Genetics

Chromosomes

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Chromosomes

In a Prokaryote there is one chromosome. It is a circular DNA molecule which is naked i.e. it is not
associated with proteins. Some prokaryotes have plasmids which are smaller loops of DNA. Plasmid
DNA is not required by the cell in normal conditions. Plasmids help the cell to adapt in unusual
circumstances. They are found in bacteria.

Prokaryotic Chromosomes Eukaryotic Chromosomes

(Asexual Reproduction by Binary (Sexual Reproduction)
Fission)
Circular DNA Linear DNA
DNA

PROTEINS Naked – no histone proteins Associated with histone proteins

PLASMIDS Plasmids often present No Plasmids

CHROMOSOME One chromosome Two or more different chromosomes

S

Chromosomes are the most important structures in a cell during division. They are responsible for
the transmission of hereditary information from one generation to the next. This happens because
they contain the DNA molecule.

Cell --- Nucleus --- Chromatin Network --- Chromosomes ---- DNA molecule ---- genes (genes
determine characteristics of living organisms)

Each chromosome has two parts referred to as chromatids. Chromatids are identical to each other.
The chromatids are held together at a point called the centromere. It occurs anywhere along the
length of the chromosome.

DNA Molecule:

1
 Duplicated Chromosome:

Duplicated Homologous Chromosomes

Diploid and Haploid

The nucleus of a diploid cell has got a nucleus in which the chromosomes can be organized into pairs
of homologous chromosomes. Cells of the human body are diploid as they have 23 chromosomes
from the mother and 23 chromosomes from the father. Diploid cells are represented as 2n. In
Humans 2n = 46. In animals showing sexual reproduction it is the general rule that the body cells are
diploid.

The nucleus of a haploid cell has got a nucleus in which the chromosomes cannot be organized into
pairs of homologous chromosomes. Sex cells (gametes) in humans are haploid as they have only 23
chromosomes. Haploid cells are represented as n. In Humans n = 23. In animals showing sexual
reproduction it is the general rule that the sex cells (sperm and egg) are haploid. When sperm (n)
and egg (n) fuse to form the zygote (2n) the diploid number is regained.

Remember:

Diploid individual produces haploid gametes. Haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid individual.

2
Chromosome number
The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of a member in a species. Usually this
number is the diploid number i.e. the number of chromosomes present in normal body cells. The
diploid number varies considerably from species to species. In humans the chromosome number is
46 (2n = 46). In C elegans 2n=6. Generally speaking the chromosome number is a characteristic
feature of the species.

There are exceptions to this rule. For example some humans have 45 or 47 chromosomes in their
body cells. These are however exceptions. Other cells like the mature RBC’s do not have a nucleus
and therefore no chromosomes.

Reproduction in Humans

Humans reproduction is Sexual Reproduction. Males produce the male gamete or the sperm
(haploid with n chromosomes) and females produce the female gamete or the egg (haploid with n
chromosomes). Fusion of the male (sperm) and female gamete (egg) produces a single celled zygote
(diploid with 2n chromosomes). The zygote produced has unique DNA as it is a combination of the
DNA from the sperm and the egg.

Sperm Cell:

Egg Cell:

3
Sex Determination in Humans:

The 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans are the sex chromosomes. These determine whether the
individual is male or female. The two chromosomes unlike the other 22 pairs (autosomes) do not
look alike. The X chromosome is longer and contains many more genes. Females have two X
chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome in somatic cells. Gametes in females
have one X chromosome. In males the sperms are of two types and contain either the X or the Y
chromosome. During fertilization if an X sperm fuses with the egg a female zygote is produced and if
a Y sperm fuses with the egg a male zygote is produced. There is a 50% chance of a male and a 50%
chance of a female child being produced. This chance does not change with the number of children
already produced and is valid each time a child is produced.

Punnet Square Method

Parent: Male (XY). Female (XX)

Gametes: X. Y. X. X

Offspring:

PARENTS X Y

X XX (25% CHANCE) XY (25% CHANCE)

X XX (25% CHANCE) XY (25% CHANCE)

4
From the above it is clear that there is a 50% chance of a boy child and a 50% chance of a girl child
being produced.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

 Occurs in somatic (body) cells  Occurs in gametes (sex cells)

 Required for growth, repair,
replacement
 Each daughter cell formed has the
same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
 Two daughter cells are produced from
one parent cell
 Required for maintaining chromosome
number and promoting variation
 Each daughter cell has half the number
of chromosomes as the parent cell
 Four daughter cells are produced from
one parent cell.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

Sexual Reproduction
 Meiosis occurs in all organisms carrying out sexual reproduction
 During fertilization a haploid male gamete fuses with a haploid egg to form a diploid zygote.
 Meiosis ensures reproduction from diploid to haploid during gamete formation. If this did
not occur successive sexually reproduced organisms would have their chromosome number
doubled.
 Fertilization is a random process and promotes genetic variation. A man can produce sperms
that have numerous variations of half his DNA. A woman too can produce an egg that has one
of many combinations of half her DNA. Any one sperm will randomly fuse with the egg resulting
in variation.

Variation
 Meiosis allows new combinations of genes to occur in gametes. This leads to genetic
variation in the offspring.

5
PLACENTA:
u The wall of the placenta separates the mother’s blood from the foetus blood.
u The foetus takes oxygen and nutrients through the placenta.
u Waste products like carbon dioxide and urea pass across the placenta to mother’s blood for
the process of excretion.
u The placenta is attached to the developing foetus through the umbilical cord.
u If the blood of the foetus and the mother mix it will lead to blood clotting which would block
the blood vessels and lead to damage of blood vessels in the foetus.
u Antibodies pass from mother’s blood to foetus to protect from diseases.
u The length of the time between fertilization and birth is called gestation period in humans it
is 280 days.

AMNIOTIC FLUID AND AMNIOTIC SAC:

u During the development of the foetus, the bag forms around it called amnion which contains
watery fluid called amniotic fluid.
u The fluid acts like cushion around the foetus and protects it around the pressure outside the
uterus.
u The fluid also allows the foetus to float freely so that growing limbs have space to develop.

6
EFFECT OF SMOKING AND DRUGS ON FETAL DEVELOPMENT

Smoking

Smoking while pregnant not only damages your own health, but can also harm your baby.

It has been linked to a variety of health problems, including:

 premature birth
 low birth weight
 miscarriage and cot death (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome SIDS)
 breathing problems and wheezing in the first six months of life

Every year, more than 17,000 children under the age of five are admitted to hospital because
of the effects of second hand smoke. If you stop smoking, you will reduce the risk of harm to
yourself and your baby.

Illegal drugs

Illegal drugs like cannabis, ecstasy, cocaine and heroin can harm your baby. If you use any of
these drugs, it is important to talk to your doctor or

Pills, medicines and other drugs

As well as illegal drugs, some medicines, including some common painkillers, can harm your
baby’s health. This can include medication to treat long-term conditions such as asthma,
thyroid disease, diabetes and epilepsy.

To be safe, you should:

 keep taking your medication until you check with your doctor
 always check with your doctor, midwife or pharmacist before taking any new
medication
 make sure your doctor, dentist or other health professional know you are pregnant
before they prescribe you any medication or give any treatment
 talk to your doctor if you take regular medication, ideally before trying for a baby or
as soon as you know you are pregnant
 use as few over the counter medicines as possible

Medicines and treatments that are usually safe include paracetamol, most antibiotics, dental
treatments (including local anaesthetics) some immunisations (including tetanus and flu) and
nicotine replacement therapy.