General

embryology 1
Mwangi K J
 Today’s contents

• Introduction of embryology
• Gametogenesis
• 1st week, ovulation to implantation ★
• 2nd week, bilaminar germ disc ★
Ⅰ. Introduction
What is embryology?
Embryology is a science that studies
the normal development as well as
the birth defects of a human being in
the maternal uterus.
 Embryonic terminologies
• Oocyte (L. ovum, egg):- The female germ or sex cells produced in the
ovaries. When mature, the oocytes are called secondary oocytes or mature oocytes.

• Sperm (Gr. sperma, seed):-. The sperm, or spermatozoon, refers to the male germ
cell produced in the testes (testicles). Numerous sperms (spermatozoa) are expelled
from the male urethra during ejaculation.

• Zygote.:- the cell that results from the union of an oocyte and a sperm during
fertilization and marks the beginning of a new human being.

• Gestational Age.:- it is the period from fertilization to birth: it is usually divided

into three trimesters (I,II,II)
 Embryonic terminologies
NB> It is difficult to determine exactly when fertilization (conception)
occurs because the process cannot be observed in vivo (within the
living body, it is therefore calculated from the presumed first day of
the last normal menstrual period. >> which is approximately 2
weeks longer than the fertilization age because the oocyte is not
fertilized until approximately 2 weeks after the preceding
menstruation
• Cleavage:- This is the series of mitotic cell divisions of the zygote
that result in the formation of early embryonic cells, blastomeres.
The size of the cleaving zygote remains unchanged because at
each succeeding cleavage division, the blastomeres become
smaller.
Embryonic terminologies
• Morula (L. morus, mulberry):- This solid mass of 12 to approximately 32
blastomeres formed during cleavage of a zygote that tightly align themselves
against each other to form a compact ball of cells through a process called
compaction and mediated by cell surface adhesion glycoproteins. (NB> morula
stage occurs 3 to 4 days after fertilization as it enters the uterus)

• Blastocyst:- (Gr. blastos, germ + kystis, bladder). This is a fluid-filled cavity, the
blastocystic cavity, that develops inside the morula 2 to 3 days after entering the
uterus from the uterine tube (fallopian tube).

• Embryoblast or inner cell mass :- this is the centrally located cells of the blastocyst
and they form the embryonic part of the embryo.
Embryonic terminologies
• Implantation:- The process during which the blastocyst attaches to the
endometrium, the mucous membrane or lining of uterus, and subsequently embeds
in it.

• The preimplantation period:- this is the time between fertilization and the
beginning of implantation, a period of approximately 6 days.
•

• Gastrula (Gr. gaster, stomach). It is the transformation of a blastocyst inner cell

mass (embryoblast) into a three-layered or trilaminar embryonic disc forms (third
week). gastrula), The three germ layers of the gastrula (ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm).
• embryonic period:- it is the period that extends to the end of the eighth week
(56 days), and marks the beginnings of all major organs
NB:
The size of embryos is given as crown-rump length, which is measured from the vertex
of the cranium (crown of head) to the rump (buttocks).

Stages of Prenatal Development.

Stage 1:- embryonic stange that will be from fertilization and embryonic development
up to day 56.
Stage 2:- the fetal stage: The fetal period begins on day 57 and ends when the fetus is
completely outside the mother.
 Embryonic terminologies
•Conceptus :- The embryo and its or associated membranes. Ie the
embryo as well as the embryonic part of the placenta and its
associated membranes: amnion, chorionic (gestational) sac, and
umbilical vesicle or yolk sac. The conceptus includes all structures that
develop from the zygote, both embryonic and extraembryonic.

•Primordium (L. primus, first + ordior, to begin). The beginning or first

discernible indication of an organ or structure. Eg the primordium of the
upper limb appears as a bud on day 26 .

•Fetus (unborn offspring). After the embryonic period (8 weeks) and

until birth, the developing human is called a fetus.
 Normal development
• Takes 38 weeks from fertilization to parturition of a
mature fetus.
Three periods are divided:
1) Preembryonic period: First 2 weeks, Fertilization to
formation of the bilaminar germ disc.
• 2) Embryonic period: Weeks 3 – 8, Primordial of all
major organs develop from the three germ layers.
• 3) Fetal period: Week 9 – birth.
Growth of the organ systems
 Birth defects
• The study of the congenital molformations is the
Teratology
Causes
1) Genetic factors (25%)
2) Environmental factors (teratogens) (10%)
3) Interaction of genetic and environmental
factors (65%)
• The susceptible period to teratogenic factors generally
is the embryonic period (3-8wks), because intensive
differentiation occurs in this period.
 Three Eras of Embryology

• The Anatomical Tradition (300BC-1870 AD)

• The Age of Experimental Embryology (1870-1930)
• The Modern Synthesis (1930-present)
 Aristotle (384-322 BC)

• “Father” of Embryology
• Made observations on chicken
and other embryos.
• Concluded that embryos form
gradually and they do not
possess adult features until
after birth.
 Epigenesis and Preformation Debate
(1700’s)
Epigenesis: Organs and embryos
form de novo

Preformation: Organs are present

in minature in the sperm or egg.

The Human Infant Preformed in the

Sperm, as Depicted by
Nicolas Hartsoeker (1694)
Sperm Homunculus
Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876)
• First to observe the
mammalian egg.
• Carried out detailed
descriptions of a wide
variety of embryos.
• Formulated a set of
developmental principles.
Von Baer’s Embryos
Experimental embryology
 Wilhelm Roux (1850-1924)
 Hans Spemann (1869-1941)
The genetic control of early
embryonic development

Ed Lewis Christiane Eric Wieschaus

Nusslein-Volhard
Chapter 1. Gametogenesis
A process of formation and
maturation of the gametes
(sperm and ovum)
1.1 At the end of 3rd week, PGCs in the wall
of the yolk sac and start to migrate to the
developing gonad through the hindgut.
 Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

2n, 46 2n, 46

n, 23 n, 23

n, 23 n, 23
 1.2 The purpose of gametogenesis

• Reduction of the number of chromosomes to

half by meiosis, which occurs only in germ cell.
• Alteration of the shape of germ cells for
fertilization
1.3 Differences between male and female gametes
Male Female
•Has stem cells No stem cells

•Continuous after puberty Pause twice

•4 sperm from a spermatocyte Only 1 ovum formed

•Equal division Unequal division

•Functional mature and No

capacitation
1.5 Functional mature and capacitation of sperm

• Functional mature: getting ability of forward

movement and potential of fertilizing eggs in the
epididymis

• Capacitation: obtaining capacity of fertilizing an

egg in the female reproductive tract through
removal of a glycoprotein coat from the plasma
membrane of the acrosomal region by enzyme
(beta-amylase).
Abnormal gametes

• For fertilization to occur, egg and sperm must

meet between 2 – 48 hrs after sex.
• Egg is only fertilizable for 48 hrs.
 1.5 Nondisjunction in the meiosis leads to
birth defects
• 1.5.1 Numerical abnormalities of chromosomes
Autosomes -- Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome): special
face, mental retardation, heart defect, simian crease.
Sex chromosomes -- XO (Turner’s syndrome)

• no ovary
• webbed neck
• short stature
• mental retardation
1.5.2 Structural abnormalities of chromosomes

• break, deletion, etc.

• e.g. 5p- → cat cry syndrome
• A partial deletion on the small
arm of chromosome 5.
• small head, high palate, round
face, small receding chin, widely
spaced eyes, low set ears, etc.
Chapter 2. First week of development

Ovulation to implantation
2.1 Fertilization
• Union of a sperm and an oocyte to form a
fertilized egg (zygote)
• Time: 12 - 24 hours after ovulation.
• Site: ampulla of uterine tube.
2.1.1. Fertilization precursors
• Women: Ovulation  Secondary oocyte released.

• Accompanying the oocyte:

• Corona radiata
• Zona pellucida
2.1.1. Fertilization precursors

• Men:
• ~10 hour journey for sperm
• Some sperm are gradually released into the cervical
canal; which increases the chances of fertilization.
• 200~300 million sperm  3 million make it to uterus
 300~500 sperm reach the fertilization site.
 Sperm Morphology
• Head: Acrosome and DNA
The acrosome  contains
enzymes which are released
when sperm reaches ovum.
• Midpiece: Mitochondria

• Tail: microfilament for movement

 2.1.2. Important events in fertilization

Before:

• Capacitation

• Acrosome reaction
 Capacitation

• Takes 5-7 hours. This maturation of sperm is called

capacitation
• Capacitation is facilitated by substances in the female
tract. Removal of a glycoprotein coat from the plasma
membrane of the acrosomal region by enzyme (β-
amylase).
• Capacitation is required for the acrosomal reaction to
take place.
 The acrosome reaction
• Sperm bind to zona pellucida

release of enzymes from acrosome induced by,

and needed for sperm penetration of, the zona
pellucida.
2.1.2. Important events in fertilization

During:

• Penetration of corona radiata, zona pellucida,

oocyte cell membrane.
• Recognition: a zona protein ZP3 is responsible for
species-specific fertilization.
After entry:

• Zona reaction: zona becomes impenetrable to other

sperm (monospermy), through enzyme release from
cortical granules of oocyte to change structure and
composition of the zona.
• Oocyte finishes 2nd meiosis.
• Formation and merge of male and female pronuclei.
Zona reaction Pronuclei
Big egg, little sperm

Zona Pellucida

Perivitelline space
 2.2. Cleavage
• 24 hr after fertilization, the mammalian zygote (1 cell)
begins cleavage.
• a series of mitotic divisions of fertilized egg
 Morula
solid ball of cells

Zygote

Blastocyst
with blastocoele cavity
 2.3 Blastocyst formation
Formation: morula → cell number↑→ spaces
appearing →blastocyst
 1) Inner cell mass (embryoblast):
develops into embryo proper.
2) Trophoblast: absorbs
nutrients. Will go on to
contribute to fetal membrane
systems.
3) Blastocele: will form
exocoelomic cavity
 Implantation - embedding of blastocyst
into endometrium begins at day 7

Trophoblast forms
syncytiotrophoblast- erodes into
endometrium
Cytotrophoblast - carries nutrients to
inner cell mass

Lacunae and primary villi formed by

trophoblast
All of these form placental tissues

Fig 28-3
 2.4. Implantation

• Blastocyst “floats” in the uterus for 2-3 days

• Blastocyst implants 6-7 days after ovulation
• Implantation completed
by 14 days after
ovulation
• hCG from the placental
chorion signals the
hypothalamus, pituitary,
and corpus luteum that hCG
implantation has
occurred
• Hormone levels are
maintained which
prevents uterine
sloughing (menses)
• Endometrial epithelium
grows around implanted
blostocyst

• Chorion – developed from

trophoblasts after
implantation, continues
this hormonal stimulus
• The chorion develops
fingerlike villi, which:
• Become vascularized
• Extend to the embryo as
umbilical arteries and veins
• Lie immersed in maternal
blood
Summary 1.
• Gametogenesis
• Fertilization: capacitation, acrosome reavtion.

Penetrate the corona radiata

3 phases Penetrate the ZP

Fusion of oocyte and sperm membranes

Blastocyst formation
Chapter 3. Second week of development

Bilaminar Germ Disc

3.1 Develop day by day

Attachment
Implantation
window time

Day 7
Day 8
Day 9
Day 10

Embryo completely
embedded in
endometrium
Amnion and yolk sac
visible
Blastodisc formation (2
cell layers)
Epiblast
Hypoblast
Day 12

Secondary yolk sac

 3.2 Extraembryonic mesoderm

• extraembryonic mesoderm
somatopleuric
• splanchnopleuric
• chorionic cavirty
• connecting (body) stalk
2nd week -- Period of twos:

• 2 germ layers
• 2 trophoblast layers
• 2 cavities
• 2 extroembryonic mesoderm
3.3 Abnormal implantation
• Placenta previa:
Implantation near the internal os. The placenta
overbridges the os and causes severe bleeding
during later pregnancy and delivery.
 Ectopic implantation

Implantation outside the uterus: the uterine tube,

abdominal cavity, or ovary.
Abortion and severe hemorrhage during the 2nd
month of gestation
Ectopic implantation
 summary

Second week of Development is the Week to twos:

•The Trophoblast: syncytiotrophoblast
cytotrophoblast
•The embryoblast : epiblast
hypoblast
•The extraembryonic mesoderm : somatopleure
splanchnopleure
•2 cavities form: aminoic cavity
yolk sac