Human Nutrition

- Study of chemical elements and compounds required for animal growth,

animal metabolism and their external supply. (How animals make food)

Diet
- Sum of food consumed by person or another organism.

Balanced Diet
- Diet containing all the correct nutrients in correct proportions in order for
human body to function properly.
- It contains all six nutrients (food types):

Nutrient Function/Characteristics Sources

Macronutrients- Nutrients required in large quantities
Carbohydrate Source of energy. Bread, Cereal, Pasta, Rice
Store of energy. and Potatoes
Makes hormones.
Floats in water.
Lipid (fats) Source of energy.
Store of Energy.
Building materials for cell membranes.
Insulation against heat loss.
Insulation of nerve fibres.
Buoyancy (resistance).
Making hormones
Protein Source of Energy.
Building materials for cell.
Growth and repair of cells.
Enzyme made of protein.
Structure material (muscle).
Hormones.
Antibodies.
Fiber Provides bulk for feces which helps
 peristalsis.
Water Chemical Reactions.
Solvent that helps in transportation of
substances.
Micronutrients- Nutrients required in small quantities.
Vitamins To maintain health.
Minerals To maintain health.

Types of Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamin/Mineral Function Sources
Vitamin
C Makes up essential part of
collagen protein which makes
up skin, hair and proteins.
D Helps body absorb calcium.
Minerals
Calcium Required for strong bones and
teeth, involved in blood
clotting.
Iron Required to make haemoglobin.

Causes & Effects of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies

Deficiency of Cause Disease and Effect
Vitamin D Lack of sunlight, fish, Rickets
eggs, butter in diet.
Bones become soft and
deformed because vitamin D is
required for absorption of
calcium into the body which is
component of strong bones and
 teeth.

Iron Lack of leafy green Anemia

vegetables, red meat,
Tissues do not get enough
liver.
oxygen delivered to them
because there are not enough
red blood cells with
hemoglobin and iron is the key
component of hemoglobin.

Calcium Age Osteoporosis

Weakens bones, making them
fragile and more likely to break.
It develops slowly over several
years and is often only
diagnosed when a fall or
sudden impact causes a bone
to break (fracture).

Malnutrition
- Condition caused by eating a diet in which its nutrients are in incorrect
proportions or amount of food overall is too little or too much.

Types of Malnutrition
o Under Nutrition
- Eating too little of a particular nutrient.
o Eating food in incorrect proportions.
o Overnutrition
- Condition caused by eating a balanced diet in which its nutrients are in
correct proportions, but amount of food overall is too much.

Effects of Malnutrition
Type Cause Effect
Starvation Result of not eating Body starts to break down energy
enough food over a long stores.
period of time meaning Fat and Protein (muscular tissue)
less energy is received by Is broken down to provide energy
body. instead of making new cells and
tissues leading to muscle becoming
small and bones not being able to
grow causing severe weight loss and
eventually damage to heart and
immune system, increasing risk of
many diseases.
Constipation Lack of fibre in diet Peristalsis does not occur easily
because fibre are meaning food is moved through gut
indigestible and form more efficiently and also protect
large bulks. Friction intestines from cancer and other
between bulks and walls disorders.
of intestine stimulate
peristalsis.
Obesity Result of eating too much Risk of suffering from diseases.
food over a long period of e.g. heart diseases, diabetes, stroke,
time. join pain, mobility impairment, high
blood pressure.
Scurvy Lack of Vitamin C in diet Tissues can not connect meaning
because Vitamin C plays
role in major component
of connective tissue.
Coronary Diet too high in saturated Fat deposits build up in arteries that
Heart fat and cholesterol. supply blood to heart, reducing flow
Disease of blood to heart muscle cells which
do not work properly due to lack of
oxygen. This can lead to heart attack
and death.

Types of Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

 o Kwashiorkor
- Caused by lack of protein in diet.
- People suffering from it are underweight for their age and have swollen
abdomen as their diet may contain a lot of carbohydrate.
- Most common in children under 2.

- Caused by poverty as high protein foods tend to be more expensive and

scarcer.

o Marasmus

- Caused by lack both protein and energy in diet.

- People suffering from it are underweight for their age and look emaciated
(abnormally thin or weak).
- Most severe form of PEM.

Problems of World Food Supply

Reasons For Shortage of Supply
1. Climate
- Some parts of world do not get enough sunlight to allow crops to grow
well.

2. Poor Soil
- Some parts of world do not have fertile soil because their soils:
- Do not contain plenty of inorganic ions which is required for crops to grow
well.
- Do not contain plenty of humus which is required to help soil hold moisture
and provide plants with water.

3. Desertification
- Some parts of world used to have fertile soil and adequate rainfall but now
have poor, thin soil and less rain.
- It is caused as result of natural processes or by humans.

4. Natural Disasters
e.g. Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Floods

5. Lack of Money
- Some parts of world there is lack of money meaning:
- If people do not have enough money to buy seeds, animals, machinery or
fertilizer, then it may be difficult to grow crops in their land.

6. Wars
- Some parts of world may be experiencing wars meaning:
- During wars, it may be impossible to grow crops.
- After wars, it may still be impossible to grow crops because of land mines
left in ground making farming dangerous.

7. Urbanisation
- Some parts of world may consist of developing countries, therefore many
people may want to move from country-side to towns, because they think
that they will have a better life.

8. Increasing Population
- Some parts of the world consist of developing countries with increasing
population, the population may be increasing much faster than food
production.
9. Poor Economy
Food Additives
- Substance added to food product during its manufacture.
- Naturally occurring substances.

Function of Food Additives

 1. Preservatives
- Allow food to be kept longer without rotting and prevents tooth decay.
- Reduce risk of getting food poisoning from bacteria which might have
grown in food because they kill bacteria.

2. Flavourings and Colourings

- Add taste and visual appeal of food.

3. Antioxidants
- Stop components of food combining with oxygen which can cause
discolouration or spoil taste.
E.g. Vitamin C

4. Stabilisers (imulsifiers)
- Stop food from separating out into watery and fatty compounds.

Advantages of Food Additives

- Some are positive to health.

Disadvantages of Food Additives

- Some are harmful to health.
e.g. Particular orange food colouring used in soft drinks and sweets has
been linked with hyperactivity and other behaviour problems in young
children.

Energy in Food
- Energy measured in Kilojoules (KJ).
- Number of kilojoules of energy a person requires in their diet depends on
number of kilojoules of energy a person uses each day.
Factors Affecting Number of Kilojoules of Energy a
Person Uses
(Dietary Needs of Different Individuals)
1. Age
- Amount of energy that young need increases towards adulthood as this
energy is required for growth.
o Children Below 12
- Require calcium for growing bones.
- Require iron because it helps move oxygen from lungs to rest of body and
helps muscles store and use oxygen.
o Teenagers
- Require more energy and nutrients because they are still growing.
- Require high calorie intake, calories in food provide energy in form of heat
to enable our bodies to function.
o Adults
- Require balanced meal with less calories, require less calories to maintain
their weight because they tend to move and exercise less and carry less
muscle.
2. Gender
o Male
- Require more energy, because men generally have an overall larger body in
terms of weight and height and have greater muscle mass, they also have
increased calorie needs as compared to women.
3. Activity Level
- The more the active, the more energy required for movement because
muscles are contracting more and respiring faster.

4. Pregnant Women
- Require more energy because energy is required to support growth of
developing fetus, and because of larger mass that mother needs to carry
around.
- Require calcium, vitamin D, iron, folic acid because they are required to
help build bones, teeth and blood of fetus.
 5. Lactation – Production of Breast Milk to feed baby
- Require more energy and calcium because energy is required to make high
quality breast milk which is rich in proteins and vitamins/minerals.
- If mother’s diet is already adequate, then her metabolism will adjust to this
demand on mothers resources. Otherwise, she will require to increase her
intake of proteins, vitamins/minerals and calcium to produce milk of
adequate quality and quantity.

Alimentary Canal (Gut)

- Pathway by which food travels through our body.
- It consists of long tube from mouth to anus.

Stages of Food Breakdown in Human Alimentary

Canal
1. Ingestion
- Taking in of substances into body through mouth by swallowing or
absorbing it.
e.g. Food, Drink
2. Mechanical Digestion 
- Breakdown of food from larger molecules into smaller
molecules/pieces without chemical change to food molecules.
- This breakdown increases surface area of food in order to expose it to
digestive juices (enzymes) for it to be broken down through chemical
digestion more quickly.

3. Chemical digestion
- Breakdown of food from larger, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble
molecules/pieces with chemical change to food molecules so that it can be
absorbed into the bloodstream.
4. Absorption 
- Movement of digested smaller food molecules and ions through wall of
intestine into blood.

5. Assimilation 
- Movement of digested smaller food molecules from blood into cells of
body where they are used, becoming part of cells.

6. Egestion 
- Passing out of food that is not digested or absorbed, as faeces, through
anus.
 Organs In Alimentary Canal

 Digestion/Ingestion
1. Mouth
- In mouth, salivary glands secrete saliva which flows along ducts into mouth
cavity.
- Saliva contains mucus which is a slippery substance that helps chewed food
to slide easily through alimentary canal.
- Food is broken down into smaller pieces mechanically through mastication
(chewing).
- Tongue shapes food into ball (bolus) and saliva lubricates it so that it can be
swallowed easily.

Mechanical Digestion in Body 

(a) Carried out by chewing action of teeth (mastication).
 Teeth
- Held firmly by bone of jaw.
- Used for chewing to increase surface area of food in order to expose it
to saliva and other digestive juices for it to be broken down more quickly.

Sets of Teeth
Milk teeth
- First set, consists of 20 teeth.
- Incisors, canines and premolars are present in milk set.

Permanent teeth
- Milk teeth are completely replaced by the permanent teeth by about 12
years of age.
- Consists of 32 teeth.
- Incisors, canines, premolars, and molars are present in permanent set.

Types of Teeth
- Different shapes and sizes of teeth enable them to perform slightly
different functions.

Incisor Canine Pre-molar Molar

Position of Front of Side of mouth Back of mouth Back of mouth
Mouth mouth (both side of (behind canines)
incisors)
Description Chisel-shaped Slightly more Have two points Have four or
(sharp edge) pointed than (cusps). Have five points.
incisors. one or two roots. Have two or
Blunt. three roots.
Function Cutting and Holding, cutting Tearing and Chewing and
biting pieces and biting pieces grinding food. grinding food.
of food. of food.
Structure of Tooth
Crown
- Part of tooth visible above gum line.

Enamel
- Layer on surface of crown.
- Strongest tissue in body made from calcium salts.

Dentine
- Layer below enamel.
- Softer than enamel.

Pulp Cavity
- Inside dentine.
- Contains nerves and blood capillaries/vessels that enter tooth through
small hole at base of root.

Gum
- Tissue that overlays jaws.
Root
- Part of tooth which is not visible on and below gum line.
How Tooth/Dental Decay Occurs
- If food is chewed then some of it is left on your teeth.
- Bacteria feed on these food remains.
- Bacteria is used in respiration to produce acid especially if food is sugary.
- Mixture of bacteria, food and saliva to form sticky film on teeth is called
plaque which coats teeth and area where teeth attach to gums.
- Plaque is soft and easy to remove, although if it hardens then it
forms tartar which cannot be removed by brushing.
- Tartar allows acid produced by bacteria to dissolve enamel on teeth and
eventually make a hole through enamel straight into dentine causing
painful infection (gum disease) and loss of teeth.

Method of Preventing Tooth Decay (Dental Health)

1. Reduce amount of sugary foods eaten.
2. Cleaning (brushing) teeth regularly to remove buildup of plaque in
mouth therefore bacteria cannot turn them into acids leading to gum
disease and tooth decay.
3. Cleaning (brushing) teeth regularly to remove sugars in mouth therefore
bacteria cannot turn them into acids leading to gum disease and tooth
decay.
4. Visit dentist in order to ensure that any signs of gum disease or tooth
decay can be dealt with promptly.
5. Cleaning (brushing) teeth regularly with fluoride toothpaste because this
helps strengthen enamel and reduce damage from acids.

Fluoride Controversy
- Fluoride is substance that helps teeth resist attacks by acid once absorbed
by teeth.
 Concentration

- If fluoride is taken at high concentration, then this causes black marks

teeth.
- If fluoride is taken at very high concentration, then this causes sickness and
abdominal pain.

2. Oesophagus
- Tube shaped organ that connects mouth to stomach where food bolus goes
after being swallowed.
- It uses peristalsis which are wave like contractions that take place to push
food bolus down without relying on gravity in order to transport food from
mouth to stomach.

How food moves along alimentary canal

- Circular muscles contract to push the food.
- Muscle contraction above food pushes it forward.
- Circular and longitudinal muscles work antagonistically.

Effects of Peristalsis
- Push food along alimentary canal and keep it moving in same direction.
- Help mix food with digestive juices.
- Help to break food down physically.
 3. Stomach
Properties
- Have muscles and elastic tissues in it which allow it to change shape.
- At ends of stomach are rings of muscles around the tubes that enter and
leave it called cardiac sphincter.
- If you swallow food, then cardiac sphincter muscle relaxes allowing food
into stomach and then closes preventing food from going backwards.
 - Pyloric sphincter contracts in order to keep food for several hours and then
relaxes to allow food to continue to rest of canal. (Peristalsis)

Function of Stomach
- Gastric juice is secreted onto it by cells on lining of stomach wall. Peristaltic
contractions churn bolus, which mixes with gastric juice.
- Churning action of stomach.

Gastric Juice
- It contains hydrochloric acid and protease enzyme called pepsin.

Function of Hydrochloric Acid

- Kill bacteria in food.
- Gives optimum acidic pH for pepsin activity.

Function of Pepsin
- Breaks down protein molecules into polypeptides.
 How Low pH is Helpful in Stomach
- Low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested because it denatures
enzymes in their cells, meaning that any cell reactions to maintain life will
not occur.
- Pepsin enzyme produced in stomach, has a very low optimum pH of 2
- Hydrochloric acid produced in stomach ensures that conditions in stomach
remain within optimum range for pepsin to work at its fastest rate. 

 Absorption/Digestion

4. Small Intestine
 Tube shaped organ composed of two parts:
o Duodenum
o Ileum
Digestion in Small Intestine

Bile
- Juice made in liver and stored in gall bladder.
- Contains bile salts which help break down fat into tiny droplets that can
float in watery contents of small intestine. (emulsification)

Gall Bladder
- Stores bile to release into duodenum as required.

First Part: Duodenum

- When food from stomach enters duodenum, bile is squirted along bile duct
and mixes with food in duodenum.
 Pancreas
- Produces pancreatic juice.
- It flows along pancreatic duct into small intestine.
- It contains enzymes, sodium hydrogen carbonate and produces hormones.
 Enzymes
Enzyme Action in Alimentary Canal
- Bonds holding large molecules together are broken to smaller molecules.
- It is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different areas of
digestive system.

 Amylase (breaks down/digests/converts starch into maltose and maltose is

digested by enzyme maltase into glucose on membranes of epithelium
lining on small intestine.

 Trypsin (breaks down/digests/converts protein into polypeptides)

 Lipase (breaks down/digests/converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol)

Emulsification of Fats by Bile in Duodenum
o Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
- Helps neutralize acidic food that enters small intestine from stomach.
o Hormones
o Insulin
- Convert glucose into glycogen.

Villi
- Very small wriggling finger-like projections that cover parts of small
intestine.
- Cells on surface of villi in ileum produce enzymes that finish digesting food.

(b) Second Part: Ileum

Absorption of Small Intestine
- Occurs through villi.
- Ileum is long and lined with villi.
- Substances are absorbed through villi into blood or fluid (lymph).
e.g. Simple sugars, ammino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, inorganic
ions and water.

How They are Absorbed

- Inside villi are blood capillaries that absorb, simple sugars, ammino acids,
fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, inorganic ions and water.
- Also, inside villi are lacteals that absorb fatty acids and glycerol.
How Ileum Structure is Adapted for Absorption
1. Very long, has large surface area, has circular folds, allowing
absorption of nutrients to occur faster and more efficiently.
2. Wall of villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short
distance for absorption to occur by diffusion and active transport.
3. Supplied with network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and
amino acids from small intestine into blood.
4. Supplied with lacteal that runs through centre of villus to transport
fatty acids and glycerol from small intestine into lymph.
 5. Large Intestine
First Part: Colon
- As remaining food moves along colon most of its remaining water and
inorganic ions pass through its walls into blood.

 Assimilation (Use of Digested Food)

- Absorbed molecules in blood taken to liver through blood vessel called
hepatic portal vein.

6. Liver
- Produces bile to emulsify fats.
- Breaks down toxins (dangerous substances) in food.

Example of Breaking Down Toxins

 Alcohol is broken down by liver and changed into harmless substance. If a
person binge drinks, then this puts strain and damages liver cells.
Therefore, this can lead to liver disease called cirrhosis.

- Sort out molecules, this means that some of them will be allowed to
continue into blood while others remain in liver. Some will be changed into
something else and then allowed into blood or stored.

Examples of Sorting out of Molecules

 If a lot of glucose is absorbed, then liver will change it into glycogen. If
there is not enough glucose in body then liver can change glycogen back
into glucose, some glucose will be changed to fat (energy reserve).
 Ammino acids from absorbed from food may be used to build protein
molecules in liver cells. If a person has excess amino acids, then liver will
break them down to form a waste product (Urea) (Deamination (removal of
an amino group from a molecule)).
 - Releases bile salts into stool, giving it normal brown colour.
Example
 If there are lower glucose levels in body then liver converts glycogen back
into glucose or insulin can be injected into red blood cells which lower
glucose levels.

Second Part: Rectum

- Food carries on into rectum and stay there for a while before being passed
through anus as faeces.
- Egestion is removal of faeces.
 Diarrhea Causes & Treatment
- Loss of watery faeces from anus because not enough water is absorbed
from anus.
- Severe diarrhea can cause loss of significant amounts of water and
ions from body, causing tissues and organs to stop working properly.
- If it is severe and continues for a long time, then it can lead to death.

Treatment
Oral rehydration therapy
- Drink with small amount of salt and sugar dissolved in it.

Causes of Diarrhoea
- Infection with Vibrio Cholerae Bacteria, which causes the disease cholera.
- If Vibrio Cholerae Bacteria is Ingested via infected water or food, then it
enters small intestine and causes illness. 

How Vibrio Cholerae Bacteria Causes Diarrhoea

1. Bacteria attach to wall of small intestine.
2. Produces toxin.
3. Toxin stimulates cells on lining of small intestine to release chloride
ions from inside cells into lumen of small intestine.
4. Chloride ions accumulate in lumen of small intestine.
5. Osmosis occurs because of diffusion of water particles from region of
high concentration which is in cells lining the small intestine to a
region of low concentration which is in lumen of small intestine.
6. Large quantities of water are thus lost from body in watery faeces.
7. Blood then contains too little chloride ions and water which leads to
death.