Embryology

A branch of biology dealing with embryos and their development.

Gametogenesis
 the process of formation of the male and female gametes

 occurs in the gonads (ovary or testis)

Males and females of a species that reproduces sexually have different forms of
gametogenesis:

i. Spermatogenesis (Male): Germ cells near the outer wall of the seminiferous tubules
of the testis differentiate into stem cells called spermatogonia. Spermatogonia divide
by mitosis, and mature into primary spermatocytes.

Each primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis:

 meiosis I yields 2 haploid secondary spermatocytes

 meiosis II yields 4 equal-sized spermatids

Then the spermatids differentiate into sperm, losing most of their cytoplasm in the process.

1 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 ii. Oogenesis (Female): Oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium, but this
cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to one to
two million cells in the embryo. The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte.
This cell will begin the first meiotic division, but be arrested in the prophase-I stage.

At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles

in an ovary and completion of the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most
of the cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only
one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell, called a
polar body (usually dies).

A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary
oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary
oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through the meiosis II, completing meiosis, producing
a second polar body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being,
half of them coming from the sperm.

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 Prenatal period (before birth)
The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the date
of conception. During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a
full-term baby. The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages.

 The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage

 the third through the eighth week are known as the embryonic stage and

 the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal stage

Germinal stage
Conception: occurs when the female egg (ovum) is fertilized by a male sperm. Under normal
circumstances, one egg is released approximately once a month from a woman's ovary
during a process called ovulation. The egg makes its way into a fallopian tube, a structure
that guides the egg away from the ovary toward the uterus. For fertilization to occur, sperm
must have made their way to the fallopian tube where the ovum has been released. This
process can take up to ten hours after ejaculation.

Fertilization: For fertilization to occur, a sperm must penetrate the tough outer membrane
of the egg called the zona pellucida. When one sperm successfully binds with the zona
pellucida, a series of chemical reactions occurs to allow only that sperm to penetrate.
Fertilization occurs when the sperm successfully enters the ovum's membrane.

Zygote: When a single sperm enters the mother's egg cell, the resulting cell is called a
zygote. The zygote contains all of the genetic information (DNA) needed to become a baby.
Half of the genetic information comes from the mother’s egg and half from the father’s
sperm. The zygote spends the next few days travelling down the fallopian tube and divides
to form a ball of cells.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Cleavage: The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two
identical cells called blastomeres, which further divide to four cells, then into eight, and so
on. The group of diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus.

Morula: About seventy two hours after fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have
formed to what is called a morula, still enclosed by the zona pellucida.

Blastocyst: 5 days after fertilization, the morula enters the uterus. As cell division continues,
a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoele forms in the center of the group of cells, with the
outer shell of cells called trophoblasts and an inner mass of cells called embryoblasts. The
zona pellucida disappears and the morula becomes a blastocyst. At this stage the blastocyst
consists of 200 to 300 cells and is ready for implantation.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Implantation: The process, in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall, occurs
approximately seven days after conception. Hormones secreted from the mother's ovaries
and a chemical secreted by the trophoblasts begin to prepare the uterine wall. The
blastocyst first adheres to the wall then moves into the uterine tissue. Implantation marks
the end of the germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic stage.

Embryonic stage
The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception.
Soon after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to
take on different functions.
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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Gastrulation: The cells in the blastula rearrange themselves spatially to form three layers of
cells in a process known as gastrulation. During gastrulation, the blastula folds upon itself to
form the three layers of cells. Each of these layers is called a germ layer, which differentiate
into different organ systems.

 Ectoderm (outer layer): forms the nervous system and the outer layer of skin.

 Mesoderm (middle layer): gives rise to muscles and connective tissues.

 Endoderm (inner layer): gives rise to the lining of the digestive system and other
internal organs.

By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been
formed. The embryo is now referred to as a fetus.

Fetal Stage
Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an embryo becomes a
fetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters in length and weighs about 3 grams.
By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50
centimeters or 3.3 kilograms. Although all of the organ systems were formed during
embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the fetal stage. Sex
organs begin to appear during the third month of gestation.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 Gestation
The time spent in prenatal development is known as gestation. For convenience, we usually
think of the gestation period as consisting of three integrated trimesters, each three months
in duration:

1. First trimester (week 1-week 13): is the period of embryological and early fetal
development. During this time, the rudiments of all the major organ systems appear.

2. Second trimester (week 14-week 27): is dominated by the development of organs and
organ systems. During this time, body shape and proportions change. By the end of this
trimester, the fetus looks distinctively human.

3. Third trimester (week 28-week 40): is characterized by rapid fetal growth and deposition
of adipose tissue. Early in the third trimester, most of the fetus’s major organ systems
become fully functional. An infant born one month or even two months prematurely has a
reasonable chance of survival.

Postnatal Development
Postnatal development begins at birth and continues to maturity, the state of full
development or completed growth. The five life stages of postnatal development are:

1. Neonatal: The neonatal period extends from birth to one month.

2. Infancy: Infancy begins at one month and continues to two years of age.
3. Childhood: Childhood begins at two years of age and lasts until adolescence.
4. Adolescence: Adolescence begins at around 12 or 13 years of age and ends with the
beginning of adulthood.
5. Maturity: Adulthood, or maturity, includes the years between ages 18 to 25 and old
age. The process of aging is called senescence.

Some definitions
The yolk sac: is the first element seen in the gestational sac during pregnancy. It provides all
the nutrients the embryo needs and produces blood cells until the placenta fully forms later
in the pregnancy. Toward the end of the first trimester, the yolk sac shrinks and can no
longer be seen on the sonogram.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Allantois: one of the extra-embryonic membranes developed from germ layers. It helps the
embryo to exchange gases and handle liquid waste.

The placenta: is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow
nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. The
placenta is linked to baby by the umbilical cord. The main functional units of the placenta
are the chorionic villi.

The amniotic sac: is a bag of fluid inside a woman's womb (uterus) where the unborn baby
develops and grows. It is made of two membranes called the amnion and the chorion.

Preterm: is defined as babies born alive before 37 weeks of pregnancy are completed. There
are sub-categories of preterm birth, based on gestational age:

 extremely preterm (<28 weeks)

 very preterm (28 to <32 weeks)

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  moderate to late preterm (32 to <37 weeks)

Miscarriage: Loss of the embryo or fetus and other products of pregnancy before the
twentieth week. Often, early in a pregnancy, if the condition of the baby and/or the
mother's uterus are not compatible with sustaining life, the pregnancy stops, and the
contents of the uterus are expelled.

Teratogen: Any drug, chemical, maternal disease, or exposure that can cause physical or
functional defects in an exposed embryo or fetus.

9 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy

Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU