THE BIOLOGICAL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES OF
DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
(Chapter 4)

 
Imee M. Talaue, MAEd Math
College of Education Instructor
Isabela State University Cabagan
 Learning Objectives
1. Define the following terms: heredity, genome,
chromosomes, deoxyribonucleic acid, gene, gametes,
meiosis, ovum, spermatozoa, fertilization, embryo, fetus;
2. Explain the basic concepts of human reproduction;
3. Enumerate and discuss the basic principles of genetic
determination;
4. Describe the course of prenatal development and the
stages of human reproduction;
5. Identify the deviations from normal human development
that can lead to developmental disabilities;
6. Define the examples of developmental disabilities and
7. Cite the significant outcomes of the Human Genome
Project
 The Biological and Environmental
Causes of Developmental Disabilities
 FYI

 https://prezi.com/oujdtw5eqvi3/the-biological-
and-environmental-causes-of-developmental-dis/
 The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 Heredity is the mechanism for the transmission of
human characteristics from one generation to the next.
Each person carries a genetic code or genome, a
complete set of coded instruction for making and
maintaining an organism.
 Genome
 -is inherited from both parents.
 -is described as the blueprint or book of human life.
 -carries and determines all the characteristics of a person
yet to be born.
 -located within each of the one hundred trillion cells in the
human body.
 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/h
s-classical-genetics/hs-introduction-to-heredity/v/introductio
n-to-heredity
The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 Chromosomes
 -the nucleus inside the cell contains a complete set of the body’s
genome that is twisted into forty-six packets of threadlike
microscopic structures.
 -comes in twenty-three pairs, each pair is composed of on e
chromosome from the male (Y) and female (X) parents respectively.
 Each set has twenty-two single chromosomes called autosomes
that carry the physical, mental, and personality characteristics.
 The twenty-third pair, the XY chromosomes determines the sex of
the organism.
 A normal female will have a pair of XX chromosomes while a normal
male will have an XY pair of chromosomes.
 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-classic
al-genetics/hs-introduction-to-heredity/a/hs-introduction-to-heredity-
review
 The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA
 -inside the chromosome is the long threadlike
molecule and genetic substance called the DNA.
 The DNA is a complex molecule that contains the
genome.
 The DNA molecule consists of two strands of
twisted ladder-shaped structure called the
double helix that wrap around each other.
 The double helix was discovered by American
Biochemist James Watson and British
Biophysicist Francis Crick.
The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 The discovery of the double helix launched an era of
molecular genetics.
 The genetic code can be read in the rung of the ladder.
 The Code is spelled out by four chemicals or nucleotide
bases, namely:
 Adenine
 Thymine
 Guanine
 Cystosine
 Adenine pairs with Thymine, Guanine pairs with Cystosine
to form the rungs of the ladder.
 There are three billion chemical pairs in the DNA that
contain the human genetic code.
 The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 Gene
 Each DNA molecule contains many genes, the basic
physical and functional unit of hereditary information.
 A gene is a specific sequence of the four nucleotides
bases whose sequences carry the information for
constructing proteins.
 Proteins provide the structural components of the
cells, tissues and enzymes for essential biochemical
reactions.
 Genes act as blueprint for cells to reproduce
themselves and manufacture the proteins that
maintain life.
The Basic Concepts of Human
Reproduction
 Some Principles of
Genetic Determination
 Genetic determination is a complex affair.
Much is known about the way genes work. But a
number of genetic principles have been
discovered, among them the principles of:
 dominant-recessive genes,
 sex-linked genes,
 polygenically inherited characteristics,
 reaction range and
 canalization.
 Dominant-Recessive
Genes Principle
 If one gene of the pair is dominant and one is
recessive, the dominant gene exert its effect,
overriding the potential influence of the recessive
gene.
Examples
of common dominant that rule over
genes
Brown eyes Blue eyes
Farsightedness Nearsightedness
Dimples freckles
Dominant-Recessive
Genes Principle
 Dominant-Recessive
Genes Principle
 A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the genes of a
pair are both recessive. If a recessive gene is inherited from
only one parent, the trait will not show.
 The person may never know that he or she carries the
recessive gene.
Example: Can two brown-eyed parents have a blue-eyed baby?
 Answer: Yes, they can, if each parent carries a dominant
gene for brown eyes and a recessive gene for blue eyes. The
parents have brown eyes because brown eyes are dominant
over blue eyes. But both are carriers of blueness and can
pass on their recessive genes for blue eyes. With no
dominant genes to override them, the recessive genes will
make the child’s eyes blue.
 Sex-linked Genes
Principle
 Females have two X sex chromosomes and males
have an X and Y sex chromosomes in their
respective karyotypes.

 When one X female chromosome combines with

the X male chromosome, the XX chromosomes
results that make the organism a female.

 When one X female chromosome combines with

the Y male chromosome, the XY chromosomes
results that make the organism a male.
Sex-linked Genes
Principle
 Polygenic Inheritance
Principle
 Poly (many) genic (genes) inheritance describes
the interaction of many genes to produce a
particular characteristics.

 Considering that there a re as many as 140,000

genes, the huge number combinations possible is
hard to imagine.

 Traits that are produced by the mixing of genes

are said to be polygenically determined.
 Nature’s Way of
Making Babies
 The Female Reproductive System

For additional inform

ation please click
the link below:

https://www.khanac
ademy.org/science/h
igh-school-biology/h
s-human-body-syste
ms/hs-the-reproduct
ive-system/v/welcom
e-to-the-reproductiv
e-system
 Genotype and
Phenotype Genetic
 Heritage
Genotype – refers to the person’s genetic
heritage or the actual genetic material.
 The genotype is established at conception during
the process of fertization and usually remains
constant and does not change.
 On rare occasions, the constancy is disturbed
when mutation takes place or errors in cell
division alter subsequent cell division.
 Genotype is not readily available for actual
inspection
 Genotype and
Phenotype Genetic
Heritage
 Genotype and
Phenotype Genetic
 Phenotype–Heritage
refers
to the person’s
observable traits
that may be used
to draw inferences
about the
genotype
 The phenotype is
the observable
result between the
genotype and the
environment
 Genotype and
Phenotype Genetic
Heritage
 The Biological Sources of
Developmental Disabilities
 Basic Terms in Human Reproduction
Terms Meaning/Description
Gametes are the human reproduction cells which are
created in the reproductive organs
Ovum(Ova)/ The ovaries of the female produce the
Egg ovum(ova) or egg cells
Spermatozo The testicles or testes of the male produce the
a/ sperm spermatozoa or sperm
Meiosis Is the process of cell division in which each pair
of chromosomes in the cell separates, with one
member of each pair going into each gamete
or daughter cell. (23 unpaired chromosomes)
Fertilizatio Of a female’s ovum by a male’s sperm starts
n the process of human reproduction.
 The Biological Sources of
Developmental Disabilities
 Basic Terms in
Human
Reproduction
Term Meaning/Descriptio
s n
Zygo Fertilization results in
te the formation of a
single cell (Zygote),
two sets of twenty-
three unpaired
chromosomes, one set
each from the male
and the female
combine to form one
set of paired
chromosomes. Each
parent contribute fifty
percent or half of the
zygote’s genetic code
 Critical Periods and Vulnerability
during Pregnancy
 Certain periods of development during pregnancy
are critical for both the growth and the
organism’s vulnerability to injury and
development risks.

 Vulnerability- refers to how susceptible the

organism is being injured or altered by a
traumatic incident.
 A traumatic incident includes such broad
occurences as teratogens or toxic agents ,
cell division mutation and other deviations from
the usual sequence of development.

 Critical Periods and Vulnerability
during Pregnancy
 Deviancy- from the normal course of prenatal
development results to the occurrence of
developmental disabilities.

 The organism in utero, the zygote, the embryo,

and the fetus are vulnerable to injuries and
developmental risks.

 After birth during postnatal development, the

newborn, the infant and the child are all
vulnerable and susceptible to injuries that can
persist for the duration of the person’s life.
The Course of Prenatal
Development
The Course of Prenatal
Development
The Course of Prenatal
Development
The Course of Prenatal
Development
 Development in utero covers about thirty-eight
(38) weeks or 280 days or nine months of
gestation or growth in the mother's womb.
 Prenatal development is divided into three
phases.
 1. The Germicidal Phase
 2. The Embryonic Phase
 3. The Fetal Phase
 The Germicidal Phase
 The initial stage of prenatal development covers
the first two weeks after fertilization. The three
significant developments during this phase are
the:

 1. Creation of the zygote

 2. Continous cell division/ cell and tissue
differentiation
 3. Implantation or attachment of the zygote to
the uterine wall.
Creation of the Zygote
 Reproduction
begins with the
fertilization of a
female’s ovum by
a male sperm.
Creation of the Zygote
 Ovulation occurs once
every twenty-eight
days or so, as an ovum
out of hundreds of ova
matures and the single
ripe ovum bursts from
its follicle. The ovum is
drawn into the fallopian
tube during the ninth to
the sixteenth day of the
menstrual cycle which
is the fertile period.
Continous Cell Division and Cell
Tissue Differentiation
 Implantation or Attachment ofhe
Zygote to the Uterine Wall

 Implantation starts on the sixth to

the seventh day when the blastocyst
starts to attach itself to the uterine
wall. Two weeks after, from the
eleventh to fifteenth day, the
blastocyst invades or fully attaches
itself into the uterine wall and
becomes implantedin it.
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
What can go wrong during the
germinal phase?
Figure 18.
Embryonic Phase
Embryonic Phase
Development of the Life Support
System
Organogenesis
Organogenesis
Fetal Phase
Fetal Phase
 Fetal Phase
 5. At seventh month, the fetus is almost
17 inches long has gained ne pound and
weighs about three pounds
 6. During the eight and ninth months , the
fetus continues to grow longer to about 20
inches and gains about 4 pounds. Fatty
tissues developand the functioning of the
organs systems steps up. The Fetus
normally weighs 6 to 8 pounds shortly
before birth.
 What can go wrong
during the phase?
 The same effects of teratogens can occur and
distrurb normal development. The fetus
continues to be vulnerable to trauma that can
result to the occuirence of disabilities.

 Deliberate termination of pregnancy or abortion

for whatever reasons-poor health, rape, incest,
out-of-wedlock relations, if unsuccesful can lead
to disabilities.

 Inadequate birth weight due to malnutrition or

early birth places the infant at developmental
risks.
 Birth of the Infant
 After full gestation for thirthy-eight weeks
, the fetus leaves the intrauterine
environment of the mother's womb and
begins life in the outside world.
 There are changes in the mother's body
that start around the fourth month or
mid-pregnancy.
 These changes are necessary so that the
natural birth process can occur normally.
 Birth of the Infant
 Some of the changes are:
 1. Rearrangement of the muscle structure of the
uterus to facilitate fetal expulsion or to permit the
normal passage of the fetus through birth canal.
 2. Shortly before birth and during the onset of
labor which lasts for seven to twelve hours on the
average, the upper part of the cervical area
undergoes expansion. By the time the fetus is
passing the birth canal, the muscle structure of
the cervix has loosened and expanded. The
process is called effacement that enables the
fetus to be expelled.
 Birth of the Infant
 The normal and desirable position of the fetus
when labor begins is with head toward the cervix.
This position occurs in almost 80% of all
childbirth.
 As the fetus begins to move downward into the
birth canal, the pelvic girdle or the bony hip
structures streches more. The pressure of the
pelvic girdle also molds the head of the fetus.
 This is the reason why newborn babies have
strangely shaped heads. AFTER A FEW DAYS, THE
HEAD RETURNS TO ITS NATURAL SHAPE.
 Birth of the Infant
 All the movements during birth are generated by
the muscle contarctions of the uterus calles
LABOR. While the fetus is moving downward, it
turns clockwise from the effect of labor.
 A few minutes after the infant is delivered, the
placenta is expelled. The respiratory tract is
immediately cleared of the remaining amniotic
fluid and mucus.
 The doctor provides the stimulation for the infant
to begin to breathe usually by gently patting the
buttocks. The infant's first cry expands the lungs
with air for the first time and starts the process
of respiration.
What can go wrong during the birth
process?
 The birth process represents another important
time when potential risks to the fetus or infant
are high. The birth process is very complex and
at times may not proceed smoothly. Difficulties
may arise to developmental disabilities.
 1 . Physical Trauma or mechanical injury
 During birth may injure or damage the brain and
impair intellectual functioning.
 a. in precipitous birth where labor is short (less
than two hours) skull molding that should be slow
and smooth may affect and injure the brain.
 What can go wrong during the birth
process?
 b. In breech birth where the buttocks instead of the head
presents itself first poses substancial danger because the
head reaches pelvic girdle during the later stages of labor
when there is more pressure exerting on it.
 The abnormal pressure generated in breech birth rapidly
compresses the still soft skull which crushes portions of the
brain. Also, the rapid pressure and shifting of cranial bones
can damage the circulatory system around the brain and
lead to hemmorhage in the skull and brain damage.
 Usually, a fetus in breech position is delivered by caesarian
section. Abdominal surgery is done and the fetus is extracted
from the uterine wall.
 In the tranverse position where the fetus lies across the
birth canal , the same problems in breech birth are present.
 What can go wrong during the birth
process?
 2. Anoxia or asphyxia
 Occurs in breech delivery and deprives the infant of
adequte supply of oxygenfor a period long enough to
damage the brain.
 The infant must depend entirely on the umbilical cord as
a source of oxygen until birth is completed. However,
the breech position makes the umbilical cord too short
to remain attached while the head is being expelled.
 The placenta can become partially or completely
detached while the head is still inside the birth canal.
This eliminate oxygen supply and severe brain injury
can happen.
Republic Act No. 9288
Newborn Screening- Your Retarded
Child uld Have Been Normal
Republic Act No. 9288
What is newborn
screening?
Why is it important to have new born
screening?

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When and How is new born screening
done?

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Who collect the sample and how much
is the fee for the newborn screening?
Where and when are newborn
screening results available?
What should be done when a baby is
tested positove NBS result?

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Principles of Normal Develop Early
Childhood
 Principles of Normal Develop Early
Childhood

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Gross Motor Skills
Receptive Language
Principles of Normal Develop Early
Childhood

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Eating Skills
Dressing Skills
Expressive Language
Principles of Normal Develop Early
Childhood
Grooming Skills
Toilet Skills
When is a developmental disability
present?
The Human Genome
Project
The Human Genome
Project

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 Essay No. 4
 How are mental retardation and other
developmental disabilities detected after
birth? What are the advantages of
newborn screening?
 Groupwork No. 4
 Fillin the matrix on Stages in Causes of
Prenatal Development
prenatal development. Development al Disabilities
Write the sequence of I.
growth in each stage
of development.
II.
Identify the causes of
developmental
disabilities during this III.
period. Define the
terms specific to each
The Birth
stage. Process