CHAPTER 1: Life: Biological Principles and
the Science of Zoology
What is Science?
Science is the process of gaining knowledge
and investigating by making observations,
posing questions, and testing through
experimentation.
The Scientific Method
Hypothetico – deductive method
- Observation
- Definition of the Problem
- Formulation of Hypothesis
- Experimentation and Data Gathering
- Formulation of Theory
Principles of Science
- Guided by Natural Law
- Explanatory in reference to natural
law
- Testable against reality
- Conclusions are tentative
- Falsifiable
Zoology
The scientific study of animals and part of
Biology, the study of life
Domains of Life
Eukarya – contains nucleus consists of protist,
fungi, plants, and animals
Archaea – no nucleus consists of
extremophiles (can exist in extreme
environments)
Bacteria – no nucleus consists of pathogens
Kingdoms of Life
Monera – single-celled, may or may not move,
have a cell wall, have no chloroplasts or other
organelles, and have no nucleus. They absorb
nutrients through the cell wall or produce their
own by photosynthesis.
Protista – single-celled and usually move by
cilia, flagella, or by amoeboid mechanisms.
There is usually no cell wall, although some
forms may have a cell wall, have organelles
including a nucleus and may have chloroplasts,
so some will be green, and others won't be.
Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis,
ingestion of other organisms, or both.
Fungi – multicellular, with a cell wall, organelles
including a nucleus, but no chloroplasts. They
have no mechanisms for locomotion. Nutrients
are acquired by absorption. For the most part,
fungi acquire nutrients from decaying material.
Plantae – multicellular and most don't move,
although gametes of some plants move using
cilia or flagella. Organelles including nucleus,
chloroplasts are present, and cell walls are
present. Nutrients are acquired by
photosynthesis.
Animalia – multicellular, and move with the aid
of cilia, flagella, or muscular organs based on
contractile proteins. They have organelles
including a nucleus, but no chloroplasts or cell
walls. Animals acquire nutrients by consuming
another organism.
Theories of the Origin of Life
Divine Creation Theory – Life is created by
God
Abiogenesis Theory – Life came from non-
living matter
Cosmozoic Theory – Life came from micro-
organisms from space that came to earth along
with meteorites and comets and then evolved
into higher organisms in water
Marine Theory – Life originated from sea
Theory of Eternity – Life has no beginning and
no end
Biogenesis Theory – Life came from a chain of
chemical reactions that leads to living
protoplasm that gradually changed into present
form of life
Properties of Life Disaccharides – double sugars, consist of two
monosaccharides linked together like sucrose
- Chemical uniqueness
(glucose+fructose), or table sugar; lactose
- Complexity and hierarchical
organization (glucose+galactose), or milk sugar; and
- Reproduction (can be sexual or maltose (glucose+glucose), sugar contained
asexual) in cereal grains.
- Possession of a genetic program Proteins – A molecule composed of:
- Metabolism – anabolic (building up,
endergonic) or catabolic (breaking down, - an amino group (-NH2)
exergonic) - a carboxyl group (-COOH)
- Development - hydrogen group o a functional group, R,
- Environmental interaction – Taxis all bonded to a central atom
(rapid response, animals) Tropism - abundant, making up 50% or more of
(slower response, plants) cellular dry weight
- Movement - The basic units of proteins are called
amino acids which are of 20 types
divided into two major classifications
shown on the table below:
CHAPTER 2: Chemical and Cellular Basis of Essential (through food)
Animal Life - Arginine
Animals are made up of two major types of - Histidine
chemicals: (1) Inorganic compounds and (2) - Isoleucine
- Leucine
Organic compounds.
- Lysine
Inorganic Compounds – substance that does - Methionine
not contain both carbon and hydrogen - Phenylalanine
- Threonine
Organic compounds – substance that contain - Tryptophan
both carbon and hydrogen - Valine
Types of Organic compounds
Nonessential (inside the body)
Carbohydrates - Compounds made of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1C:2H:1O - Alanine
atoms in which the number of carbon atoms - Asparagine
varies. They serve as the fuel of animal life - Aspartate
because it is the major source of energy. There - Cysteine
are three major types of carbohydrates which - Glutamate
- Glutamine
are as follows:
- Glycine
Monosaccharides - Single sugars like glucose - Hydroxyproline
(blood sugar), galactose (a sugar found in - Hydroxylysine
milk) and fructose (a sugar found in fruits) - Proline
are the familiar examples of this type of - Serine
- Tyrosine
carbohydrates, all the three has C6:H12:O6 but
their differing structures determine the different
properties. Compounds like these sugars, with a
single chemical formula but different forms, are
called isomers.
Proteins functions
- enzyme catalysis
- defense (antibodies)
- transport (e.g., hemoglobin)
- structural support (fiber proteins)
- motion (muscle proteins)
- regulation (chemical messengers like
hormones)
- storage (ion binding)
Levels of protein structure are as follows:
Primary structure – is the sequence of amino
acids in the polypeptide chain.
Secondary structure – comes from the bond
angles of the sequence: alpha-helix and beta
sheets.
Tertiary structure – bending and folding of
secondary structures form this structure, often
stabilized by disulfide, hydrogen, ionic and
hydrophobic bonds.
Quaternary structure – occurs when several
polypeptide chains form subunits of a huge
protein molecule, as in hemoglobin.
Lipids – large nonpolar organic molecules that
do not dissolve in water; fats and fat-like
substances
- basic units of fatty acids and glycerol
- Molecules of low polarity; have a higher
ratio of C and H atoms to O atoms than
carbohydrates have.
- store energy efficiently and they have
large numbers of C-H bonds, which store
more energy than C-O bonds common in
other organic compounds.
Types of Lipids
- Triglycerides – composed of three
molecules of fatty acids joined to one
molecule of alcohol glycerol.
- Phospholipids – have two fatty acids
joined by a molecule of glycerol. The cell
membrane is composed of two layers of
phospholipids called a lipid bilayer and
forms a barrier between the inside and
outside of the cell. -The two ends (head
and tail) of a phospholipid molecule have
different properties: (1). The Carboxyl
End (head) of the phospholipid molecule
is polar and attracted to water molecules.
It is said to be hydrophilic, which means
"water loving". (2) The Hydrocarbon End
(tail) of the phospholipid molecule is
nonpolar and tends not to Interact with
water. It is said to be hydrophobic, or
"water fearing".
- Wax – consists of a long fatty acid chain
joined to a long alcohol chain. -are highly
waterproof, in plants and animals they
provide protective coatings. -example is
earwax which prevents microorganisms
from entering the middle ear.
- Steroids – molecules that are composed
of 4 carbon rings with various functional
groups attached to them. Their examples
are human hormones, testosterone in
males and estrogen in females. The most
familiar steroid in humans is cholesterol,
which is needed by the body for nerve
cells and other cells to function normally.
- Fats – this molecule is consisting of two
kinds of parts: a glycerol backbone and
three fatty acid tails. Types of fats are:
unsaturated fats – fats with double
bonds which is liquid at room
temperature and are usually referred to
as oils. -fats with many double bonds is a
polyunsaturated fat.
saturated fats – have no double bonds
(they are full) between the carbons and
contain the maximum number of
hydrogen atoms. They are usually solid
at room temperature; most come from
animal products.
Nucleic Acids – The only molecule that can
replicate itself that encodes genetic information
and synthesize proteins and enzymes. The
basic unit of nucleic acid is called Nucleotides
which are composed of:
- Nitrogenous bases
- Phosphate group
- Sugar: pentose (5-carbon)

Two kinds of Nucleic Acid:

- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a
nucleus and other organelles.
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain
a nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles.
The Parts and Function of a Eukaryotic
Animal Cell
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
 The cell membrane is a semi-permeable
phospholipid bilayer in which protein
molecules are partially or wholly
embedded.
 Glycoproteins are proteins with
carbohydrates attached.
 The heads, which form the outer and
inner linings, are "hydrophilic" (water
loving) while the tails that face the
interior of the cell membrane are
"hydrophobic" (water fearing).
Nucleus
 The control center of the cell.
 The nucleus is consisting of a nuclear
envelope which bounds the nuclear
material/genetic material which is
suspended in a nucleoplasm.
Suspended also in the nucleoplasm is an
organelle named nucleolus which
serves to produce ribosomes.
Cytoplasm/ Protoplasm
 The region of the cell which is
bounded by the cell membrane where
the organelles are suspended.
 Cytoplasm: Entire space
 Cytosol: unoccupied space
 Protoplasm: Cytoplasm +
Nucleoplasm
Cytoskeletal Structures
 These are structures in the cytoplasm
which serve as the skeletal framework of
the cell as the name implies thus aids in
supporting the entire structure of the cell.
 Microfilaments – thinnest of the three,
they are made up of actin monomers.
 Intermediate Filaments – intermediate
in diameter, have no role in cell
movement, their function is purely
structural
 Microtubules – thickest of the three,
they make up the internal structure of
cilia and flagella that is used by the cell
for movement and aids the mitosis of the
cell.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
These are little organs suspended in the
cytoplasm which are as follows:
Endoplasmic Reticulum – a network of
membranous tubules in the cytoplasm
there are two types:
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
which is studded with ribosomes for
production and transport of proteins
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
which is not studded with ribosomes
for the production and transport of
lipids.
Ribosomes – protein factory of the cell
 found attached to the ER (RER) or
scattered to the cytoplasm
Golgi Apparatus – cell structure mainly
devoted to processing the proteins synthesized
in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 packaging counter of the cell
Mitochondria – it is a self-replicating
membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles which
is regarded as the powerhouse of the cell
 production of energy needed by the cell
in the form of ATP through the process of
cellular respiration is happening in this
organelle
Lysosomes – are membrane-bound vesicles
produced by the Golgi complex.
 contain digestive enzymes
 carry out intracellular digestion by
Phagocytosis (digestion of food)
 or Autophagy (breaking down of
damaged organelle)
 referred to as the “suicidal bag of the
cell”

Peroxisomes – are membrane bound organelle

which functions for oxidation of specific
biomolecules such as fatty acids and amino
acids producing hydrogen peroxide which is
further converted into water and hydrogen by a
catalase enzyme produce also by this organelle.
 the liver of the cell

Centrosome – this is also known as

microtubule organizing center (MTOC), it is
an organelle that controls the cell cycle through
assembly of microtubules.
 this organelle is located near the nucleus
 this organelle contains a two barrel-
shaped organelle named as centriole
which aids in organizing microtubules
that serve as the cell’s skeletal structure.
Vacuoles – a membrane-bound organelle, in
animal cell, vacuoles are generally small which
aids in removal of waste materials in the cell,
while in plant cell, vacuoles are large which take
up most of the interior space of the cell, it helps
in maintaining water balance in the cell.
 Storage Facility
II. CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
Cells are the basic structural and functional unit
of animal life which is categorized into two
types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. The latter
type is without a true nucleus and is illustrated
by a bacterial cell while the former is with a true
nucleus because the genetic material is
bounded by the nuclear membrane, this type of
cell is exemplified in both animal and plant cells.
Table below shows the detailed differences of
the two.
Since the animals are made up of eukaryotic
type of cells, a focus on the parts and functions
of an animal cell will be done in detail.
The Parts and Function of a Eukaryotic
Animal Cell
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
 The current model of membrane
structure is the fluid-mosaic model.
 The cell membrane is phospholipid
bilayer in which protein molecules are
partially or wholly embedded.
 The phospholipid molecules have their
water-soluble hydrophilic ends toward
the outside and their fat-soluble
hydrophobic portions toward the inside of
the membrane.
 The layer is liquid, providing flexibility;
embedded cholesterols decrease this
fluidity.
 Glycoproteins are proteins with
carbohydrates attached.
Nucleus
 The control center of the cell, it controls
all the activities of the cell including cell
division
 The nucleus is consisting of a nuclear
envelope which bounds the nuclear
material/genetic material which is
suspended in a nucleoplasm. Suspended
also in the nucleoplasm is an organelle
named nucleolus which serves to
produce ribosomes.
Cytoplasm/ Protoplasm
 The region of the cell which is bounded
by the cell membrane where the
organelles are suspended
 The region of the cell from cell
membrane to nuclear membrane is
termed as cytoplasm while a protoplasm
includes the cytoplasm plus the
nucleoplasm
Cytoskeletal Structures
These are structures in the cytoplasm
which serve as the skeletal framework of the
cell as the name implies thus aids in supporting
the entire structure of the cell.
There are three major types of
cytoskeletal structures in the cell (microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments)
which are described and differentiated in detail
in the given table.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
These are little organs suspended in the
cytoplasm which are as follows:
a) Endoplasmic Reticulum- a network of
membranous tubules in the cytoplasm
-there are two types: Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) which is studded with
 ribosomes and Smooth Endoplasmic large which take up most of the interior
Reticulum (SER) which is not studded space of the cell, it helps in maintaining
with ribosomes. The former serves for water balance in the cell.
production and transport of proteins while
the latter is for the production and
transport of lipids. III. CELL CYCLE: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
b) Ribosomes- protein factory of the cell Like living things, a cell also has its own cycle
-found attached to the ER (RER) or as shown in the figure below:
scattered to the cytoplasm
c) Golgi Apparatus- cell structure mainly
devoted to processing the proteins
synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
-packaging counter of the cell
d) Mitochondria- it is a self-replicating
membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles
which is regarded as the powerhouse of the
cell
-production of energy needed by the cell
in the form of ATP through the process of
cellular respiration is happening in this
organelle
The cell cycle is mainly divided into two major
e) Lysosomes- are membrane-bound
phases: Interphase and Mitotic phase. The
vesicles produced by the Golgi complex.
interphase happens for a very long period of
-contain digestive enzymes
time which is further subdivided into three
-carry out intracellular digestion by
subphases:
Phagocytosis (digestion of food) or
• G1 (gap 1 or growth 1) – metabolic activity
Autophagy (breaking down of damaged
and vigorous growth, the cell increases in
organelle)
size
-referred to as the “suicidal bag of the
• S (synthesis) – DNA replication
cell”
• G2 (gap 2 or growth 2) – preparation for
f) Peroxisomes- are membrane bound
division, the cell achieves its maturity and is
organelle which functions for oxidation of
getting ready for cell division
specific biomolecules such as fatty acids
After a lengthy interphase, the mature cell will
and amino acids producing hydrogen
now enter the mitotic phase or the cell division
peroxide which is further converted into
phase. There are two kinds of cell division:
water and hydrogen by a catalase enzyme
Mitosis and Meiosis. The figure below
produce also by this organelle.
summarizes the differences of the two.
g) Centrosome- this is also known as
microtubule organizing center (MTOC), it is
an organelle that controls the cell cycle
through assembly of microtubules.
-this organelle is located near the
nucleus
-this organelle contains a two barrel-
shaped organelle named as centriole
which aids in organizing microtubules
that serve as the cell’s skeletal structure.
h) Vacuoles- a membrane-bound organelle, in
animal cell, vacuoles are generally small
which aids in removal of waste materials in
the cell, while in plant cell, vacuoles are
IV. CELL TRANSPORT: PASSIVE AND
ACTIVE
Cell transport refers to the movement of
materials in and out of the cell through a cell
membrane. There are two major types of
cellular transport namely, passive transport and
active transport.
A. Passive Transport
 In passive transport the cell uses no
energy
 Molecules move randomly
 Molecules spread out from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
 (High→Low)
There are three types:
1. Simple Diffusion- random movement of
particles from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration.
-Simple diffusion will continue until all
molecules are evenly spaced and the
equilibrium is reached.
2. Facilitated Diffusion-diffusion of specific
particles through transport proteins found in the
cell membrane
-the transport proteins involved in this type of
passive transport is specific – they “select”
only certain molecules to cross the
membrane
-it transports larger or charged molecules
3. Osmosis-diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane
-water moves from high to low concentrations
B. Active Transport
 In active transport, cell uses energy
 It actively moves molecules to where
they are needed
 Movement is from an area of low
concentration to an area of high
concentration (Low → High)
There are three types:
1. Protein Pumps-transport proteins that
require energy to do work
Example: Sodium / Potassium Pumps are
important in nerve responses.
2. Endocytosis-taking bulky material into a cell
which utilize energy
-It has two specific types: Phagocytosis- in
which the cell membrane in-folds around a
solid material such as food particle forming a
food vacuole inside the cell which will
eventually be digested, also known as “cell
eating”. The other type is known as
Pinocytosis-a process by which the cell takes
in the fluids along with dissolved small
molecules, also known as “cell drinking”.
3. Exocytosis- a process of forcing material out
of cell in bulk.
- This happens when membrane
surrounding the material to be released fuses
with cell membrane
- During this process the cell changes
shape which requires energy
- Example: Hormones, enzymes or wastes
released from cell
HISTOLOGY
Histology is the science of tissues and tissues
are group of cells in similar structures
performing the same function.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
These tissues cover external surface of the
body, as in the skin and lines our digestive
tubes such as small intestine and stomach. It is
also a component of glands, lines the blood
vessels, mouth, nose, and anus. The cells are
completely placed with one another and bonded
by intercellular cement for strength. It is more
often supported below by a basement
membrane.
Functions include secretion, excretion, filtration,
absorption, protection, cellular transport.
Different Types of Epithelium
Epithelial tissues are of different kinds
depending on the shape of their component
cells as follows:
1. According to layers of the cell:
a) Simple - arrange in single layers. It is
generally found where absorption and
filtration occur.
b) Stratified - Made up of two or more layers
of cells. Being considerably more durable
than the simple epithelia, these epithelia
function primarily to protect.
c) Pseudostratified - Consist of one layer of
cells but appears stratified because the
height of the cells differs
2. According to the shape of the cell:
a) SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM - It is made up
of thin flat cells like floor tiles. Each cell
has a nucleus at the center, separated
from the rest of the cell by plasma
membrane. The less dense portion outside
the nucleus is the cytoplasm surrounded
by a cell membrane. Label the cell
membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
b) CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM - It is made up
of tubules that are lined with cube-like cells
joined together by a basement membrane.
Identify the nucleus, nuclear membrane,
cytoplasm, and cell membrane.
c) COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM - This consists
of cells taller than wide. Get a slide of the
cross section of the small intestine or
stomach and study its inner lining under
the microscope. Identify all the parts seen
in the preceding epithelium.
3. According to function
a) Germinal - Lining the inner walls or
tubules of the reproductive organs thus, it’s
for the reproduction
b) Sensory- For transmitting impulses and
receiving external stimuli.
c) Glandular - For secreting products
necessary for use by an animal.
Two types of glands:
1. Endocrine – secretes product directly
into the bloodstream. ductless glands. ex.
Pituitary gland for growth.
2. Exocrine – secretes their products into
ducts. with ducts ex. Sebaceous glands &
salivary glands.
Type of exocrine glands
I. Unicellular Glands - One celled glands
Ex. Goblet cells- located at the tunica
mucosa of the small intestine of the frog.
II. Multicellular Glands - Made up of many
cells -maybe tubular or saccular glands.
a. Simple tubular glands- with short blind
tubes. Ex. Thumb pads of male
salientians, mental glands of some
salamander
b. Simple coiled tubular glands- a gland
with a long narrow tube and the distal
end is coiled into a small ball. Ex. Sweat
glands in the skin of mammals
c. Simple branched tubular glands-
simple tubes which divides at its end into
two or more branches and the terminal
portion may or may not be coiled.Ex.
Large sweat glands of the axillae of
armpits.
 d. Compound tubular glands- with the
varying number of tubules Ex. Mammary
Glands of monotremes
e. Simple saccular glands- with one
expanded bulb at the end of the duct. Ex.
Mucous and poison glands in the skin of
amphibians
f. Simple branched saccular glands- with
several acini arranged along a single
excretory duct like in the meibomian
gland of the eyelid, or a single acini
appears to be divided by partitions into
several smaller acini as in sebaceous
glands or oil glands
g. Compound saccular glands- consists
of several portions called lobules.
Corresponding to simple saccular gland;
several of these unit structures enter a
common duct Ex. Mammary Glands
4. According to Embryological Origin
a) Mesothelium - spreads over the walls of
the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
b) Endothelium - lines the blood vessel and
the heart
c) Ectothelium - covers the surface of the
body
General Classification of EPITHELIAL
TISSUE - Combining the shapes and number of
layers of cells an epithelial can generally
classified into:
1. Simple Epithelium
1.1. Simple squamous epithelium - one
layer of squamous shaped cells; found mainly
in the inner lining of blood vessels
(endothelium); serving mainly for diffusion
1.2. Simple cuboidal epithelium – with one
layer of cube shaped cells; in inner lining of
the kidney tubules, functioning for
absorptions.
1.3. Simple columnar epithelium – with one
layer of columnar cell; found mainly in inner
lining of digestive tract.
2. Stratified Epithelium
2.1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
a) Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium – with keratin; found in
epidermis of skin serves for protection
from abrasion, desiccation, and bacterial
invasion
b) Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium – without keratin; found in
vaginal canal, anal canal, pharynx,
esophagus and mouth.
2.2. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium - found
in pancreas, sweat glands, salivary glands.
2.3. Stratified Columnar Epithelium – same
location with stratified cuboidal.
3. Pseudostratified Epithelium - found in
lining of respiratory tract.
4.Transitional Epithelium - Changes its shape
when stretched.
In contracted state it appears as stratified
cuboidal, in stretched state, it appears a
stratified squamous.
Found lining the urinary bladder and ureter.
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
This tissue supports, binds, and connects the
different parts of the body. It differs from other
tissues in having a great number of intercellular
substances modified into different forms. They
are classified into fibrous, adipose, cartilage and
bone. Function: important in maintaining the
form of the body, organs, and tissues.
 Provide the framework that supports the
other tissue of the body.
 Derived from the mesenchyme, a
generalized embryonic tissue.
 Differs from the epithelium because of the
presence of extracellular matrix, Fibers, cells
1. Connective tissue proper
1.1 Dense connective tissue –
a. Dense regular – made up of tendons and
3. Bones
ligaments.
b. Dense irregular – made up dermis of the
skin.
1.2 Loose connective tissue- Tissue are
loosely arranged. Cells of this tissue are
mainly fibroblast
2. Cartilage
 Appear in between bones to serve as
cushion.
 They can be seen in ears, nose and
trachea.
 Cells present are called
CHONDROCYTES.
 The membrane covering is known as
PERICHONDRIUM.
a. Hyaline Cartilage
-Amorphous, firm matrix with imperceptible
network of collagen fibers
-Found in: embryonic skeleton, articular
ends of bones, nose, tracheal rings, ends
of ribs, larynx, and bronchi
b. Elastic Cartilage – Made up of elastic
fibers, seen as component of external
ear and epiglottis
c. Fibro cartilage - Intercellular
substance contains collagenous
fibers that are branched. Found in
intervertebral disc & pubic symphysis
 Dense organic matrix with mineral deposit
and calcium phosphate which is also
known as osseous tissue.
 Bone cells are called osteoblasts that
later mature into osteocytes which
function for growth and repair.
 Membrane covering the bone is known as
periosteum.
Cross section of bone
 The bony substance or bone matrix is
arranged in regular concentric layers or
lamellae.
 Within the bone matrix is scattered
numerous minute spaces or lacunae, in
which the bone cells or osteocytes are
located in life.
 Arising from the lacunae are numerous
thin branching canals, the canaliculi,
which lead the neighboring lacunae.
 The central cavity where the blood
vessels pass and into which the canaliculi
from the innermost row open directly is
the haversian canal.
 The concentric lamellae with their lacunae
and canaliculi together with a haversian
canal constitute a haversian canal
system.
 Two (2) types of bone tissue
1. Compact bone tissue
2. Spongy or cancellous bone
4. Reticular Connective Tissue - framework of
reticular cells which makes the framework of
lymph glands, the bone marrow, the spleen,
liver, and other organs.
5. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE- The white
fibers are made up of many fine parallel fibrils,
wavy in outline forming bundles that
crisscrossed or interlaced. Elastic fibers are
sharply defined, few, straight, and frequently
branched. consist of scattered cells, rounded,
or branched in form with intercellular spaces
occupied by delicate fibers.
Composition
1. Elastic or yellow fibers – fibers occur singly,
straight, branched, and thick.
2. Collagenous or white fibers – fibers are
long and slender, unbranched, wavy, and often
in bundles
3. Connective tissue corpuscles – cells that
usually form fibers like the cells found in the
subcutaneous connective tissue between the
skin and the body wall.
6. Elastic Connective Tissue - sharply defined
and straight, bent, or branched cells. They bind
the skin to the underlying muscles, attached
many other tissue and organs to one another
and are present in the lungs.
7. Adipose or Fat Tissue - cells are rounded or
polygonal with thin layers of cytoplasm and the
nucleus at one side
8. Pigment Tissue - cells contain granular
pigments which give color to organs Ex. Iris of
the eye.
9. Mucus or Gelatinous Connective tissue -
cementing substance is homogenous jelly like
or gelatinous matrix, they contain white fibrous
tissue arranged in a network which forms the
supporting tissue in many organs Ex. Umbilical
cord of babies
10. Vesicular (cellular) Connective Tissue -
made up of polygonal cells which are fluid but
very little intercellular substance. Ex. Notochord
of chordates
3. Blood - A fluid or liquid tissue consisting of a
liquid part called plasma and formed elements
such as red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.
Function: For the transport and distribution of
food materials, gases like oxygen and carbon
dioxide, hormones, and other products.
Hemoglobin is responsible for giving red color to
the blood.
Types of blood cells
1.Erythrocytes or the red blood cells
(RBC)which are responsible for transporting O2
and nutrients to the different parts of the body.
Its origin is from the redbone marrow of long
bones.
Human RBC- circular, smaller and without
nucleus.
Frog’s RBC – oval, larger and with nucleus.
Male – 5,500,000 RBC per cubic mm of blood
Female – 5,000,000 RBC per cubic mm of
blood.
2.Leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC)
considered as the soldiers of the body. They
fight against infection inflammation and for
defense. Its origin is from the lymph glands and
some from bone marrow
Types of Leucocytes:
a. Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear
leucocytes) contain granules in the
protoplasm and the nucleus varies in
shape.
a.1. Neutrophils is the bodies first line of
defense: nucleus consists of three or more
lobes. They cannot be stained by any dye.
Granules in the cytoplasm are fine and
numerous. It constitutes 60-70% of the total
number of WBC.
 a.2. Eosinophils fight against infection:
nucleus consists of two lobes. Granules in
the cytoplasm are fewer but coarser than
neutrophils. They can be stained by acidic
dye- eosin. It constitutes 3-4% of the total
amount of WBC.
a.3. Basophils for allergic reactions;
nucleus consists of only one lobe that is
usually twisted like an “S”. Granules in the
cytoplasm are very large but few. They can
be stained by a basic dye and constitute
0.5% of the total number of WBC.
b. Agranulocytes (mononuclear
leucocytes) they don’t have granules in
the cytoplasm.
b.1. monocytes cells are big and
spherical while the nucleus is bean shaped
(with indentation) It constitute 2-6% of the
total amount of WBC.
b.2. lymphocytes have smaller
spherical cells with the nucleus almost
occupying the entire cell; cytoplasm is very
small in amount. It constitutes 20-25% of
the total amount of WBC.
3. Thrombocytes is also known as platelets
which are for blood coagulation. They are tiny
bodies about ¼ the diameter of the RBC, they
are colorless and non-nucleated.
Thromboplastin is the enzyme responsible for
clotting the blood. Its number is 250,00 to
300,00 per cubic mm of blood.
Function: is to produce force and cause
motion. Muscles can cause either locomotion of
the organism itself or movement of internal
organ.
Muscles fibers
 Muscles are made up of muscles fibers
(fascicles) enveloped by a connective tissue
known as the epimysium.
 Each bundle (fasciculus) is further enclosed
by a connective tissue known as the
perimysium, which is an inner extension of
epimysium.
 Four or more muscle fibers are in turn
enclosed by another connective tissue
known as endomysium which is an inner
section of perimysium.
Two (2) types of muscle tissue According
to nervous control
1. Voluntary 2. Involuntary
Two (2) types of muscle as to striations:
1. Striated 2. Unstriated

1. SMOOTH/ VISCERAL OR
UNSTRIATED INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE
The muscle layer consists of spindle-shaped
cells, each with a nucleus at the center. The
MUSCULAR TISSUE
cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm, the cell
This tissue is responsible for movement and
membrane is known as sarcolemma.
locomotion and giving shape to the body. These
2. SKELETAL OR STRIATED
contain minute fibers or myofibrils, which
VOLUNTARY MUSCLE
contract upon stimulation. Make it possible for
The muscle fibers are along with alternating dark
body parts of a person or animal to move. All
and light bands, giving the striated appearance
muscular tissue contains actins filaments and
to the muscle. Each fiber is provided with
myosin filaments, which form a striated pattern
nuclei scattered in the cytoplasm.
in skeletal and cardiac but not in smooth
3. CARDIAC OR STRIATED
muscles.
INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE
It has delicate cross striations; the fibers are
branched, forming an interconnecting network.
Identify the nuclei, sarcoplasm, and
sarcolemma.
VASCULAR TISSUE
Human erythrocytes are non-nucleated,
biconcave, and usually round. In the frog, they
are nucleated, biconcave and oval.
In human blood, leukocytes are few, bigger, and
darker than the erythrocytes. They are classified
into granulocytes, with granules in the
cytoplasm, and agranulocytes, without
cytoplasmic granules.
The granulocytes or polymorphonuclear
leukocytes are the Neutrophils. Eosinophils, and
Basophils. They differ in the shape of their
nuclei and the size of their cytoplasmic
granules. The Neutrophils have three or more
lobules in the nucleus with very fine cytoplasmic
granules. The Eosinophils have two lobules in
the nucleus and larger cytoplasmic granules.
The Basophils have non-lobulated twisted
nucleus and have fewer granules in the
cytoplasm.
The agranulocytes or mononuclear leukocytes
are the lymphocyte which is small with a big
nucleus occupying almost the entire cell; and
the monocytes are big with bean-shaped
nucleus.
NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous tissues are composed of nerve cells or
neurons. It has a large cell body, where the
nucleus is located, and nerve fibers or
processes axon which carry impulses away
from the body and the dendrite which transmits
stimuli towards the cell body.
Take note of the nerve bundles of fascicles
joined together by connective tissue. Two or
three fascicles are bounded together by a
connective tissue, the epineurium, which
extends inward to enclose each bundle forming
the perineurium, or to pass inward between
nerve fibers as the endoneurium. The nerve
fibers are the tiny, rounded structures inside
each fascicle.
Highly specialized for irritability and
conductivity. A neuron or nerve cell is the
functional unit of nervous tissue.
Function: allows an organism to sense stimuli
in both the internal and external environment.
Parts Of the Neuron
1.Cell body or cytosomal body- large with a
conspicuous nucleus and it has projections
which grow out of the cell body to form the
nerve fibers which are the dendrites and axon.
2.Axon- the long and thicker unbranched fibers
that conduct messages away from the cell body.
3.Dendrites- shorter, thinner and numerous
branched fibers that conduct messages towards
the cell body.
4. Synapse- the point of contact between the
two neurons. Jumping of messages from one
nerve cell to the other nerve cell.
Types of neurons
According to direction:
I. Sensory (afferent)- carry impulses from
the sensory receptors (sense organ or skin)
to the nerve centers (brain or spinal cord)
II. Motor (efferent)- carry impulses from
the nerve receptors to the effectors like
muscles or organs.
III. Associative (interneuron)- connects
the sensory from the motor neurons
According to structure
a. Unipolar made up of one cell body, one
axon Ex. Found in Earthworms
 b. Bipolar made up of one cell body, one
axon, and a dendrite Ex. Found in nose
c. Multipolar made up of one cell body,
one axon, and several dendrites Ex. Found
in the roots of spinal nerves
5. Nerve fibers- outgrowth extensions of nerve
cells which may be an axon or dendrite. As the
nerve fibers extend away from the cell body,
they become surrounded with sheaths.
Types Of Nerve Fibers
1. Myelinated Or Medullated (White)
Nerve Fibers- axon is surrounded by
myelin sheath, a semi-fluid fatty material
that appears white. Ex. Peripheral and What is a Tissue?
Sympathetic Nervous System A Tissue is a group of cells that have similar
a. Axis cylinder- the cell process; structure and functions as together as a unit.
central core
b. Myelin sheath- semi-fluid material What are the five major groups of somatic
responsible for white color. It functions tissues and give the general functions of
to the conduction of nerve impulses each.
c. Neurilemma- envelopes the nerve Epithelial Tissue – covers external parts and
fibers and is the outer covering. It play surface of the body
an important role to regeneration of Connective Tissue – supports, binds, and
damaged fibers. connects the different parts of the body
2. Non-medullated or non- myelinated Muscular Tissue – responsible for movement,
(gray) Nerve fiber- axon is without any locomotion, and gives shapes to the body
surrounded of myelin; gray in Vascular Tissue – responsible for transport of
appearance Ex. Brain and Spinal Cord the blood and lymph inside the body, delivering
(Central Nervous System) oxygen and nutrients while taking away waste
Cross section of the nerve materials.
Nervous Tissue – responsible for coordinating
 The nerve bundles of fascicles joined
and controlling bodily activities
together by connective tissue.
 Two or three fascicles are bounded
Give the shape of the cells of the following:
together by a connective tissue, the
a) Squamous epithelium - Floor Tile
epineurium, which extend inward to
Shaped
enclose each bundle forming the
b) frog’s RBC – Biconcave Oval Shaped
perineurium or to pass inward between
c) Smooth muscle – Spindle Shaped
nerve fibers as the endoneurium.
d) Bone – Cuboidal Shaped
 The nerve fibers are the tiny, rounded e) Skeletal muscle – Cylindrical Shaped
structures inside each fascicle. f) Cuboidal epithelium – Cube liked
g) Human RBC – Biconcave Round
Shaped
h) Adipose cells – rounded or polygonal
What are the two types of human WBC and
characterize them as to:
1. Granulocytes 2. Agranulocytes
Size: Smaller Bigger
Presence of granules: Present Not Present
Shape of nucleus: Lobed Shape
Spherical/Bean Shaped