The lungs compensate by increasing respiratory rate.

Adam's apple
Thyroid cartilage of the larynx contains the structure commonly known as the
Adam's apple

air flow
Path air takes in flowing from the glottis to the blood air barrier. 

 Air passing through the glottis flows into the larynx and through the trachea. From there, the air
flows into a main bronchus, which supplies the lungs. In the lungs, the air passes to lobar bronchi,
segmental bronchi, bronchioles, a terminal bronchiole, a respiratory bronchiole, an alveolar duct, an
alveolar sac, an alveolus, and ultimately to the blood air barrier.

alveolar airflow
alveolar ducts→alveolar sacs→alveoli

alveolar epithelium
made of the following:
alveolar epithelial cells (type I pneumocytes);
septal cells (type II pneumocytes);
alveolar macrophages (dust cells)

alveolar macrophages
cell that phagocytoses ("eat") small particles;
aka dust cell

alveolar macrophages
phagocytose small particles in alveoli

alveoli

tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood
The majority of cells in the alveoli are simple squamous epithelial cells called
pneumocytes type I

what happens at the alveoli

Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli across the blood air barrier and enters
pulmonary capillaries.
In the alveoli, oxygen is transferred across the blood air barrier to
the red blood cells that are traveling through the pulmonary
capillaries. There is a substantial concentration difference that drives the
diffusion process across the very thin blood air barrier. Simulataneously,
carbon dioxide is moved from the pulmonary capillaries across the blood air
barrier to the alveoli to be exhaled. These events are a part of external
respiration.
anoxia
total lack of oxygen

apnea
temporary cessation of breathing

apneustic area
an area of the lower pons that coordinates the transition between inhalation and
exhalation; sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area that activate it and
prolong inhalation, resulting in a long, deep inhalation

arytenoid cartilage
a pair of triangular pieces of hyaline cartilage found at the posterior, superior border of
the cricoid cartilage, which have a wide range of mobility

Atelectasis
Lung collapse due to plugged bronchioles that resulted in colapse of alveoli, or would
that admits air into pleural cavity (pneumothorax).

atmospheric pressure
Air enters the respiratory passageways when the pressure inside the lungs is lower than
the atmospheric pressure.

Asthma
A chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways involving bronchial hyperresponsiveness
and airway obstruction marked by periodic attacks of wheezing, shortness of breath, a
tight feeling in the chest, and a cough that produces mucus due to an allergic reaction
triggered by certain drugs, irritants, viral infection, exercise, or emotional stress.

Auditory tubes
Each auditory tube opens into the nasopharynx at the nasopharyngeal
meatus (or pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube). It is a
connection between the middle ear and the outside world. This passageway
helps equalize the pressure on the inside and the outside of the eardrum.

blood-air barrier
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli across the blood air barrier and enters
pulmonary capillaries.
 • The barrier consists of the fusion of the basement membrane of the
simple squamous epithelium of an alveolus with the basement
membrane of the endothelium of a pulmonary capillary.
• The membrane is very thin, on average 0.5 micrometers.
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse quickly because of the large surface
area of the respiratory membrane.
• The  blood-air barrier  is very thin in order to enable diffusion across it.
This thin membrane is a fusion between the basement membrane of the
simple squamous epithelium of the alveolus and the basement
membrane of the endothelium of the pulmonary capillary. The large
area of the alveolar clusters also increases the surface area, and diffusion
occurs rapidly across the respiratory membrane.
• gas exchange at the blood air barrier 
• the differences in partial pressure across the blood air barrier are
substantial
• the total surface area of the lungs is very large
• the distances involved in the gas exchange are very small
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide are not water soluble, but are both lipid
soluble, making it possible for them to readily diffuse through the
surfactant layer and through the blood air barrier.
•  
• There is a substantial difference in partial pressures of the gases during
gas exchange. The distances across the blood air barrier are as little as
0.1 micrometer and the total surface area for gas exhance in the lungs is
between 70 m2 and 140 m2.

All of the following help with gas exchange at the blood air barrier:

the differences in partial pressure across the blood air barrier are substantial
the total surface area of the lungs is very large
the distances involved in the gas exchange are very small

 bicarbonate ions
charged particles formed when carbon dioxide is dissolved in body fluids
they are buffers and are important in regulating the ph of the blood
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood primarily as bicarbonate ions.
These ions are formed by erythrocytes that rapidly take up carbon dioxide and
convert it into bicarbonate ions by way of carbonic anhydrase. This enzyme
transiently forms carbonic acid, which is a weak acid and rapidly dissociates
into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. Bicarbonate ions make up about 70
percent of the carbon dioxide present in the bloodstream. About 23 percent
binds to hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin, and the remaining 7
percent stays in the blood as dissolved carbon dioxide.

Bohr effect
phenomenon where lower pH drives oxygen off hemoglobin, making more oxygen
available for tissue cells; and elevated pH increases the affinity of hemoglobin for
oxygen
The Bohr effect describes how blood pH affects the oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin
The Bohr effect is a decrease in saturation of hemoglobin due to a
drop in pH. Active tissues generate acids that lower the pH of the interstitial
fluid and the blood. When the pH drops, the shape of the hemoglobin
molecule changes. This change in shape causes hemoglobin to release oxygen
reserves more readily and the saturation decreases.

Boyles Law
states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure

The relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. P varies inversely with V.
P1V1 = P2V2.

Boyle’s law states that volume of a gas and its pressure are inversely related.

BPG
• 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) is found in normal red blood cells and has an important
role in helping deliver oxygen to tissues. BPG levels decrease as red blood cells age, so
blood banks can only store fresh whole blood for transfusions for a limited time. Blood
that has low BPG will no longer release oxygen to peripheral tissues.
• Red blood cells generate BPG, which has a direct effect on the binding and release of
oxygen by hemoglobin.

breathing modifiers
5 senses that change respiration:
Chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, stretch receptors, irritating physical stimuli, other
abnormal visceral sensations (pain, temp., etc)

bronchial airflow
primary bronchi→secondary bronchi→tertiary bronchi
bronchiolar airflow
bronchioles→terminal bronchioles→respiratory bronchioles

bronchioles
progressively smaller tubular branches of the airways
have walls dominated by smooth muscle

bronchus
either of the two main branches of the trachea

bronchopneumonia?
infection scattered throughout the lung

bronchi
where trachea divides into two branches, left and right main stem bronchi
bronchioles
tiny air passages smaller than 1 millimeter in diameter
Bronchitis
A respiratory disease in which the mucous membrane in the lungs' bronchial passages
becomes inflamed, resulting in coughing spells accompanied by thick phlegm and
breathlessness.

carbonic acid
70% of CO2 in blood is transported as this type of acid; chemical formula H2CO3

carbon dioxide
The atmospheric gas that best dissolves in plasma
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood primarily as bicarbonate ions

carbon monoxide
If carbon monoxide (CO) levels rise to just 0.1% of inhaled air,
enough hemoglogin is affected to threathen survival. Carbon
monoxide is an odorless, colorless gas that is produced from the burning of
petroleum fuels. CO binds to hemoglobin very tightly and blocks the ability of
oxygen to bind. If exposed to CO, immediate treatment includes removing the
individual to fresh air and administering oxygen. In extreme cases, a
transfusion with red blood cells is necessary.

Carbon monoxide competes with oxygen molecules for the binding sites on heme units.
Carbon monoxide gas is produced by automobiles and other petroleum-
burning engines.
Carbon monoxide has a much higher affinity for heme than oxygen.

carina
an internal ridge located at the point where the trachea divides into the right and left
primary bronchi; one of the most sensitive areas of the larynx and trachea for triggering
a cough reflex
- A ridge separating the two primary bronchi

cellular respiration
cellular O2 uptake and production of CO2

central chemoreceptors
located in or near the medulla oblongata in the central nervous system that respond to
changes in hydrogen ion (H+) concentration or P-CO2 or both, in cerebrospinal fluid

cheyne-stokes respirations
a rhythmic variation of deep breathing alternating with periods of apnea that is seen in
critically ill patient's

chronic bronchitis
a disorder characterized by excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a
productive cough that lasts for three months of the year for two successive years

cilia
tiny, hairlike structures in the nose that trap dust and other particles
structures projecting from a cell that move fluid or mucus over cell surface; part of the
mucus escalator that moves mucus from pharynx to esophagus

common cold
acute coryza, or upper respiratory infection (URI)

compliance
indicates expndability of lungs; low compliance requires more force, high compliance
requires greater force. the ease with which one can expand the lungs and thorax

conducting portion
VENTILATION
nasal cavity to terminal bronchioles
The conducting portion brings air into and out of the respiratory system and
delivers air to and from the respiratory portion. Thus, the conducting portion
is concerned with ventilation. 
The pulmonary arteries supply blood to the gas-exchange surfaces; the bronchial capillaries,
supplied by the bronchial arteries, which branch from the thoracic aorta, supply the conducting
portions of the respiratory system.

conducting zone
consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the
lungs that function to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs

The coughing reflex is triggered. Any time food or liquid touches the

surfaces of the vestibular folds or the glottis, the glottis automatically closes.
While this happens, muscles of the abdomen and the rib cage contract so that
pressure is built up inferior to the closed glottis. As the glottis opens, the
pressurized air pushes objects out of the trachea, and coughing is triggered
until the material is cleared.
cricoid cartilage
forms posterior portion of larynx

cyanosis
bluish color of the skin and mucous membranes caused by insufficient oxygen in the
blood

corniculate cartilage
a pair of horn-like pieces of elastic cartilage located at the apex of each arytenoid
cartilage
costal breathing
a pattern of shallow (chest) breathing due to contraction of the external intercostal
muscles
costal surface
the lung surface that lies against the ribs, matching the rounded curvature of the ribs
cricoid cartilage
a ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx
cuneiform cartilage
a pair of club- or wedge-shaped elastic cartilages anterior to the corniculate cartilages
that support the vocal folds and lateral aspects of the epiglottis

Dalton's law
states that each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases
were present
Dalton’s law 

Each gas in the atmosphere contributes to the total pressure in proportion to

its relative abundance
Dalton’s law is the law of partial pressures. The partial pressure of a gas is the
pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases. For example, if the
atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg and oxygen contributes 20.9 percent of
the atmosphere, then 20.9% of the 760 mm Hg of pressure, about 159 mm Hg,
is from the oxygen gas. Another way to state Dalton’s law is all the partial
pressures added together equal the total pressure exerted by each gas in a
mixture.
 

decompression sickness
if a scuba diver ascends too rapidly, nitrogen in the blood comes out of solution too
quickly and forms gas bubbles in the tissues, causing joint pain, dizziness, shortness of
breath, extreme fatigue, paralysis, and unconsciousness; also called "the bends"

diaphragm
muscule attached to the body wall that separates the abdominal and thoracic cavities,
upon which the lungs sit
During quiet breathing, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
contract. What effect does this have on the thoracic cavity?
It increases the volume and decreases the pressure of the thoracic cavity

During quiet breathing, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

contract. This has the effect of increasing the volume and decreasing
the pressure of the thoracic cavity. This increase causes a partial vacuum
inside the lungs and creates a negative pressure gradient in which air will flow
inside the lungs from the outside. This part of ventilation corresponds to
inhalation. The air making its way into the lungs is then used to supply oxygen
to the venous blood coming from the right side of the heart.

diaphragmatic breathing
a pattern of deep (abdominal) breathing consisting of the outward movement of the
abdomen

diaphragmatic breathing
deep breathing dominated by diaphragm, as during excercise

diffuision
efficiency of diffusion at the blood air barrier

 The partial pressure difference

 The thickness of the blood air barrier
 The surface area
The diffusion of oxygen or carbon dioxide through the blood air barrier occurs
because of a partial pressure difference. The bigger the partial pressure
difference, the better the diffusion. The blood air barrier is normally very thin.
If diseases occur that thicken the barrier, diffusion is impaired. There is
generally tremendous alveolar surface in our lungs. The more surface area, the
better the diffusion. But if surface area is lost, as in collapse of a lung or
emphysema, diffusion is reduced. Solubility of a gas also affects diffusion. The
more soluble a gas, the better the diffusion. That is the reason that carbon
dioxide, with its small partial pressure differences, still diffuses adequately.
Carbon dioxide is much more soluble than oxygen.  The percentage of
nitrogen in the atmosphere would not affect the diffusion of the
blood air barrier.

dyspnea
difficult or labored breathing

elastic recoil
property of the chest wall and lungs that causes EXHALATION

emphysema
occurs due to the destruction of alveolar surfaces and inadequate surface area for oxygen and carbon
dioxide exchange.
produces abnormally large air spaces that remain filled with air during exhalation

epiglottis
a large, leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium; moves
down and forms a lid over the glottis, the opening into the trachea

eupnea
the normal pattern of quiet breathing

expiratory reserve volume

the extra air that is pushed out of the lungs during a forcible exhalation

external nares
the two openings of the nose also called the nostrils

external nose
the portion of the nose visible on the face consisting of a supporting framework of bone
and hyaline cartilage covered with muscle and skin and lined by a mucous membrane

external respiration
the exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary
capillaries across the respiratory membrane; also called pulmonary respiration
External respiration is gas exchange between the air in the alveoli and
the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. This exchange occurs through
the blood air barrier. The blood air barrier is generally very thin, and external
respiration happens very efficiently.

Emphysema
A form of COPD, a condition that limits the flow of air when you breathe out. It occurs
when the air sacs at the ends of your smallest air passages (bronchioles) are gradually
destroyed. Smoking is the leading cause.

epiglottis
elastic cartilage that seals off the larynx from food and liquids
flap of cartilage that covers the larynx  while swallowing

eupnea
normal, quiet, breathing; active inhalation, passive exhalation

exhalation
breathing, or ventilating, air out of lungs;
aka expiration

expiratory reserve volume

amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation
 
• The volume of air that can be inspired over and above resting tidal
volume

expiration
Increase in intrapulmonary pressure
An increase in intrapulmonary pressure occurs during expiration. This
phase of VENTILATION is also known as exhalation. The contraction of the
internal intercostals and the relaxation of the diaphragm have the combined
effect of decreasing lung volume, which automatically increases pressure
inside the lungs. With this higher pressure inside the lungs, air will flow down
this gradient from the inside to the outside during exhalation.

external nares
two openings of the nose; aka nostrils

external respiration
exchanging O2 and CO2 with environment;
occurs in lungs
during external respiration Gas exchange between the air in the alveoli and the
pulmonary capillary blood

epistaxis?
nosebleed

exudate?
a collection of fluid in a cavity or space

fauces
the opening from the mouth into the oropharynx

fluid in the pleural cavity 

The purpose of the fluid in the pleural cavity is to reduce friction between
the parietal and the visceral pleurae. The visceral pleura is a serous
membrane that covers the surface of the lungs, while the parietal pleura covers
the inner surface of the thoracic cavity. The fluid that is in between the layers
of the pleurae enables the lungs and heart volumes to expand and contract
without causing mechanical damage

functional residual capacity

the sum of residual volume and expiratory reserve volume
• the air remaining at the end of normal expiration

glottis
consists of a pair of vocal folds (true vocal cords) and the space between them (rima glottidis)
gap between the vocal cords

kussmaul respirations?
deep, rapid respirations characteristic of acidosis

hard plate
 form(s) the floor of the nasal cavity

Henry's law
Henry’s law states at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in
solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.
Henry’s law defines the relation between partial pressure of a gas and its
solubility. When gas under pressure contacts a liquid, the pressure of that gas
forces gas molecules into solution. At a given pressure, the number of
dissolved gas molecules rises until equilibrium is established. If partial
pressure rises, more gas molecules go into solution. If the partial pressure
decreases, gas molecules come out of solution. This is the rationale for oxygen
therapy with higher partial pressures of oxygen, if the goal is more oxygen in
the blood.
 the amount of a gas in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure
of that gas

states that the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas and its solubility

hemoglobin
protein complex in erythrocytes that reversibly binds oxygen

Factors that affect the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin our blood pH temperature and levels of BPG which is a
product of RBC metabolism. all affect the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin 

Ph: When the blood pH decrease is below normal range, more oxygen is released; the oxygen hemoglobin
saturation curve shifts to the right when the pH increases less oxygen is released and the curve shifts left

Temperature: When the temperature increases more oxygen is released the right hemoglobin saturation
curve shifts to the right when the temperature decreases the curve shifts the the left. 

An increase in arterial PCO2 Stimulates chemoreceptors that accelerate breathing cycles at the inspiratory center.
This change increases the respiratory rate, encourages CO2 loss at the lungs, and decreases arterial PCO2.

A decrease in arterial PC02 inhibits these chemoreceptors. Without stimulation, the rate of respiration decreases
slowing the rate of CO2 loss of the lungs and increasing the arterial PCO2. 

According to Henry’s law increasing the pressure drives gas molecules into solution until equilibrium is established
Example soda is put into the canned under pressure and the gas carbon dioxide is in solution at equalLibrium

When the gas pressure decreases dissolved gas molecules leave a solution until a new equilibrium is reached 
example 
Opening the can of soda relieves the pressure and bubbles form as the dissolved gas leave the solution

 Heme is the portion of the hemoglobin molecule that binds oxygen via an iron
atom. Once bound, this form of hemoglobin is known as oxyhemoglobin and is
transported in the bloodstream by way of the red blood cells. After the oxygen
is delivered to the tissues, it binds carbon dioxide to form
carbaminohemoglobin, which is then transported to the lungs for disposal.
hilum
the region of the mediastinal surface through which bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves enter and exit the lungs
notch where each bronchus, blood vessels and nerves enter the lung

hypercapnia
a rise in carbon dioxide levels in the blood which triggers respiration
an increase in P-CO2 of arterial blood; also called hypercarbia

hyperpnea
abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing

hyperventilation
increased amount of air entering the alveoli
rapid and deep breathing that allows the inhalation of more oxygen gas and the exhalation of
more carbon dioxide until P-CO2 and H+ are lowered to normal

hypocapnia
an increase in oxygen and a decrease in carbon dioxide in the blood

the condition where arterial P-CO2 is lower than 40 mmHg; also called hypocarbia

hypopnea
decrease in the rate and depth of respiration

hypoxemia
lower than normal oxygen in arterial blood

hypoxia
lower than normal oxygen level in tissues
a deficiency of oxygen gas at the tissue level

inhalation
breathing, or ventilating, air into lungs;
aka inspiration

internal respiration,
the exchange of the respiratory gases takes place between the systemic
capillaries and the interstitial fluid that surrounds the cells
During internal respiration, the exchange of the respiratory gases takes place
between the systemic capillaries and the interstitial fluid that surrounds the
cells. This exchange takes place in capillary beds in each tissue across the
vessel membrane. Because capillaries have the thinnest vessel wall structure,
containing only one layer, diffusion of gases can take place. Oxygen flows
down a concentration gradient into the cells while carbon dioxide flows out of
the cells and into the capillary for further transport in the venous system.
 

Intrapleural Pressure
Pip. Pressure in the pleural cavity. Fluctuates with breathing.
What is Intraplueral Pressure always?
Negative pressure - always less than intrapulmonary and atmospheric pressure (<Patm
and <Ppul).

Inspiration
pulling air into the lungs via contraction of the diaphragm and expansion of the chest cavity
Gases flow into the lungs.
An active processes. Inspiratory muscles contract. Thoracic volume increases. Lungs
are stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases. Intrapulmonary pressure drops. Air
flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradiant until Ppul = Patm.
What are the Inspiratory muscles?
Diaphragm, external intercostals.
What does Intrapulmonary pressure drop too during Inspiration?
- 1 mm Hg.

inspiratory capacity
Tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume

inspiratory reserve volume

amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

increased intrapulomary [pressure

expiration/exhaling
decreased lung volume

integrated response
Baroreceptors in the lungs increase heart rate.
Chemoreceptors cause blood pressure to rise.
Increased lung perfusion improves gas exchange.
There is coordinated functioning between the respiratory system and the
cardiovascular system. The supply of oxygen to the body depends on both
systems. If the baroreceptors (stretch receptors) in the lungs are stimulated,
the heart rate increases, cardiac output rises, and more blood flows through
the pulmonary capillaries. This improves gas exchange. Chemoreceptor
stimulation causes blood pressure to rise, to send more blood to the lungs.
Increased perfusion of the lungs improves gas exchange. However, increased
blood pressure detected by the cardiovascular baroreceptors
causes decreased respiratory rate and depth.

internal respiration
exchanging O2 and CO2 between SYSTEMIC  blood & cells / interstitial fluid;
occurs in body
During internal respiration, the exchange of the respiratory gases takes place
between the systemic capillaries and the interstitial fluid that
surrounds the cells. This exchange takes place in capillary beds in each
tissue across the vessel membrane. Because capillaries have the thinnest
vessel wall structure, containing only one layer, diffusion of gases can take
place. Oxygen flows down a concentration gradient into the cells while carbon
dioxide flows out of the cells and into the capillary for further transport in the
venous system.

Kussmaul respirations
rapid, deep respirations as in diabetic ketoacidosis

laryngeal pharynx
section that opens into the larynx in front and esophagus posteriorally

Laryngitis
Any acute inflamation of the upper respiratory tract; complications are hoarseness
(aphonia) with dyspenia due to laryngeal edema.

laryngopharynx
inferior portion of the pharynx superior to the larynx. Lies posterior to the upright epiglottis.
Serves as a common passageway for food and air.

larynx
voice box
cartilaginous structure at the top of the trachea; aka voice box. Attaches to the hyoid bond,
continuous with the trachea posteriorly.
To provide a patent airway, to route air and food into the proper chanels, to function in voice
production.
the vocal folds of the larynx produce sound

larynx cartilage
3 of them: thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis
left lung
has 2 lobes;
has cardiac notch

lobar pneumonia
the entire lobe of the lung is infected at one time

lower respiratory system

The lower respiratory system (in order from most superior) larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli

lungs
located in pleural cavity; base on diaphragm; mediastinum between the 2 lungs

meatus
a groove-like passageway found on the side of the nasal cavity, formed by the nasal
conchae

mediastinal surface
contains the hilum through which bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
and nerves enter and exit the lungs; also called the medial surface
medullary rhythmicity area
the neurons of the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata that control the basic
rhythm of respiration
minute ventilation
the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute; equal to respiratory rate
multiplied by tidal volume

mediastinum
the space between the lungs where the heart and great vessels are located

medulla oblongata
brainstem region that controls most of respiratory functioning

mucus
traps particles in mucus before they reach delicate alveoli; also warms and mositens air;
from cells and glands

nasal cavity
either of the two cavities lying between the floor of the cranium and the roof of the
mouth and extending from the nose to the pharynx

nasal cavity filtration

swirls air to trap particles in mucus;
also warms and mositens air

nasal vestibule
the anterior portion of the nasal cavity just inside the nostrils that is surrounded by
cartilage

nasal septum
a vertical partition that divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides

nasopharynx
the superior portion of the pharynx extends to the soft palate
Strictly an air passageway. Closes during swallowing to prevent food from entering the nasal
cavity.
superior part of the pharynx directly behind the nasal passages. Lies posterior to the nasal
cavity.
opening of the distal auditory tube located in the nasopharynx
it is the part of the pharynx that is the most superior
accessory organ is in the Nasopharynx:
The Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) that lie high on the posterior wall.

Nitrogen
highest partial pressure in the air we breathe

nitrogen narcosis
excessive amounts of dissolved nitrogen that produce giddiness and other symptoms
similar to alcohol intoxication; also called the "rapture of the deep"
olfactory epithelium
a region of the membrane lining the superior nasal conchae and septum which contains
receptors for the sense of smell
olfactory region
olfactory region of the nasal cavity includes 
• inferior surface of the cribriform plate
• superior portion of the nasal septum
• superior nasal concha

oropharynx
the intermediate pharynx, lying posterior to the oral cavity and extending from the soft
palate inferiorly to the hyoid bone
oxygenated blood
blood that is saturated with oxygen gas
oxyhemoglobin
the binding of oxygen and hemoglobin
oropharynx
the intermediate pharynx, lying posterior to the oral cavity and extending from the soft palate
inferiorly to the hyoid bone

middle section located posterior to the mouth

cavity formed by the pharynx at the back of the mouth Extends inferiorly from the level of
the soft palate to the epiglottis.
accessory organs are in the Oropharynx:
The Palatine tonsils that lie in the lateral walls of the fauces (latin for throat), and the
Lingual tonsils that covers the base of the tongue.

orthopnea
difficult breathing resolved by sitting upright

oxygen saturation rate of hemoglobin

 Blood pH
 Temperature
 Products of RBC metabolism

With an increase in skeletal muscle activity and an increase in body

temperature, you should expect to see a decrease in the percentage of
oxyhemoglobin saturation in the tissues
Factors that affect the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin our blood pH temperature and levels of BPG which is a
product of RBC metabolism. all affect the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin 

Ph:
When the blood pH decrease is below normal range, more oxygen is released; the oxygen hemoglobin saturation
curve shifts to the right when the pH increases less oxygen is released and the curve shifts left

Temperature:
When the temperature increases more oxygen is released the right hemoglobin saturation curve shifts to the right
when the temperature decreases the curve shifts the the left. 
Increased skeletal muscle activity is very expensive in terms of oxygen usage
because skeletal muscle makes up a large portion of the solid mass of the body.
Any increase in activity consumes enough oxygen to alter the percentage of
oxyhemoglobin saturation. An increase in body temperature similarly affects
all tissues of the body by speeding up their metabolic activities.

oxyhemoglobin

When each hemoglobin molecule binds with four molecules of oxygen, the end
product is oxyhemoglobin. Each heme subunit contains an iron atom,
which directly binds to an oxygen molecule. As each additional heme binds an
oxygen molecule, it becomes easier for successive binding to occur. This in
turn makes it easier to load each molecule of hemoglobin to maximum
capacity. As pH changes in the blood to a more acidic range, it becomes easier
to unload oxygen into the tissues and to take up carbon dioxide.
oxygen is usually Bound to heme in hemoglobin

 oxygen satursation rate of hemeoglobin effected by Blood pH

Products of RBC metabolism
Temperature

paranasal sinuses
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary
paranasal sinuses are hollow spaces that are lined by a mucosal epithelium in
the skull bones. The secretions from these surfaces along the inner wall of the
paranasal sinuses help keep the nasal cavity moist and help maintain their
integrity.
moisten nasal cavity
help lessen the weight of the head
resonating chambers for voice production.

parasympathetic
The parasympathetic division of the ANS causes contraction;
of airways’ smooth muscle; therefore, resistance is increased.

The parasympathetic division of the ANS causes contraction of airways'

smooth muscle and airway constriction of airways’ smooth muscle; therefore,
resistance is increased. The parasympathetic division of the ANS
predominates during states of relaxation. Under these conditions, oxygen
demands are relatively low compared to the demands during more physically
stressful situations. Since these demands are lower, there is no need for higher
oxygen intakes, and the bronchioles constrict under the influence of the
parasympathetic division. This constriction increases resistance.

parietal pleura
faces "outside" or the chest wall, portion attached to the chest wall
The parietal pleura is attached to the inner thoracic body wall, mediastinum, and
superior surface of the diaphragm
The parietal pleura is attached to the inner thoracic body wall,
mediastinum, and superior surface of the diaphragm. The parietal
pleura is a serous membrane that, together with the visceral pleura, contains
the pleural fluid within the thoracic cavity. The visceral pleura covers the
surface of the lungs. These membranes along with the pleural fluid protect the
delicate organ tissues underneath from mechanical damage. The thoracic
cavity is a crowded space, housing the heart, the lungs, the esophagus, and
major blood vessels and nerves. These pleurae protect the organs undergoing
the most movement—the heart and the lungs—from damage to their tissues
from friction between their surfaces.

partial pressures
much each gas contributes to the total atmospheric pressure, which is 760 mmHg;
concentration of a molecule in a gas

What is the partial pressure difference for oxygen between the lungs and
tissues versus the partial pressure differences for carbon dioxide?Answer:
Oxygen is twelve to fifteen times greater than carbon dioxide

If oxygen makes up 20.9% of air and the atmospheric pressure is 751 mm Hg,
what is the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere?
751 × 0.209 = 156.959
approximately 157 mm Hg.

Dalton’s Law states that in a mixture of gases, the total pressure is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of the gases. Each gas contributes part of the total
pressure in proportion to the percentage of that gas in the mixture. Because
oxygen is 20.9 percent of the air, to calculate the pO 2, multiply 0.209 times
the atmospheric pressure. Thus, for an atmospheric pressure of 751 mm Hg,
751 × 0.209 = 156.959 or approximately 157 mm Hg.
peripheral chemoreceptors
neurons located in the aortic and carotid bodies that are sensitive to changes in P-O2,
H+, and P-CO2 in the blood

pharynx
throat throatcommon passageway for food, liquids, and air; aka throat.
a funnel-shaped tube that starts at the internal nares and extends to the cricoid cartilage of the
inferior larynx; also called the throat

pitch
one adjust the pitch of the sound the larynx produces by Increasing or
decreasing the tension on the vocal folds

pleural cavity
a small space between the visceral and parietal pleura which contains a small amount
of lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes
pleural effusion
excess accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity due to long-term inflammation
pleural membrane
double-layered serous membrane that encloses and protects each lung
pleuritis
inflammation of the pleural membrane that causes pain in its early stages due to friction
between the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura
The purpose of the fluid in the pleural cavity is to reduce friction between the
parietal and the visceral pleurae

pleura
a continuous double sac covering each lung; protective serous membrane lining around
lungs

pleural fluid
lubricates the space between the pleura

pulmonary function tests

measure rates and volumes of air movements

pneumocytes type I
simple squamous epithelial cells  in the alveoli 

pneumocytes type II
also known as type II alveolar cells, produce surfactant, which contains
phospholipids and proteins. Surfactant is secreted into the thin layer of water
that lines all alveoli. The water molecules in this thin layer are attracted to
each other and create surface tension, which draws the water molecules closer
to each other. The surface tension would make the alveoli smaller
and cause them to collapse upon exhalation. Surfactant reduces this
surface tension and stabilizes the alveoli, so they don’t collapse. It also
improves compliance of the lung.

pneumonia
inflammation of the lungs in which the air spaces are filled with fluid (exudate)
is infection of the lower respiratory tract caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa,
parasites.

pneumothorax is the presence of :

air in the pleural space caused by rupture in the visceral pleura, parietal pleura, and
chest wall.
pneumothorax
a collection of air within the pleural space
pneumotaxic area
a part of the respiratory center in the pons that continually sends inhibitory nerve
impulses to the inspiratory area, limiting inhalation and facilitating exhalation
primary bronchus
a pair of branches of the trachea that lead to the right and left lung; consist of
incomplete rings of cartilage and are lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
pulmonary edema
an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces and alveoli of the lungs
pulmonary ventilation
the inhalation and exhalation of air that involves the exchange of air between the
atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs; also called breathing

PO2
When PO2 is 100 mm Hg in pulmonary veins, hemoglogin is __97.5____
percent saturated with oxygen, whereas when the PO 2 is 40 mm Hg in
pulmonary arteries, hemoglogin is ____75__ percent saturated with oxygen.
The PO2 in the blood that travels through a pulmonary vein and enters the left
side of the heart is approximately __100 mm Hg________.
A rise in arterial PCO2 elevates carbon dioxide levels in the cerebrospinal fluid
and stimulates the chemoreceptive neurons of the medulla to produc
an increase in rate and depth of breathing

A rise in arterial PCO2 elevates carbon dioxide levels in the cerebrospinal fluid

and stimulates the chemoreceptive neurons of the medulla to produce an
increase in rate and depth of breathing. The rise in arterial carbon dioxide
signals the brain stem neurons that oxygen levels are decreasing. The negative
feedback loop in the central nervous system then activates neurons in the DRG
to increase the rate and depth of breathing, thereby increasing oxygen levels.
 

polyp
a protruding growth, often grape-like from mucous membranes

air separates visceral and parietal pleura->

- negative pressure of the pleural space is destroyed.
-equilibrium between the elastic recoil forces of the lung and chest wall are destroyed
lung will recoil towards the hilm

primary chemoreceptors
located in brain
tell us to take a deep breath, when there is an increase of CO2 in blood triggers
chemoreceptors to contract

for people with chronic respiratory acidosis (people with COPD) kills off the primary
chemoreceptors in the head (primary chemoreceptor doesn't respond). we have
secondary chemoreceptors located outside of the brain, in the carotid bodies outside of
aorta. very sensitive to levels of oxygen in blood. hypoxemia becomes the trigger for the
secondary chemoreceptors
respond more to levels of oxygen
primary emphysema, which is rase, is linked to the inherited deficiency of:
antitrypsin, which inhibits action of many proteolytic enzymes.
suggested in those who get emphysema before 40, and in non-smokers
primary pulmonary hypertension is considered an idiopathic disorder characerized by:
endothelial dystfunction with overproduction of vasoconstrictors, and decreased
production of vasodilation.

vascular growth factors cause changes of the smooth wall called REMODELING.
angiotension II, NO play a role in remodeling.
pulmonary edema can ALSO be caused by:
-capillary injury that increases capillary permeability, as with acute respiratory distress
syndrom, or inhalation of toxic gases, like ammonia.
-obstruction of lympathic system: drainage can be blocked by compression of lymphatic
vessels by edema, tumors, fibrotic tissue, and increased systemic venous pressure

Pulmonary hypertension
is characterized by pathologic changes in precapillary pulmonary arteries.

-fibrosis, and thickening of the vessel wall with luminal narrowing and abnormal
vasoconstriction, these cause resistance to pulmonary artery flow, increasing the
pressure in the pulmonary arteries.

manifestations include: peripheral edema, jugular distension, accentuation of pulmonary

component of heart sound.

Pulmonary Ventilation
Mechanical processes that depend on volume changes in the thoracic cavity.
The primary function of pulmonary ventilation is to maintain adequate
alveolar ventilation.
Pulmonary ventilation is the pumping of air into and out of the lungs. This
pumping is created by cyclical contraction and expansion of lung volume,
which creates a transient pressure gradient. This gradient forces air to flow
from areas of greater pressure to areas of smaller pressure. On inhalation, a
transient partial vacuum is created inside the lungs, which forces air inside.
On exhalation, the pressure becomes greater inside the lungs compared to the
atmospheric pressure, so air rushes out. This cyclical activity ensures that the
alveoli are always exposed to fresh air and therefore extract oxygen for use by
all the tissues.

pulses paradoxes
is an exaggeration of the normal variation during the inspiratory phase of respiration, in
which the blood pressure declines as one inhales and increases as one exhales.

pulsus paradoxus
occurs during severe asthma attacks
is a decrease in systolic BP during inspiration of more that 10 mm Hg, or a pulse that is
weaker during inhalation and stronger during exhalation
Quiet Breathing
During quiet breathing, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
contract. This has the effect of increasing the volume and decreasing
the pressure of the thoracic cavity. This increase causes a partial vacuum
inside the lungs and creates a negative pressure gradient in which air will flow
inside the lungs from the outside. This part of ventilation corresponds to
inhalation. The air making its way into the lungs is then used to supply oxygen
to the venous blood coming from the right side of the heart.

During quiet breathing, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

contract. What effect does this have on the thoracic cavity?

RBCs
• Red blood cells generate BPG, which has a direct effect on the binding and release of
oxygen by hemoglobin.
• Red blood cells lack mitochondria.
• Red blood cells only produce ATP by glycolysis which results in lactate formation.
• 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) is found in normal red blood cells and has an important
role in helping deliver oxygen to tissues. BPG levels decrease as red blood cells age, so
blood banks can only store fresh whole blood for transfusions for a limited time. Blood
that has low BPG will no longer release oxygen to peripheral tissues.

Residual volume
volume of air that remains in the lungs after MAXIMAL expiration. 
remaining volume of air HELPS PREVENT TOTAL COLLAPSE of ALVEOLI.
Along w/ surfactant, the residual volume helps ensure that the ALVEOLI.will
REMAIN INFLATED.
If this were not the case, the body would need to expend much more energy to
continually reinflate the lungs, which would not be efficient.
Especially during fight-or-flight responses, this need for continual reinflation
would put the person in danger of not getting enough oxygen when oxygen is
most critical.
Residual volume is not the air remaining at the end of normal expiration.. This
is Functional Residual Capacity.
 
The volume of air that can be inspired over and above resting tidal volume is
expiratory reserve.
 
The volume of air that is inspired and expired during one breath is tidal
volume.

respiration
gas exchange across the respiratory epithelium into and out of body; from respiratory
brochioles and to alveoli;
also, 1 inhalation & 1 exhalation is a respiration

respiratory defense
1. mucous cells and glands
2. cilia (mucus escalator)
3. nasal cavity filtration
4. alveolar macrophages

respiratory minute volume

tidal volume X  respiratory rate
The respiratory minute volume (VE) is the amount of air moved by the lungs
each minute. It is calculated by multiplying the tidal volume (volume in each
breath) by the respiratory rate (number of breaths per minute). In this
problem, the tidal volume is 500 mL and the respiratory rate is 10 breaths per
minute so VE = 10 breathes per minute x 500 mL per breath = 5000 mL ,or 5
L per minute.
If the respiratory rate is 10 breaths per minute and the tidal volume is 500
mL, what is the respiratory minute volume (V E)?
5 L per minute

respiratory portion
respiratory bronchioles to alveoli

respiratory rate
breaths per minute

right lung
has 3 lobes;
larger

residual volume
air that remains in the lungs, even after the expiratory reserve volume is exhaled;
cannot be measured by spirometry
•
that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration

Residual volume is the volume of air that remains in the lungs after

MAXIMAL expiration. This remaining volume of air helps prevent total
collapse of the alveoli. Along with surfactant, the residual volume helps ensure
that the alveoli will remain inflated. If this were not the case, the body would
need to expend much more energy to continually reinflate the lungs, which
would not be efficient. Especially during fight-or-flight responses, this need
for continual reinflation would put the person in danger of not getting enough
oxygen when oxygen is most critical.

Residual volume is a factor that determines vital capacity.

respiration
the general process of gas exchange in the body

respiratory bronchiole
branches of the terminal bronchioles that subdivide into several alveolar ducts

respiratory center
neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brain that regulate the rate and depth
of pulmonary ventilation

respiratory membrane
the combined alveolar and capillary walls where gas exchange between the air spaces
in the lungs and blood takes place
respiratory system
consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

The respiratory minute volume (VE) is the amount of air moved by the lungs
each minute. It is calculated by multiplying the tidal volume (volume in each
breath) by the respiratory rate (number of breaths per minute). In this
problem, the tidal volume is 500 mL and the respiratory rate is 10 breaths per
minute so VE = 10 breathes per minute x 500 mL per breath = 5000 mL ,or 5
L per minute.

respiratory system
the respiratory system and the respiratory portion of the respiratory system
does gas exchange.
the respiratory portion does gas exchange. The respiratory portion has
millions of alveoli, with a surface area of between 70 m2 and 140 m2. The
distance between the pulmonary capillary blood and the air (the blood air
barrier) in the alveoli can be as little as 1 micron. The respiratory portion is
perfectly suited for putting oxygen in the blood and removing carbon dioxide
from the blood.

respiratory zone
consists of tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs, including the
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli

Rhinitis
an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nose (usually associated with nasal
discharge)

Sinusitis
An inflammation of the mucous membranes of one or more of the sinuses. Swelling can
obstruct the flow of secretions from the sinuses, which may then become infected. The
disorder often follows rhinitis. Other conditions leading to sinusitis include deviated
nasal septum, nasal polyps or tumors, inhaled air pollutants or cocaine, facial trauma,
nasal intubation, dental infection, or decreased immune function.

shallow breathing
dominated by rib cage movements, as in hyperventilation

surfactant
the substance that reduces surface tension in the air sacs called

keeps the alveolar surface lubricated so it can inflate & deflate without sticking
a substance produced in the alveolar wall cells that reduce the surface tension (pull) of
the fluids that line the alveoli

secondary bronchi
branches of the primary bronchi that lead to each lobe of the lung; also called lobar
bronchi

soft palate
the posterior portion of the roof of the mouth; arch-shaped muscular partition between
the nasopharynx and oropharynx

spirogram
the record of air volume and respiratory rate measured by the spirometer

spirometer
the apparatus commonly used to measure the volume of air exchanged during
breathing and the respiratory rate

surface tension
arises at all air-water interfaces due to the polar water molecules being more strongly
attracted to each other than they are to the gas molecules in the air

surfactant
a complex mixture of phospholipids and proteins found in the alveolar fluid; lowers the
surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse

sympathetic division
Under the influence of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system, the diameter of the trachea increases.This increase is an effort to get
more air into the lungs so that more oxygen can be supplied to skeletal
muscles during the fight-or-flight response. The decrease in the diameter of
the trachea occurs under the influence of the parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system.
 
tachypnea
excessively fast rate of breathing

thyroid cartilage
forms much of the larynx; also forms the "Adam's apple"
thyroid cartilage 
shield-shaped cartilage of the larynx.
covers the superior and the anterior aspects of the trachea.
The cricoid cartilage is immediately below thyroid cartilage 
and cricoid cartilage is at the same level as the thyroid gland. These C-
shaped cartilages protect the anterior aspect of the trachea while allowing for
distention of the trachea along the posterior aspect due to changes in the
esophagus.

thoracentesis
the process called in which fluid is withdrawn from in between the pleural layers

tidal volume
volume of air moved per regular (eupnea) breath tidal volume
the amount of air moved into or out of the lungs

Total lung capacity

the total volume of the lungs and is calculated by adding the vital capacity
and the residual volume. The total lung capacity is around 6000 mL in
males and 4200 mL in females
vital capacity + the residual volume
trachea
windpipe
membranous tube held open (patent) by cartilage rings that carries inhaled air from the
larynx to the bronchi; aka windpipe
c - shaped cartilage rings keep it open
The tracheal cartilage is composed of hyaline cartilage
Because of their shape, the tracheal cartilages enable the trachea to distort and
expand when the person is swallowing food.

The trachea contains 15 to 20 C-shaped cartilage rings. They stiffen the wall of
the trachea to protect the airway to keep it open. They prevent it from
collapsing or overexpanding during pressure changes of breathing. The open
end of the “C” has a band of smooth muscle connected to each end of the C,
and this muscle is autonomically controlled to change its diameter. The open
end of the C faces the esophagus. This allows the trachea to distort its shape
when swallowing food to allow the food to pass easily through the esophagus.  

Transpulmonary Pressure
Difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures (Ppul - Pip). Keeps
the airways open.
type II pneumocyte
cell that secrete surfactant;
aka septal cells

type I pneumocyte
epithelial cell that acually make up the alveoli;
aka alveolar epithelial cells

Tuberculosis
A disease affecting the lungs caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and spread
airborne. Tuberculosis is spread by respiratory droplets inhaled into the lungs of a
person. In 1900 it was the #1 killer (formerly called consumption). You must wear an N-
95 Particulate Air Filtration Mask to enter this patient's room and they must be admitted
to a negative air pressure room.

ventilation
movement of air in & out of lungs; caused by lung volume changes that create pressure
changes;
aka pulmonary ventilation

ventilation
moving air; from nasal cavity/nouth to terminal bronchioles

vestibular folds
The difference between the vestibular folds and the vocal folds in the larynx is
that the vestibular folds play no part in sound production

visceral pleura
portion attached to the surface of the lung
layer of pleura that faces/covers the lung

vital capacity
maximum volume of air that one can inhale and exhale; inspiratory reserve volume +
tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume

vocal cords
folds of mucous membrane located at the sides of the upper portion of the larynx

upper respiratory system

includes only the nose, pharynx, and associated structures
terminal bronchioles
branches of the bronchioles

tertiary bronchi
branches of the secondary bronchi that divide into bronchioles; also called segmental
bronchi

thyroid cartilage
two fused plates of hyaline cartilage that forms the anterior wall of the larynx; also called
the Adam's apple

tidal volume
the volume of one breath, The volume of air that is inspired and expired during
one breath is tidal volume

total lung capacity

the sum of vital capacity and residual volume

trachea
a tubular passageway for air that is anterior to the esophagus and extends from the
larynx to the left and right primary bronchi; also called the windpipe

tuberculosis
an infectious, communicable disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium
tuberculosis that most often affects the lungs and pleurae

type I alveolar cell

simple squamous epithelial cell that forms a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall;
the main sites of gas exchange

type II alveolar cell

cuboidal epithelial cells that secrete alveolar fluid; also called septal cells
upper respiratory system
Pneumocytes type II, also known as type II alveolar cells, produce surfactant,
which contains phospholipids and proteins. Surfactant is secreted into the
thin layer of water that lines all alveoli. The water molecules in this thin layer
are attracted to each other and create SURFACE TENSION, which draws the
water molecules closer to each other. The surface tension would make
the alveoli smaller and cause them to collapse upon exhalation
without the type II alveolar cells. Surfactant reduces this surface tension and
stabilizes the alveoli, so they don’t collapse. It also improves compliance of the
lung.

includes only the nose, pharynx, and associated structures

ventilation perfusing coupling
the phenomenon where blood flow to each area of the lungs matches the extent of
airflow to alveoli in that area

ventricular folds
superior mucous membrane folds of the larynx; also called the false vocal cords
visceral pleura
deep layer of membrane that covers the lungs themselves

vital capacity
maximum amount of air moved in and out during a single breath

the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
This is the total volume of air moved in and out of the lungs that will be used
for gas exchange during a single respiratory cycle. This total volume will be
used for oxygen extraction by all the tissues of the body and will also be used
to remove carbon dioxide from the body to avoid acidosis. Vital capacity is the
sum of the expiratory reservevolume, the tidal volume, and the inspiratory
reserve volume.

vocal folds
inferior membrane and connective tissue folds of the larynx; also called the true vocal
cords

Dalton’s law 
Each gas in the atmosphere contributes to the total pressure in proportion to
its relative abundance.

Each gas in the atmosphere contributes to the total pressure in proportion to

its relative abundance
Dalton’s law is the law of partial pressures. The partial pressure of a gas is the
pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases.
For example, if the atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg and oxygen
contributes 20.9 percent of the atmosphere, then 20.9% of the 760 mm Hg of
pressure, about 159 mm Hg, is from the oxygen gas. Another way to state
Dalton’s law is all the partial pressures added together equal the total pressure
exerted by each gas in a mixture.
 
Henry’s law

law describes how gas moves in and out of solution?

Henry’s law states at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in

solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.

states at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in solution is

directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas. Henry's law
Henry’s law defines the relation between partial pressure of a gas and its
solubility. When gas under pressure contacts a liquid, the pressure of that gas
forces gas molecules into solution. At a given pressure, the number of
dissolved gas molecules rises until equilibrium is established. If partial
pressure rises, more gas molecules go into solution. If the partial pressure
decreases, gas molecules come out of solution. This is the rationale for oxygen
therapy with higher partial pressures of oxygen, if the goal is more oxygen in
the blood.
 the amount of a gas in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure
of that gas
Henry’s law states at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in
solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.

As the number of molecules of gas dissolved in a liquid increases, the pressure

of the gas increases.This principle is known as Henry’s Law.  This has the same
effect as decreasing the volume of the container of gas.  In both cases, the
collisions between particles increases.  This increased contact between
particles also exerts more force against the inner walls of the container,
increasing pressure.
 
 

Bohr effect
phenomenon where lower pH drives oxygen off hemoglobin, making more oxygen
available for tissue cells; and elevated pH increases the affinity of hemoglobin for
oxygen
The Bohr effect describes how blood pH affects the oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin
Boyles Law
states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure

The relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. P varies inversely with V.
P1V1 = P2V2.

Boyle’s law states that volume of a gas and its pressure are inversely related.

Now let's see what you have learned about gas exchange. I will give you a
question and two possible answers. Then I will pause while you consider the
choices and select your answer. After a few seconds, I will give you the
correct answer with an explanation.

What is the name of the area from the nose to the respiratory bronchioles?
The answer is A) the conducting zone. This is the region through which air
travels to reach the area for gas exchange.

What is the actual site of gas exchange? The answer is: B) the alveoli. The
respiratory bronchioles lead into the alveoli.

What is the name of the surface through which gas is exchanged?The

answer is: B) respiratory epithelium. It consists of alveolar epithelium, a
basement membrane, and endothelium surface.

Which law describes how gas moves in and out of solution?

The answer is B) Henry's Law. Henry's law describes diffusion of gas into and
out of liquids.

Which law states that gas pressure and volume are inversely related?
Answer: Boyle's Law. When pressure increases, gas volume decreases.

What facilitates the flow of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of your
tissues? The answer is: A) pressure gradients. They work for gases like
chemical gradients work for solutes.

At rest, when the diaphragm contracts, does the pressure in the thoracic
cavity A) increase or B) decrease?

The answer is: B) decrease. As the volume expands, the pressure decreases,
and air rushes in to fill the void.

Question 8
Besides the partial pressure of a gas, what other factor determines the
efficiency of gas exchange? Is it A) gas solubility or B) gas density?

The answer is A) gas solubility. The greater the solubility, the faster it goes
into solution.

That's the end of this section.

 blood arriving from the pulmonary arteries

It has a higher PO2 and a lower PCO2 than alveolar air.
Blood arriving from the pulmonary arteries is deoxygenated venous blood
arriving from the heart and entering the lungs. This blood has a lower
PO2 and a higher PCO2 than alveolar air. The PO2 of venous blood is 40
mm Hg compared to 100 mm Hg in the alveoli. The PCO 2 of venous blood is
45 mm Hg compared to 40 mm Hg in alveolar air. The difference in the
pressures is what drives the movement of gases during external respiration

Tidal volume is a factor that determines vital capacity.

 
Alveolar ventilation is a rate, not a volume.
 
Residual volume is a factor that determines vital capacity.

Residual volume is the volume of air that remains in the lungs after

maximal expiration. This remaining volume of air helps prevent total
collapse of the alveoli. Along with surfactant, the residual volume helps ensure
that the alveoli will remain inflated. If this were not the case, the body would
need to expend much more energy to continually reinflate the lungs, which
would not be efficient. Especially during fight-or-flight responses, this need
for continual reinflation would put the person in danger of not getting enough
oxygen when oxygen is most critical.

Now we will do a quick set of review questions on gas exchange. I will give
you a question and then only a couple of seconds to give your answer. After
a brief pause, I will give you the correct answer. Let's start with some true
or false questions.

Greater than 95% of the oxygen exchanged is bound to iron in hemoglobin.

Answer: True
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures explains how gases behave when they are
mixed together.

During normal resting breathing, why do you breathe in? Answer: A)

because the partial pressure in your lungs is lower than outside your body

Which law explains how the air travels through the conducting system?
Boyle's Law

In order for the alveolar sacs to inflate easily, what has to be low?Answer:
surface tension

What is the distance between your alveoli and the blood across the
respiratory membrane?Answer: About half a micrometer

What is the partial pressure difference for oxygen between the lungs and
tissues versus the partial pressure differences for carbon dioxide?Answer:
Oxygen is twelve to fifteen times greater than carbon dioxide

Dalton’s law is the law of partial pressures. The partial pressure of a gas is the
pressure contributed by a single gas in a mixture of gases. For example, if the
atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg and oxygen contributes 20.9 percent of
the atmosphere, then 20.9% of the 760 mm Hg of pressure, about 159 mm Hg,
is from the oxygen gas. Another way to state Dalton’s law is all the partial
pressures added together equal the total pressure exerted by each gas in a
mixture.
 
Henry’s law states at a given temperature, the amount of a particular gas in
solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas.
 
Boyle’s law states that volume of a gas and its pressure are inversely related.
 
The Bohr effect describes how blood pH affects the oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin

The values for breathing while standing up vs. breathing after performing an activity differs in
that the breathing rate in a state of rest is lower than the breathing rate
during activity. During activity, the muscles require energy and
therefore more oxygen. To achieve this, the respiratory rate increases
along with the heart rate to deliver more oxygen to the cells. The
carbon dioxide waste is formed at a faster rate, there for increasing the
respiratory rate to expel it during exhalation.