bladder and liver.

Here’s how these organs work together in your digestive system.

Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even
take a bite. Your salivary glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm bread.
After you start eating, you chew your food into pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva
mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When
you swallow, your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.

Esophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from
your mouth when you swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as
you swallow to prevent you from choking (when food goes into your windpipe). A series of
muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.

But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus called the lower esophageal
sphincter has to relax to let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of
the stomach from flowing back into the esophagus.
Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed
with stomach enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable
form. Cells in the lining of your stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are
responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are processed enough,
they’re released into the small intestine.

Small Intestine

Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small

intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the
pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and
mixing it with digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.

The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly
responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing
through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency.
Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through
the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine (colon).

Large Intestine (Colon)

The colon is responsible for processing waste so that emptying your bowels is easy and
convenient. It’s a 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.

The colon is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across)
colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means
of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the
colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass
movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.

It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is
mostly food debris and bacteria. These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions, such as
synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles and protecting
against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties
its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel movement).

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein,
fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the
bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar.

Liver

The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process
the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small
intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.

The liver is your body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the
intestine and makes all the various chemicals your body needs to function.

The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many
drugs that can be toxic to your body.
Gallbladder

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the
duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

Rectum

The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's
job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated and to hold
the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors
send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not.

If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents
cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodate so that the sensation
temporarily goes away.

Anus

The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch-long canal consisting of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper
anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or
solid.

The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The
pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from
coming out when it’s not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool
enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we are
asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.
PLANT GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND NUTRITION
Embryonic Development of Plant
Plant embryonic development, also plant embryogenesis is a process that occurs after
the fertilization of an ovule to produce a fully developed plant embryo. This is a pertinent stage
in the plant life cycle that is followed by dormancy and germination. The zygote produced after
fertilization must undergo various cellular divisions and differentiations to become a mature
embryo. An end stage embryo has five major components including the shoot
apical  meristem, hypocotyl, root meristem, root cap, and cotyledons. Unlike the embryonic
development in animals, and specifically in humans, plant embryonic development results in an
immature form of the plant, lacking most structures like leaves, stems, and reproductive
structures. However, both plants and animals including humans, pass through a phylotypic
stage that evolved independently and that causes a developmental constraint limiting
morphological diversification.
Morphogenic Events
Embryogenesis occurs naturally as a result of single, or double fertilization, of the ovule,
giving rise to two distinct structures: the plant embryo and the endosperm which go on to
develop into a seed. The zygote goes through various cellular differentiations and divisions to
produce a mature embryo. These morphogenic events form the basic cellular pattern for the
development of the shoot-root body and the primary tissue layers; it also programs the regions of
meristematic tissue formation. The following morphogenic events are only particular to eudicots,
and not monocots.
Two Cell Stage
Following fertilization, the zygote and endosperm are present within the ovule, as seen in
stage I of the illustration on this page. Then the zygote undergoes an asymmetric transverse cell
division that gives rise to two cells - a small apical cell resting above a large basal cell. These
two cells are very different, and give rise to different structures, establishing polarity in the
embryo.
 Apical Cell Basal Cell
The small apical cell is on the top and contains The large basal cell is on the bottom and
most of the cytoplasm, the aqueous substance consists of a large vacuole and gives rise to
found within cells, from the original zygote.  It the hypophysis and the suspensor.
gives rise to the hypocotyl, shoot apical
meristem, and cotyledons.

Eight Cell Stage

After two rounds of longitudinal division and one round of transverse division, an eight-
celled embryo is the result. Stage II, in the illustration above, indicates what the embryo looks
like during the eight-cell stage. According to Laux et al., there are four distinct domains during
the eight-cell stage. The first two domains contribute to the embryo proper. The apical embryo
domain gives rise to the shoot apical meristem and cotyledons. The second domain, the central
embryo domain, gives rise to the hypocotyl, root apical meristem, and parts of the
cotyledons. The third domain, the basal embryo domain, contains the hypophysis. The
hypophysis will later give rise to the radicle and the root cap. The last domain, the suspensor, is
the region at the very bottom, which connects the embryo to the endosperm for nutritional
purposes.
Sixteen Cell Stage
Additional cell divisions occur, which leads to the sixteen-cell stage. The four domains
are still present, but they are more defined with the presence of more cells. The important aspect
of this stage is the introduction of the protoderm, which is meristematic tissue that will give rise
to the epidermis. The protoderm is the outermost layer of cells in the embryo proper.
Globular Stage
The name of this stage is indicative of the embryo's appearance at this point in
embryogenesis; it is spherical or globular. Stage III, in the photograph above, depicts what the
embryo looks like during the globular stage. 1 is indicating the location of the endosperm. The
important component of the globular phase is the introduction of the rest of the primary
meristematic tissue. The protoderm was already introduced during the sixteen-cell stage.
According to Evert and Eichhorn, the ground meristem and procambium are initiated during the
globular stage. The ground meristem will go on to form the ground tissue, which includes the
pith and cortex. The procambium will eventually form the vascular tissue, which includes the
xylem and phloem.
Heart Stage
The heart stage is a transition period where the cotyledons finally start to form and
elongate. It is given this name in eudicots because most plants from this group have two
cotyledons, giving the embryo a heart shaped appearance. The shoot apical meristem is between
the cotyledons. Stage IV, in the illustration above, indicates what the embryo looks like at this
point in development. 5 indicates the position of the cotyledons.

Pro Embryo Stage

 This stage is defined by the continued growth of the cotyledons and axis elongation. This
stage is defined by the continued growth of the cotyledons and axis elongation. However, in the
torpedo stage of development, parts of the suspensor complex must be terminated. The suspensor
complex is shortened because at this point in development most of the nutrition from the
endosperm has been utilized, and there must be space for the mature embryo. After the suspensor
complex is gone, the embryo is fully developed. Stage V, in the illustration above, indicates what
the embryo looks like at this point in development.
Maturation
The second phase, or postembryonic development, involves the maturation of cells,
which involves cell growth and the storage of macromolecules (such as oils, starches and
proteins) required as a 'food and energy supply' during germination and seedling growth. In this
stage, the seed coat hardens to help protect the embryo and store available nutrients. The
appearance of a mature embryo is seen in Stage VI, in the illustration above.
Dormancy
The end of embryogenesis is defined by an arrested development phase or stop in growth.
This phase usually coincides with a necessary component of growth called dormancy. Dormancy
is a period in which a seed cannot germinate, even under optimal environmental conditions, until
a specific requirement is met. Breaking dormancy, or finding the specific requirement of the
seed, can be rather difficult. For example, a seed coat can be extremely thick. According to Evert
and Eichhorn, very thick seed coats must undergo a process called scarification, to deteriorate the
coating. In other cases, seeds must experience stratification. This process exposes the seed to
certain environmental conditions, like cold or smoke, to break dormancy and initiate
germination.
Plan Nutrition
Essential elements are indispensable elements for plant growth. They are divided into
macronutrients and micronutrients. The macronutrients plants require are carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, calcium magnesium, and sulfur. Important micronutrients
include iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, nickel, cobalt, silicon, and
sodium.
Adaptations of Roots for Mineral Uptake
 Minerals enter a plant at its root system, and two mutualistic relationships assist roots in
fulfilling this function. The air all about us contains about 78% nitrogen, but plants can’t
make use of it. Most plants depend on bacteria in the soil to fix nitrogen- that is, the
bacteria change atmospheric. Nitrogen to nitrate or ammonium, both of which plants can
take up and use. Some plants, such as legumes, have roots colonized by bacteria that are
able to take up atmospheric nitrogen and reduce it to a form suitable for incorporation
into organic compounds. The bacteria live in root nodules, and the plant supplies the
bacteria with carbohydrates; the bacteria in turn furnish the plant with nitrogen
compounds.
 Another mutualistic relationship involves fungi and almost all plant roots. This
association is called a mycorrhizal association, literally fungi roots. The hyphae of the
fungus increase the surface area available for water uptake and break down organic
matter, releasing inorganic nutrients that the plant can use. In return, the root furnishes
the fungus with sugars and amino acids.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis, the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform
light energy into chemical energy. During photosynthesis, in green plants, light energy is
captured and use to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich
organic compounds.